text:
I'm So Excited!

I'm So Excited! is a 2013 Spanish comedy film written and directed by Pedro Almodóvar, and starring Javier Cámara, Cecilia Roth, Lola Dueñas, and Raúl Arévalo. Its original Spanish title, Los amantes pasajeros, has the double meaning of "The fleeting lovers" and "The passenger lovers". The narrative is set almost entirely on an airplane. Almodóvar describes it as "a light, very light comedy". The film received mixed reviews, earning a worldwide gross of more than US$21.2 million.

Plot
Ground technician León removes the chocks from the wheels of an Airbus A340 for Peninsula Flight 2549 bound for Mexico City. He waves to his wife Jessi, who is towing a luggage cart across the tarmac. The distraction causes her to crash into another ground technician who was checking Twitter. León checks on his wife to make sure she is okay, and she reveals that she is pregnant.

On board the aircraft, a flight attendant drugs all the passengers in Economy class with a muscle relaxant. She also sedates herself and the other flight attendants in Economy. First Class is tended to by Joserra, Fajardo and Ulloa. They take shots of tequila as they prepare service for the passengers and the cockpit. One of the first-class passengers, Bruna, observes that the Economy passengers are asleep, and she visits the cockpit. She informs Joserra, Captain Alex Acero and co-pilot Benito Morón that she is a psychic and a virgin.

Bruna makes vaguely ominous warnings about the flight. Joserra asks her if they will all die. Bruna does not think so, because she retches whenever death is imminent. Benito changes his drink order from wine to tequila at Bruna's news. Two more passengers from First Class come to the cockpit: Norma Boss and Infante. Norma is outraged at Peninsula's treatment of its passengers, particularly the fact that the First Class attendants are not serving the passengers. She is organizing a complaint against the airline. During her visit, Joserra reveals that he is the captain's lover, but with two daughters, aged 11 and 13, the captain is reluctant to come out of the closet and leave his wife. The co-pilot admits that he tried giving fellatio to the captain to see if he was gay, but he retched from the experience.

Mr. Más, another First Class passenger, visits the cockpit to offer his help, because he knows that something is wrong with the plane. León forgot to clear all the chocks after Jessi's accident, and one of them has gotten tangled up with the landing gear. The plane will not be able to land with its wheels down.

When Norma discovers that the Economy passengers have been drugged, she becomes more determined to lodge a formal complaint. She wakes a sleeping passenger, Ricardo Galán, and asks him to sign her letter of complaint. Ricardo asks to use the phone, and he calls Alba. The plane's phone is malfunctioning, however, so everyone can hear the other side of the conversation over the cabin's speakers.

Alba has climbed onto the ledge of the Segovia Viaduct in Madrid, when her phone rings with Ricardo's call. She is relieved to hear from him, but as she tries to climb back to safety, she drops her phone. It falls into the basket of Ruth, who is riding a bicycle under the viaduct. She picks up the phone and is astonished to hear the voice of her ex-lover Ricardo. She had worked very hard to overcome the heartache of their breakup. Ruth realizes that Alba had thrown all of Ricardo's things out of her apartment window before attempting suicide. Ruth gathers Ricardo's things while Alba is taken by ambulance for psychiatric treatment.

On board the plane, the flight attendants try to distract the passengers, who know that their lives are in danger. They perform a dance routine to the Pointer Sisters' "I'm So Excited", and then they mix a batch of Valencia cocktails. One of the passengers is smuggling a drug-filled condom in his anus. He gives the flight attendants some of his mescaline, and they put it into the cocktail. Norma enjoys her cocktail and reveals that she has a thriving dominatrix practice. She is horrified to learn that she has been drugged and that one of the side effects of mescaline is sexual arousal.

The passengers act on their drug-induced sexual urges, including the passenger who had provided the drugs who sexually assaults his sleepwalking wife. Norma has sex with Infante. The Captain joins Joserra in the bathroom. Bruna goes back to economy class and loses her virginity by sexually assaulting one of the passengers who has an erection in his sleep. Ulloa performs fellatio on the co-pilot.

The plane finally gets clearance to land at La Mancha airport, which is a boondoggle engineered by Mr. Más. As they prepare to jettison the 40 tons of fuel on board, the co-pilot tells the captain that he and Ulloa 69'ed each other. The captain explains that the co-pilot is in denial about the fact that he is gay. Bruna confesses that she feels like retching, which means death must be near. She narrows the sensation down to one passenger in particular: Infante. He confesses that he is a hit man. He was hired to kill Norma by the wife of one of her clients, but refuses because he does not kill women.

The aircraft successfully makes a crash landing at the airport. Norma and Infante leave the tarmac arm in arm while he plots how he can escape from his contract and his life as a hit man. Ruth meets Ricardo with a suitcase full of his things that she recovered from Alba. Mr. Más calls his wife, who has reunited with their estranged daughter, and vows to join the reunion, even though he knows he will be arrested. Bruna and the passenger she seduced are happily walking side by side. The captain tells Joserra that he will leave his family to move in with him, but Joserra reveals that he and the captain's wife are in constant contact, and that it is not necessary to break up the family. Underneath the foam, two figures are having sex. The co-pilot's hat comes flying out of the foam.

Production
Produced through El Deseo, I'm So Excited! was financed entirely by pre-sales. Filming started 9 July 2012 in Madrid. Portions of the film were shot at the decommissioned Ciudad Real Central Airport, located 200 km south of Madrid.

Release
I'm So Excited! was released 8 March 2013 in Spain. Sony Pictures Classics acquired the American distribution rights and released the film in North America on 28 June 2013.

Reception
The film has received mixed reviews by critics. Rotten Tomatoes reports that 49% of critics gave the film a positive rating, based on 131 reviews with an average rating of 5.60/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Campy, frothy, and proudly absurd, I'm So Excited! represents a return to light comedy for director Pedro Almodóvar—even if it isn't quite as successful a homecoming as some filmgoers might wish." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 36 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Eric Kohn of IndieWire noted the film's poor taste in using a lack of sexual consent as a punchline.

title: I'm So Excited!


text:
Normal eigenvalue

In mathematics, specifically in spectral theory, an eigenvalue of a closed linear operator is called normal if the space admits a decomposition into a direct sum of a finite-dimensional generalized eigenspace and an invariant subspace where $$A-\lambda I$$ has a bounded inverse. The set of normal eigenvalues coincides with the discrete spectrum.

Root lineal
Let $$\mathfrak{B}$$ be a Banach space. The root lineal $$\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)$$ of a linear operator $$A:\,\mathfrak{B}\to\mathfrak{B}$$ with domain $$\mathfrak{D}(A)$$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $$\lambda\in\sigma_p(A)$$ is defined as

 * $$\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)=\bigcup_{k\in\N}\{x\in\mathfrak{D}(A):\,(A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}})^j x\in\mathfrak{D}(A)\,\forall j\in\N,\,j\le k;\, (A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}})^k x=0\}\subset\mathfrak{B}, $$

where $$I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ is the identity operator in $$\mathfrak{B}$$. This set is a linear manifold but not necessarily a vector space, since it is not necessarily closed in $$\mathfrak{B}$$. If this set is closed (for example, when it is finite-dimensional), it is called the generalized eigenspace of $$A$$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $$\lambda$$.

Definition of a normal eigenvalue
An eigenvalue $$\lambda\in\sigma_p(A)$$ of a closed linear operator $$A:\,\mathfrak{B}\to\mathfrak{B}$$ in the Banach space $$\mathfrak{B}$$ with domain $$\mathfrak{D}(A)\subset\mathfrak{B}$$ is called normal (in the original terminology, $$\lambda$$ corresponds to a normally splitting finite-dimensional root subspace), if the following two conditions are satisfied:
 * 1) The algebraic multiplicity of  $$\lambda$$ is finite: $$\nu=\dim\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)<\infty$$, where $$\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)$$ is the root lineal of $$A$$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $$\lambda$$;
 * 2) The space $$\mathfrak{B}$$ could be decomposed into a direct sum $$\mathfrak{B}=\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)\oplus \mathfrak{N}_\lambda$$, where $$\mathfrak{N}_\lambda$$ is an invariant subspace of $$A$$ in which $$A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ has a bounded inverse.

That is, the restriction $$A_2$$ of $$A$$ onto $$\mathfrak{N}_\lambda$$ is an operator with domain $$\mathfrak{D}(A_2)=\mathfrak{N}_\lambda\cap\mathfrak{D}(A)$$ and with the range $$\mathfrak{R}(A_2-\lambda I)\subset\mathfrak{N}_\lambda$$ which has a bounded inverse.

Equivalent characterizations of normal eigenvalues
Let $$A:\,\mathfrak{B}\to\mathfrak{B}$$ be a closed linear densely defined operator in the Banach space $$\mathfrak{B}$$. The following statements are equivalent (Theorem III.88):
 * 1) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is a normal eigenvalue;
 * 2) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is an isolated point in $$\sigma(A)$$ and $$A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ is semi-Fredholm;
 * 3) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is an isolated point in $$\sigma(A)$$ and $$A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ is Fredholm;
 * 4) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is an isolated point in $$\sigma(A)$$ and $$A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ is Fredholm of index zero;
 * 5) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is an isolated point in $$\sigma(A)$$ and the rank of the corresponding Riesz projector $$P_\lambda$$ is finite;
 * 6) $$\lambda\in\sigma(A)$$ is an isolated point in $$\sigma(A)$$, its algebraic multiplicity $$\nu=\dim\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)$$ is finite, and the range of $$A-\lambda I_{\mathfrak{B}}$$ is closed.

If $$\lambda$$ is a normal eigenvalue, then the root lineal $$\mathfrak{L}_\lambda(A)$$ coincides with the range of the Riesz projector, $$\mathfrak{R}(P_\lambda)$$.

Relation to the discrete spectrum
The above equivalence shows that the set of normal eigenvalues coincides with the discrete spectrum, defined as the set of isolated points of the spectrum with finite rank of the corresponding Riesz projector.

Decomposition of the spectrum of nonselfadjoint operators
The spectrum of a closed operator $$A:\,\mathfrak{B}\to\mathfrak{B}$$ in the Banach space $$\mathfrak{B}$$ can be decomposed into the union of two disjoint sets, the set of normal eigenvalues and the fifth type of the essential spectrum:

\sigma(A)=\{\text{normal eigenvalues of}\ A\}\cup\sigma_{\mathrm{ess},5}(A). $$

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Normal eigenvalue


text:
Burlinka

Burlinka (Бурлинка) is a rural locality (a selo) in Partizansky Selsoviet, Burlinsky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 41 as of 2011. It was founded in 1908. There are 2 streets.

Geography
Burlinka is located 23 km southeast of Burla (the district's administrative centre) by road. Bursol is the nearest rural locality.

title: Burlinka


text:
User:Acyadav02/sandbox

Jamwaramgarh is a beautiful place to visit in jaipur district. Here you can visit many places eg. Ramgarah dam. Jamwaimata temple Ramgarh century Ramgarh fort.

title: User:Acyadav02/sandbox


text:
Talk:Theoretical physics

I don't know if anyone knows this or not but MIT has provided a lot of their course material available free online at the following website address: http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html. It contains lectures, notes, videos, and problems with solutions all free of charge.

Does anyone know if we can use this information?

 * Yup, I think so :-) --HappyCamper 22:59, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

What are all the numbers before the courses for?? --Jorge 15:31, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

About Video Lectures: I really wish there were more video lectures on Physics out there. Those from MIT are excellent for the undergraduate starting out in Physics. What I have'nt been able to find are high quality video lectures on Quantum Mechanics, Special Relativity or General Relativity. (I did provide a link to the only lectures I managed to find on GR).

I really think there is a HUGE need for qualified lecturers (or other experts) to share their knowledge, not only with their students directly, but with ALL potential students worldwide - and what better forum for that than Wikiversity!

If anyone has any links to video lectures on Quantum Mechanics, Special Relativity or General Relativity, please let me know. Or if any of you know an expert in the field, please encourage them to add video lecture content to the web and to link to that content from here. Jimbobjames 12:43, 25 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Theoretical physics


text:
tuimelaar

Etymology
From. Equivalent to.

Noun

 * 1) One who tumbles.
 * 2) A common bottlenose dolphin,.
 * 3) A rocker implement or machine working with a rocking motion.
 * 4) A tumbler pigeon domesticated pigeon, variety of.

title: tuimelaar


text:
GCSE Science/Static Electricity

GCSE Science/Electricity

Have you ever noticed a crackle when you pull off a sweater? Have you ever had your hair stick to your face after combing? What about seeing a balloon stick to the wall after it has been rubbed? All these effects are caused by static electricity. Static electricity is the imbalanced charges of matter. It was the Greeks who first noticed that when they rubbed a piece of amber, it attracted small pieces of paper. The Greek word for amber is elektron, and it is from this that we get our words electron and electricity.

What causes static electricity?
Usually materials are electrically neutral. This means that they are not electrically charged. However this doesn't mean that materials have no charges inside them. All materials are made of atoms. Atoms are made of particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons have a negative charge, protons have a positive charge, and neutrons (as you can probably guess by the name) have no charge. Materials are partly made of charged particles. Materials have no overall charge whenever they have the same number of electrons and protons. The negative charge of the electrons exactly cancels out the positive charge of the protons.

Test YourSelf: Q1) The element lithium has three protons. How many electrons must a neutral lithium atom have?

Inside an atom the protons and neutrons are held firmly at the very centre in a structure called the nucleus. The electrons however are held much more loosely. Some can be found at the surface, and if the surface is rubbed, they can be rubbed away. This removal of electrons will leave the atom with more protons than electrons. It will have a positive charge because the protons are positively charged. Atoms that are charged are called ions.

When you rub a balloon on your sweater some of the electrons are transferred from the sweater to the balloon. The sweater becomes positively charged.

Test YourSelf: Q2) What charge will the balloon have?

How do the two types of charge behave?
The sweater is positively charged, the balloon negative. The balloon sticks to the sweater. This is because unlike charges attract. If you were to take two balloons, both of which had been negatively charged and brought them together you would find that they tried to push apart. This is because like charges repel.

 Test Yourself Q3) Look at the balloons above. The pair on the left are being repelled. The pair on the right are being attracted. Notice that one out of each pair of balloons is negatively charged. What is the sign (positive or negative) of the charges on the other two balloons?

Sparks can fly!
When a large enough charge is built up sparks can fly. A spark is just a flow of electrons through the air. This can sometimes be very dangerous. For example, petrol flowing through a pipeline can pick up a charge by friction. If a spark flies it could ignite the petrol. For this reason, pipes are earthed. Earthing means connecting the pipe to the ground by means of a copper wire. Copper, unlike air, is a very good conductor of electricity. The electrons can flow easily and safely to the ground without sparking.

Some devices make use of sparks. A Van de Graaf generator consists of a large metal dome that is in contact with a rubber or plastic looped belt. As the belt moves, friction causes it to become charged; the charge is spread out over the metal dome where it builds up until it is large enough to cause a spark.

In the diagram above a girl is standing on a washing up bowl and touching a Van de Graaf machine.

Test Yourself Q4) What do you think is the purpose of the washing up bowl?

Test Yourself Q5) Explain why the girl's hair is standing on end (no it's not her style, it's to do with the charge)

Answers to questions | << Electricity | Uses of static electricity >>

title: GCSE Science/Static Electricity


text:
Wikipedia:Meetup/Boston/Open Access Week at MIT 2017

=Open Access Week edit-a-thon at MIT Libraries: exploring MIT's open access content=

Join us at MIT Libraries to celebrate Open Access Week 2017 by editing one of the largest open access projects – Wikipedia! Explore open access scholarship from MIT and beyond, including MIT dissertations and articles that are openly available. One source we’ll highlight is the MIT Libraries DSpace@MIT, which includes conference papers, images, peer-reviewed scholarly articles, preprints, technical reports, theses, working papers, research datasets and more. This collection of more than 90,000 high-quality works is recognized as among the world's premier scholarly repositories and receives, on average, more than 1 million downloads per month.

Staff from the Libraries who are experienced Wikipedians will provide a short introduction to MIT open access resources and an overview of editing Wikipedia. They will be available to answer questions throughout the session. Drop in any time during the session, and come with questions and ideas for topics! For those fluent in multiple languages, working in any language Wikipedia is welcome and encouraged. Computers will be available, but participants can also bring their own laptops.

We will provide light snacks and drinks.

Event Information

 * Date: October 27, 2017
 * Time: 1-4:30 pm
 * Location: MIT campus, 14N-132 DIRC
 * Hosts: MIT Libraries - Phoebe Ayers, Greta Suiter

Your Wikipedia Account: If you don't have a Wikipedia user account, please try to create one in advance. Wikipedians will be on hand to assist those who need help setting up an account.

Please also sign in to our Event Dashboard, so we can track the contributions we make to Wikipedia today.

FAQ
What should I have?
 * * A laptop if you wish, there will also be computers available to use.
 * * An interest in open access, science, technology, and/or editing Wikipedia!

''' I have a question! '''
 * Feel free to ask on this project's talk page, and we'll put an answer here.

Participant list
Please add your Wikipedia username below (signatures are created by saving four tildes [~] in a row. If you haven't edited Wikipedia before, we will help you register for a new Wikipedia editing account on the day-of. Remote partipation is also encouraged. Participate virtually, from anywhere.

If you are attending in person, you can also register on the MIT Libraries site.

 * phoebe / (talk to me) 18:08, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Gkuriger (talk) 18:28, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Quebec99 (talk) 00:02, 29 September 2017 (UTC) possibly remote
 * FaerieDevilish
 * Rtbhive (talk) 20:12, 20 October 2017 (UTC)
 * EoRdE6(Come Talk to Me!) 14:55, 22 October 2017 (UTC) never done one of these but I might try
 * Bruce38 (talk) 15:40, 27 October 2017 (UTC) also wish to try an edit-a-thon
 * Amyc29 (talk) 17:33, 27 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Jnfy (talk) 18:19, 27 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Ljoyemit (talk) 18:37, 27 October 2017 (UTC)

Possible topics for editing / articles to create
Topics will depend on the interests of participants, but we'll list some ideas for topics here closer to the edit-a-thon. Add your ideas! We can also draw on worklists from past edit-a-thons about Black scientists and engineers, women scientists and women architects.

Topics using MIT OA resources
Zeki Müren, a prince from outer space: reading Turkey's gender-bending pop legend as a transmedia star by Beyza Boyacioğlu
 * Zeki Muren on Wikipedia

Seeing as aesthetic experience and creative action: visual practices with shape grammars in design education by Asli Arpak
 * Shape grammar on Wikipedia - needs citations

Addressing the people: Architecture as a medium of the fascist narrative of national identity, Case del Fascio, 1922-1943 by Carol Rusche Bentel
 * Casa del Fascio (Como) on Wikipedia - stub

Geographies of nowhere: Smeltertown and the rising wave of environmental refugees by Kendra Pierre-Louis
 * Create Wikipedia article for Smeltertown, TX?
 * Environmental migrant Wikipedia article could use a little cleaning up

Historical Essays on Heat Transfer and Heat Engineering at MIT
 * Warren M. Rohsenow  - create new article
 * Cecil Peabody on Wikipedia - Stub

Project INTREX
 * Project INTREX, a computer-aided indexing system of the 1960s

Articles about open access
Description of open access in the countries of sister cities of Cambridge, Massachusetts:
 * Armenia
 * El Salvador
 * Ireland
 * Italy
 * Japan
 * Portugal

 * OA articles ranked by importance/quality: see this list and this category
 * also see WikiProject_Open and WikiProject_Open_Access

Training to Edit Wikipedia

 * Intro to Wikipedia slides
 * Intro to Wikipedia Slides for GLAM context
 * More: Cheatsheet, Featured Articles, Policies and guidelines, Help:Getting started, Starting an article

Resources we can draw from

 * DSpace, MIT's repository of dissertations and OA articles

General sources of OA papers and resources:
 * http://www.opendoar.org/search.php - OpenDOAR
 * https://arxiv.org/ - arXiv
 * https://archive.org/ - Internet Archive
 * https://openlibrary.org/ - Open Library
 * DPLA - https://dp.la/ - DPLA
 * https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en - Europeana
 * NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server
 * The Wiki Journal of Medicine - https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/WikiJournal_of_Medicine,_the_first_Wikipedia-integrated_academic_journal

New articles
vi:Lojban

Expanded or improved

 * Cecil Peabody
 * Richard Dindo


text:
User:Youngmah/sandbox

This page presents the spatial maps of confirmed COVID-19 cases in Davao City. The QGIS-produced maps utilized the datasets obtained from the Region XI Department of Health Facebook Page.

Spatial maps of cumulative cases

Showing you the dynamic spatial maps to

title: User:Youngmah/sandbox


text:
Voskhod, Zalesovsky District, Altai Krai

Voskhod (Восход) is a rural locality (a selo) in Cheryomushkinskoye Selsoviet, Zalesovsky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 17 as of 2013. There is 1 street.

Geography
Voskhod is located 37 km west of Zalesovo (the district's administrative centre) by road. Cheryomushkino is the nearest rural locality.


text:
Jah Live

"Jah Live" is a song by Bob Marley & The Wailers, released as a single in 1975. The song was recorded and released within days following the announcement of the death of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia whom Rastafarians see as the reincarnation of God, whom they call Jah. The song was written as a message to the world that Haile Selassie I had not died as the Ethiopian government of the time and (according to the song) detractors of the Rastafarian religion claimed. When the song was released, Selassie was claimed dead by the Ethiopian authorities but there was no body. Marley was prescient in response to the news that no body had not been found saying, "Yuh cyant kill God".

In the song, Marley directly confronts those who doubt the Rastafari movement because of the apparent death of Selassie I:

 * Fools say in their hearts
 * Rasta your God is dead
 * But I and I know Jah-Jah!
 * Dread: it shall be dreader dread

Though originally recorded as a single, the song has since been released on the 1992 box set Songs of Freedom, as a bonus track on the 2001 re-release of Marley's 1976 album Rastaman Vibration and in 2002 on its "deluxe edition", and on the compilations One Love: The Very Best of Bob Marley & The Wailers (2001) and Gold (2005).

A dub version of the song, titled "Concrete", was released on the single's B-side. It has since been released on the deluxe edition of Rastaman Vibration in 2002. The song is featured in the closing credits of Countryman, the legendary rasta movie.

title: Jah Live


text:
Gaslighter (album)

Gaslighter is the eighth studio album by American country band the Chicks. It was released on July 17, 2020, by Columbia Records. Produced by Jack Antonoff and the Chicks, it is the group's first album in fourteen years, and first to be released under their new name (though some physical pressings of the album still carry the "Dixie Chicks" name). The album was preceded by the release of three singles: "Gaslighter", "Julianna Calm Down", and "March March". The album received critical acclaim.

Background
The Chicks began to hint at a new album in June 2018 when Natalie Maines posted several photos from the recording studio on Instagram. While Maines and her bandmates Emily Strayer and Martie Maguire continued to drop small hints that new music might be in the works, they did not confirm that an album was planned until a year later when Maines posted a video clip to Instagram in which the trio took turns saying, "Dixie Chicks. Album. Coming." This was followed by producer Jack Antonoff saying, "Someday."

In August 2019, in the midst of their divorce, Maines' ex-husband Adrian Pasdar asked the court to give him access to all of Maines' unreleased music over concerns it might violate a confidentiality clause in their prenuptial agreement, although he had previously argued in divorce proceedings that the couple's prenuptial agreement was invalid, claiming that Maines should owe him financial support. Pasdar stated that he wanted to know if any of the unreleased material might contain lyrics that pertain to their breakup. Maines' legal team filed a response to Pasdar's new motion, saying that if he succeeds in overturning the validity of the agreement, it also invalidates the confidentiality clause. Their divorce was finalized in December after Maines and Pasdar settled out of court.

In September 2019, Maines revealed during her Spiritualgasm podcast that the album would be titled Gaslighter. She went on to say that the album was originally planned to be something simple, like an album of covers, to fulfill their contract with Sony, but after her divorce from Pasdar, she had been inspired to start writing songs again. She said, "When I started getting a divorce, I had a lot to say, so that kind of sparked me being ready [to make new music]. Songwriting is really hard for me, and I think, for many years, I didn't want to analyze my life or my relationship. I was just in it and dedicated and devoted...I just was not ready to open up like that." During the same podcast, host Sterling Jones mentions a song titled "Go It Alone," which Maines revealed is actually titled "My Best Friend's Weddings". The title of the album refers to gaslighting.

On June 25, 2020, the band changed their name to the Chicks, dropping "Dixie", which referenced any of the American South, the Antebellum South, or the American Mason–Dixon line. The name change followed criticism that the word had connotations of American slavery.

Release and promotion
The album was announced on March 4, 2020, with a scheduled release date of May 1. On April 21, the release was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On June 11, the album's release was rescheduled for July 17.

Singles
The lead single, "Gaslighter", was released to critical acclaim on March 4, 2020, along with the album's pre-order. The music video was directed by Seanne Farmer and was released the same day. The song deals with lead singer Natalie Maines' bitter divorce from ex-husband Adrian Pasdar. It peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and number 36 on the Country Airplay chart. The song also peaked at number 31 on the Canada Country chart.

"Julianna Calm Down" was released as the album's first promotional single on May 1. The song peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Country Digital Song Sales chart. The album's third single, "March March", was released on June 25, along with its accompanying music video. The song peaked at number 32 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. "Sleep at Night" was released as the album's fourth single on July 17, along with its accompanying music video.

Critical reception
Gaslighter was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received a weighted average score of 82 based on 21 reviews. Album of the Year, which also assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, gave the album a weighted average score of 82 based on 24 reviews. At AnyDecentMusic?, which assigns a normalized rating out of 10 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received a weighted average score of 7.8 based on 19 reviews.

In a review for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick called it "stunning", praising Antonoff's "slick, tasteful production" and "perfectly balanced vocal arrangements". Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Maura Johnston said that "by blending early-21st-century pop savvy with the storytelling that made country music so crucial to the American canon, Gaslighter is all fire and nerve." Chris Willman, in a review for Variety, praised the album's songwriting, saying that "each new incendiary lyrical moment seems to top the last, before grievance gives way to beautiful grief." Laura Dzubay, in Consequence of Sound, praised the group's "management of tone throughout" as "masterful and consistent". She felt that the album was "anchored to place by restrained instrumentation and artful, deliberate counterpoints between highs and lows." Writing for American Songwriter, Lynne Margolis said that the album is "so full of emotion, it takes a while to absorb it all". She went on to say that the album's "not perfect, and it's not meant to be. But the juxtaposition of slickness and rawness somehow works."

Ellen Johnson reviewed the album for Paste, calling it "the best country album of 2020". She felt the album "forces empathy onto the listener while reminding us we don't have to be superheroes to make a difference." Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the album's arrangements as "subtle and sly" and "accentuating the emotions underpinning the songs". The Guardian called it "pertinent on its own terms" instead of sounding like "three middle-aged musicians straining to recapture their relevance." Annabel Nugent, in a review for The Independent, said that while the album "is not a reinvention for the trio by any means", it is "still political" and "still resilient". Mikael Wood reviewed the album for the Los Angeles Times, calling it the group's "most personal effort yet".

In his Substack-published "Consumer Guide" column, Robert Christgau said that while the songs have a "pro forma" effect attributable to Antonoff, "Maines has never written with more righteous anger and sisterly concern—more humanity." More critical was Claire Shaffer of Rolling Stone, felt that the tracks on the album "fall into easy, radio-friendly categories: empowerment anthem, cheeky ukulele kiss-off, [and] minimalist protest song." She noted that the "arrangements dissolve most of the group's lingering connections to their street-corner bluegrass origins."

Commercial performance
On the US Billboard 200, Gaslighter debuted at number 3 with 84,000 album-equivalent units, becoming the band's fifth top 5 album and first in the streaming era. Including 71,000 album sales, it was the best-selling album in its debut week.

Personnel
Adapted from the album liner notes.

The Chicks
 * Natalie Maines – vocals, Omnichord (track 4), acoustic guitar (track 4), percussion/leg slaps (track 6), ukulele (track 8)
 * Martie Maguire – vocals, fiddle, viola (tracks 2, 4–5, 7, 9, 11–12)
 * Emily Strayer – vocals, banjo (all tracks except 8 and 10), acoustic guitar (tracks 4, 6, 9–10), asher (track 6), resonator guitar (track 10), ukulele (track 12)

Additional musicians
 * Jack Antonoff – Mellotron (tracks 1–2, 4, 7, 9–12), acoustic guitar (tracks 1, 3–4, 8–12), piano (tracks 1–7, 9, 11), percussion (tracks 1–3, 6–9), keyboars (tracks 1, 6), drums (tracks 1–3, 5–9, 11), 12-string acoustic guitar (tracks 1, 9), 12-string electric guitar (track 1), programming (tracks 2, 5–8), bass (tracks 2, 4–5, 7, 10), Moog (tracks 2, 4), modular (track 2), background vocals (track 2), electric bass (track 3), acoustic bass (tracks 3, 8), electric guitar (tracks 3, 8), guitar (track 5), Wurlitzer (track 5), Juno (tracks 5, 7–8, 11), B3 (track 9), vibes (track 12)
 * Eric Byers – cello (tracks 2, 5, 11–12)
 * Annie Clark – electric guitar (track 3)
 * Teddy Geiger – programming (track 2), percussion (track 2), guitar (track 2), keys (track 2)
 * Mikey Freedom Hart – Wurlitzer (track 5)
 * Sean Hutchinson – percussion (track 1)
 * Lloyd Maines – pedal steel (tracks 2, 6, 9, 11–12)
 * Justin Meldal-Johnson – bass (track 8)
 * Beckett Pasdar – drums (track 2)
 * Michael Riddleberger – percussion (track 1)
 * Chad Smith – drums (tracks 1–2, 5–7, 9, 11), percussion/leg slaps (track 6)
 * Evan Smith – organ (track 8)
 * Erick Walls – acoustic guitar (track 8)
 * Justin Weaver – guitar (track 8)

Production
 * Jack Antonoff – producer, recording, mixing (tracks 8, 10, 12)
 * The Chicks – producer
 * Greg Eliason – recording assistant (track 4)
 * Ben Fletcher – mixing engineer (tracks 2, 7, 9)
 * Teddy Geiger – producer (track 2)
 * Jeff Gunnell – recording (track 2)
 * Serban Ghenea – mixing (tracks 1–9, 11)
 * John Hanes – mixing engineer (tracks 1–9, 11)
 * John Rooney – recording assistant (tracks 3, 5, 7, 9)
 * Jon Sher – recording assistant
 * Laura Sisk – recording, mixing (tracks 8, 10, 12)
 * Chris Gehringer – mastering
 * Will Quinnell – mastering

Other personnel
 * Savannah Baker – wardrobe styling
 * Michael Bierut – album design
 * The Chicks – creative direction, album design
 * Britt Cobb – album design
 * Hesh Hipp – First assailant camera
 * Breidge Martin – cover photo
 * Cover photo features Corrigan-White School of Irish Dance Competition Winners (from left to right): Josie Bogle, Emma Martin, and Caoimhe O'Shea
 * Monotone/LBI Entertainment – management
 * Delta Murphy – album design
 * Pentagram – album design
 * Philippa Price – additional creative direction, additional photography

title: Gaslighter (album)


text:
User:BD2412

Away until Tuesday.

Greetings! bd2412 > T 00:21, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

User:BD2412 on Wikipedia

title: User:BD2412


text:
Voronkin

Voronkin (Воронкин), Voronkina is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Artyom Voronkin (born 1986), Russian footballer
 * Yuriy Voronkin (born 1979), Russian hammer thrower
 * Elena Voronkina (born 1973), Ukrainian volleyball player

title: Voronkin


text:
Philosophy of science

This page started as a collaborative study resource for a philosophy of science course (see the discussion page). This is now a content development project where Wikiversity participants can organize and develop learning resources about philosophy of science.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy of science

 * /Experiment/
 * /Observation/
 * /Logical empiricism/
 * /Induction/
 * /Falsificationism/
 * /Thomas Kuhn/
 * /Imre Lakatos/
 * /Paul Feyerabend/
 * /Larry Laudan/
 * /Scientific method/
 * /Bayesianism/
 * /New experimentalism/
 * /Scientific laws/
 * /Scientific realism and anti-realism/
 * /Sociology of science/
 * /Feminism and science/
 * /Naturalism/
 * /Explanation/

Questions and Answers
''1. Was Copernicus using what Bacon calls the method of anticipation of nature, or the method of interpretation of nature, or something else? Justify your answer by explaining the method Copernicus used and how it differs from the other method(s).''

 * Copernicus was using a different method to Bacon's. Copernicus' method is as follows:

 * 1) Start from a hypothesis and from that make a deduction.
 * 2) Make suitable observations to test the deduction.
 * 3) If the phenomena observed fits the deduction then this gives reason to believe the hypothesis.  If the phenomena does not support the deduction then one should doubt the hypothesis.

 * This method differs from Bacon's because:

 * 1) The hypothesis does not have to be (but can be) arrived at by induction; and
 * 2) The hypothesis is not taken as fixed (as a general axiom is) - if there is evidence to show it is incorrect, then reject it.

''2. What does Bacon say needs to be done to determine whether it is the earth or the heavens that rotates once per day? Did Copernicus do this?''

 * Bacon said that you needed to show that the earth or heavens has the form/nature of spontaneous rotation, using tables to find them. Copernicus didn't do this (i.e. he didn't use tables) so could not discover this form.

''3. What did Bacon propose as a crucial instance for determining whether it is the earth or the heavens that rotates once per day? Is this really a crucial instance? Could Bacon reasonably have thought that observation might give the result he says would prove the earth is stationary? Explain.''

 * Bacon purposes that if we observe simlilar east to west motion in the heavens as we observe in the sea such that the nearer the planet is to the earth the slower the motion and further away the faster the motion. The fastest of all being the starry sphere. If all this is observed than we should accept the earth as fixed and take the heavens as moving.
 * Not a real crucial instance because the movement observed is relative to the earth.
 * Bacon could not reasonably have thought this because his crucial instance would be impossible to observe (i.e. Venus and Mercury appear to orbit the earth in the same period as the sun even thought they are different distances from the earth.)

''4. (a) What does Descartes (in the first page of his "Letter from the author") say is needed for knowledge to be perfected? (b) What is this first condition he says principles must satisfy? (c) How does what Descartes says here differ from Aristotle?''

 * (a) Knowledge must be deduced from principles.
 * (b) The principles must be so clear and evident that they can't be doubted when attentively considered.
 * (c) Aristotle used induction and dialectic whereas Descartes didn't. Induction and dialectic are doubtable so Aristotle's principles don't meet the first condition that Descartes says principles must satisfy (i.e. that they must be so clear and evident that they can't be doubted when attentively considered.

''5. What is the first principle of Descartes' philosophy? What is his argument for it?''

 * First principle is existence of his own mind. Argument: because if you try to doubt it (i.e. attentively consider it) then you must have a mind because you are able to doubt it.

''6. What is the argument that Descartes gives for the existence of a perfect being? Is the argument valid? Explain.''

 * P: The idea of a perfect being includes existence
 * C: So a perfect being exists

 * Not deductively valid. Since what really follows from P is that if a perfect being exists then it exists.

''7. Having established (a) the existence of a perfect being, Descartes argues that it follows that (b) we cannot be mistaken about the things of which our mind has a very clear and distinct perception. Explain fully Descartes' argument that (b) follows from (a).''

 * Because perfect being created my mind, he would be a deceiver if what I clearly and distinctly perceive could be false. The perfect being is not a deceiver (since he is a perfect being)
 * Therefore, we cannot be mistaken about things our mind perceives.

''8. Descartes said that his theory of vortices, and his theories about the invisible parts of bodies, could be false. Would he say that if he had got them by following the methodology that, at the beginning of Principles of Philosophy, he said should be followed? Explain.''

 * No, the methodology should be to start from undoubtable principles and deduce things that must be true. For Descartes' to say that these theories may not be true, must mean that he didn't follow this methodology.

9. What is an argument that Descartes gives for saying that his theories about the invisible parts of bodies could be false?

 * If you consider two clocks from the outside that appear the same, they could be very different on the inside (i.e. a different mechanism). God could make the world in more than one way that appear to be the same to us

''10. Descartes claimed that his theories about the invisible parts of bodies were "morally certain". What does this mean? How did Descartes argue for this claim?''

 * Something morally certain, is something that could be wrong, but practically certain to be right. It's something that we can rely on, but we don't know to be true, such as the claim that the building we are in is going to still be standing in the next 5 minutes. Descartes argues that it explains so many things that it would be amazing if 1 hypothesis to explain so many things turned out to be wrong (he used the example of the coded letter during class).

''11. Descartes gives an argument that his theory of vortices, and his theories about the invisible parts of bodies, are absolutely certain; but in each case he soon backs away from the argument. What is the argument? Is the argument a good one? Explain.''

 * He says that these theories are hypotheses that could be wrong. However he says they are morally certain (i.e. sufficiently certain to be relied on for practical purposes).  He then moves on to say that they are absolutely certain because they seem more than morally certain and God is not a deceiver.  Descartes backs away from the argument.  The arguement is not a good one as Descartes used the method of hypothesis instead of deducing from first principles.  The method of hypothesis is fallible since if we reached conclusions from that method God would not be deceiving us.

''12. In each of the following pairs, explain the difference between the relative and absolute concepts. Support your explanation with an example.'' (a) Relative and absolute time (b) Relative and absolute space (c) Relative and absolute motion

 * (a) Relative time is time measured relative to perceptible motion. Absolute time flows at the same constant rate.  Relative time could be that measured by a clock.  No example of absolute time.

 * (b) Relative space is space defined relative to perceptible objects. Absolute space is fixed and not perceptible.  Relative space example could be the space four walls of a room.  Absolute space is imperceptible so there's no example.

 * (c) Relative motion is motion with respect to relative space. Absolute motion is motion with respect to absolute space.  Relative motion example could be someone walking who is moving with respect to someone sitting down.  That person sitting down is experiencing absolute motion.

''13. A stone is thrown horizontally and eventually falls to the ground. Explain how Newton's laws of motion imply that there is a force acting on the stone after it has been thrown, and the direction of this force. (Assume that the earth is at rest.)''

 * The stone is not exhibiting uniform motion which implies by the first law that there's a force acting upon it. That change of motion is in the direction of the force applied to it (by the second law) which is towards the centre of the earth.

''14. A magnet and a piece of iron are floating in separate dishes in a basis of water. The magnet is twice as heavy as the iron. The iron has acceleration a towards the magnet. Use Newton's laws of motion to determine the acceleration of the magnet; indicate which laws you are using and where they are used. ''

 * Acceleration of the magnet is half that of the iron. From the second law that states F=ma, and the third law that says the forces acting are equal and opposite, we can calculate the acceleration of the magnet.  Let a= acceleration of magnet, m = mass of magnet, b = acceleration of iron, n = mass of iron.  So F = b2m and F = ma.  Solving gives 2b=a, so b=0.5(a)

''15. According to Newton, what is the direction of the force that keeps the moon in its orbit? From what does Newton deduce this?''

 * The direction of the force is towards the centre of the earth. Explanation: the moon traces out an equal area of its orbit in equal period of time (phenomenon 6).

''16. According to Newton, how is the force on the moon related to the moon's distance from the earth? From what does Newton deduce this?''

 * Force on the moon is proportional to 1 / (distance)^2 . This is derived from the assumption that the apogee is stationary.

''17. Explain how, after establishing the properties of the force that keeps the moon in its orbit, Newton goes on to argue that this force is gravity. Say where Newton's rules of reasoning are used in this argument.''

 * Using that force is proportional to 1 over the distance squared, Newton compares the acceleration of moon at the earths surface to the acceleration of the moon at its usual distance. We observe then that: a_s/a=d^2/d_s^2. Thus, we see that the acceleration of the moon at the earth's surface is the same as another falling body on the earth's surface. Using the first and second rules of reasoning there is then no reason to assign any new causes to the observed phenomenom. Thus, Newton draws the conclusion that the force that keeps the moon in orbit is gravity.

''18. Explain how, after arguing that the moon is kept in its orbit by gravity, Newton goes on to argue that all planets have gravity. Say where Newton's rules of reasoning are used in this argument.''

 * We observe that the moons of other planets behave similarly to the moon of Earth. By Newton's second rule of reasoning we should assign the cause of such behavior to these planets having gravity. The planets Mercury and Venus have no moons but are similar to the bodies of other planets. Therefore, by Newton's third rule of reasoning all planets have gravity.

''19. How did Newton argue that the center of gravity of the solar system is at rest? How does it follow from this that the earth moves?''

 * Hypothesis 1: The centre of the solar system does not move. If the centre of gravity of the solar system moved, then it would move in a straight line at constant velocity.  If the centre of gravity moves in a straight line at constant velocity, then the center of the system moves (by any reasonable definition of centre).  Since the centre does not move (hyp 1), the centre of gravity of the system does not move (prop 11)

 * The earth moves: the centre of gravity of the ss is at rest (prop 11), and the sun is always close to that (prop 12), so it is nearly true that the sun is at rest. The earth moves a lot relative to the sun, so therefore the earth really moves.

''20. (a) When Newton said that "hypotheses... have no place in experimental philosophy", did he mean that hypotheses should not be stated? Justify your answer with at least one reference to Newton's writings. (b) Did Newton accept the method of hypothesis? What was his reason?''

 * (a) No he didn't mean that they should never be stated since he stated hypotheses. E.g. hypothesis 1. He must mean that he isn't making a hypothesis about the cause of gravity.
 * (b) He rejects the method of hypothesis because he thinks that for every phenomenon there are multiple hypothesis to explain it.

''21. According to Newton, what is the right way to establish causes and general laws in science? Did Newton follow this method when he argued that the moon is held in its orbit by gravity? Justify your answer to the latter question.''

 * According to Newton the right way to establish causes and general laws in science is to start from phenomenon and from this infer through induction causes and then the most general causes. Newton did not follow this method.  In phenomenon 6 accounts for the inconsistency of what is observed by applying what he sought to prove (i.e. that the moons motion is affected by the sun).

''22. Why does Hume think that any justification for belief in unobserved matters of fact must assume the future will resemble the past? Your answer should state the other kinds of justification that Hume recognizes and explain why they are not possible in this case; it should also explain how belief in a matter of fact that has not been observed could be justified by assuming the future will resemble the past. ''

 * An unobserved matter of fact cannot be based on intuition, demonstration, or perception. They (intuituion, demonstration, perception) are not possible because they are logically necessary, whereas a matter of fact is not. We must base our beliefs about the future on our past experience.

23. State Hume's argument for his claim that our beliefs about unobserved matters of fact are unjustified.

 * Matters of fact aren't known by perception. Experience and future will resemble the past.  So circular argument and unjustified.

''24. What is Hume's skeptical claim about matters of fact that we have not observed? Did Hume think it is sensible to take past experience as a guide to the future? Justify your answer to the latter question.''

 * Skeptical claim: matters of fact that we have not observed are not justfied.  Hume would say that it is sensible to take past experience as a guide to the future.  Justification: Hume says: "And no none but a fool or a madman will ever pretend to dispute the authority of experience..." pg 36 book. NQ 183

''25. According to Hume, what causes us to have the beliefs we do about matters of fact that we have not observed? Give an example that illustrates how this cause operates.''

 * Custom or habit makes us have the beliefs we do about matters of fact. For example, the fact that the sun rises everyday gives us confidence that the sun will rise and we fall into the habit of anticipating that it will.

''26. Hume's investigation of the concept of causation involves looking for where we could get an impression of necessary connection. (a) Why is necessary connection relevant to causation? (b) Why does Hume think we must have an impression of it? (c) What does he hope to achieve by finding that impression?''

 * (a) because it is usually thought that if C causes E then there is a necessary connection between C and E.

 * (b) assumes necessary connection is a simple idea. And simple ideas are copies of impressions.

 * (c) if you can find that impression, Hume hopes it will be possible to clarify and make less obscure the simple ideas.

''27. What is the impression that gives rise to our idea of necessary connection, according to Hume? What causes us to have this impression?''

 * It's an impression of reflection that when we see A we expect B which is our idea of necessary connection. This impression is caused by repetition of the same things observed.

28. Does Hume think it is true that if C causes E then there is a necessary connection between C and E? Explain.

 * No he doesn't think there's a necessary connection. Because it's an idea in the mind.

''29. What is probability, according to Laplace? Is the probability of an event the same for everyone? Why, or why not?''

 * Probability of an event = (number of favorable cases) / (number of possible cases) where the cases are all equally possible.

 * Not the same for everyone because if you know that there are fewer possible cases, then the probability of an event is higher.

''30. Suppose A, B, and C are three urns of which one contains only black balls and the other two contain only white balls. What is the probability that a ball drawn from urn C will be black'' (a) for a person who has only the information stated? (b) for a person who also knows that A contains only white balls? (c) for a person who also knows that A and B contain only white balls?

 * (a) 3 equally probable cases. 1 favorable case.
 * probability = 1/3 (show the formula)

 * (b) With the knowledge that A contains only white balls that means there are only 2 possible cases where the outcome is unknown. So prob. = 1 / 2

 * (c) After eliminating non favorable cases, left with 1 possible and 1 favorable case. so probability = 1 / 1 = 1

''31. Suppose that the possible causes of effect E are C1,...,Cn. State a formula for the probability of C1 given E; do not assume that the causes are equally probable a priori.''

 * see notes.

32. State the law of likelihood and give a proof of it.

 * see notes.

''33. Did the evidence available to Ptolemy and Copernicus support Copernicus' claim that the planets orbit the sun over Ptolemy's claim that they orbit the earth? Justify your answer by applying the law of likelihood to at least two specific pieces of evidence.''

 * E = the observed planetary motion
 * P = Ptolemy's claim that sun & planets orbit the earth
 * C = Copernicus' claim that earth and other planets orbit the sun

 * Facts about E -
 * 1. Mercury and Venus never get far from the sun. This must be true given C.  It doesn't have to be true given T.
 * 2. Superior planets are closest to the earth when in opposition to the sun. This must be true given C.  It doesn't have to be true given T.

 * So P(E|C) is greater than P(E|T), so E supports C over T

34. State Laplace's rule for the probability that a future event F will occur, given that event E has been observed.

 * If C1.... Cn are the causes that might be operating, and if we have observed event E the probability of some future event F is

 * P(F|E) = P(F|C1)P(C1|E) + ... P(F|Cn)P(Cn|E)

''35. What is Laplace's rule of succession? What does Laplace assume in order to derive this rule?''

 * If you know nothing about the chance of an event happening except that so far it has occurred n times in a row, the probability it will happen next time is (n+1)/(n+2)

 * To derive this rule, Laplace assumes (1) the event has some chance of happening between 0 and 1. (2) All possible values of this chance from 0 to 1 are equally probable a priori. (3) the 6th and 7th principles of probability.

''36. Hume said that our conclusions about unobserved matters of facet "suppose, as their foundation, that the future will resemble the past." Does Laplace's use of probability theory support or contradict this claim of Hume's? Explain.''

 * Laplace's theory contradicts Hume's claim as Laplace makes no assumption that the future resembles the past, like Hume says you would have to do to make conclusions about unobserved matters of fact. In fact, Laplace says that it's possible the future doesn't resemble the past.

''37. One of Darwin's arguments that species have been produced by natural selection is based on the experience of breeders. Explain the argument.''

 * Artificial selection has produced large changes in species (he refers to selective breeding in England). There is a comparable process of natural selection.  So, we should expect species to be modified by natural selection.

 * Contrary to what people thought at the time, artificial selection does not seem to be limited in what it can do. Since natural selection can work more effectively and over a much larger period of time than artificial selection, it is probable that the modifications produced would eventually be so great that we would call the result a new species.

''38. Darwin argues that there is no sharp distinction betwen species and varieties. Supposing this is correct, does it support natural selection over independent creation as the origin of species? Justify your answer using the law of likelihood.''

 * E = no sharp distinction between species and varieties.
 * N = species arose by natural selection
 * C = species were independently created

 * P(E|N) is high. This is because there is a divergence from 1 species into varieties and then species.  This is a gradual process between species and varieties so there exists no sharp distinction.  This must be be the case with natural selection.

 * P(E|C) is low. There is no reason why E has to be true.

 * So by the law of likelihood, E supports N over C.

''39. What does it mean for parts of organisms to be homologous? Give an example of parts of different species that are homologous with one another.''

 * Homologous means that the parts of the organisms have the same structure. Example: bone structure of the arm of a man, and leg of a horse are similar and therefore homologous.

''40. Do the observed homologies between different species support natural selection over independent creation as the origin of species? Justify your answer using the law of likelihood.''

 * H = different species have homologous parts that are used for very different purposes.
 * N = species arose by natural selection
 * C = species were independently created

 * P(H|C) is low. There is no reason why organs should be homologous.  Surely if species were created, they would be better (e.g. a horse's leg that doesn't break).

 * P(H|N) is high. You would expect to see this if all species developed from a common ancestor with parts adapted over time.

 * So by the law of likelihood, H supports N over C.

''41. Does the similarity of embryos of different species support natural selection over independent creation as the origin of species? Justify your answer using the law of likelihood.''

 * E = embryo's of different species are similar in structure.

 * P(E|C) is low. No reason to expect this - why would embryos have 'gills' which are not required.

 * P(E|N) is high. Organism adapts in later states of life, so it doesn't matter than an embryo has 'gills' so the embryo can be unchanged.

 * So by the law of likelihood, E supports N over C.

''42. Does the existence of rudimentary organs support natural selection over independent creation as the origin of species? Justify your answer using the law of likelihood.''

 * R = many species have rudimentary organs.

 * P(E|C) is low. Since there's no reason to expect this phenomenon. Why create beetles with wings that don't work.

 * P(E|N) is high. Since changes are small you would expect to find rudimentary organs since ancestors have the same organs.

 * So, by the law of likelihood, R supports N over C.

Questions and Answers part 2

''1. According to Mill, what is the meaning of "law" and "law of nature"? Give an example that illustrates the difference.''

 * A law is a general regularity. Laws of nature of the simplest regularities from which all others are deduced.

 * Example:
 * Suppose A is always accompanied by D
 * Suppose B is always accompanied by E
 * It follows that AB is always accompanied by DE
 * All are laws but only 1. and 2. are laws of nature.

''2. According to Mill, what does it mean for A to be the cause of B? Does it follow from Mill's definition that night is the cause of day? Explain.''

 * "A is the cause of B" means that when A happens B invariably and unconditionally follows
 * It does not follow from this definition that night is the cause of day because that would be conditional (i.e. not unconditional) and hence does not satisfy Mill's definition.

''3 Does our everyday use of the terms 'cause' and 'effect' agree with Mill's definitions? Explain and give an example.''

 * Our everyday use does not always agree with Mill's definitions, since we often don't talk about an exhaustive list of causes. For example, we might say that the cause of a man dying was the food he ate at a restaurant.  This would not be the cause under Mill's definition, as there was no mention of things like the biological makeup of the man, the reasons the meal poisoned him etc..

''4. What is the nature of the necessary connection between causes and effects, according to Mill? How does Mill's account of this differ from Hume's?''

 * The necessary connection between causes and effects according to Mill consists in B following A unconditionally. For Mill, necessary connection is in the world, whereas Hume thinks that necessary connection is in the mind.

''5. Does Mill think induction by simple enumeration is always reliable, usually reliable, usually unreliable, or never reliable? Why does Mill take the position he does?''

 * Usually unreliable. As you often don't have reason to believe that you know there are no instances to the contrary.

''6. What is the law of causation? What is Mill's justification for this law?''

 * Every fact which has a beginning has a cause. Because knowledge of this is such that we would know of instances to the contrary.

''7. What is the method of agreement? What is Mill's justification for this method?''

 * If two or more situations agree in A but nothing else, and in every case a results, then A is the cause of a. Justification: By the law of causation, a has some cause.  Mill assumes that a has only one cause.  Hence the cause of a is something common to all the situations.  So since A is the only common factor, A is the cause.

''8. What is the method of difference? What is Mill's justification for this method?''

 * If a results when A is present, and a doesn't result when A is absent but the antecedents are otherwise the same, then A is the cause of a or a necessary part of the cause. Justification: by the law of causation, a has some cause.  The cause of a can't be any of things present when a is absent (by the definition of cause).  Therefore, A is either the cause or a necessary part of the cause.

9. Why is it sometimes not possible to find causes by (a) the method of agreement, or (b) the method of difference?

 * (a) the method of agreement
 * Different situations always have more than 1 thing in common
 * We can discount circumstances we already have good reason to think are irrelevant
 * But still there are so many circumstances in any situation, not all of them visible to us, that often we can't be sure there isn't some other relevant circumstance common to different situations.

 * (b) the method of difference
 * Typical way to apply this is to do an experiment in which we change A and keep the other circumstances the same.
 * However, it isn't always possible to do this
 * Example of double refraction

''10. What is the joint method of agreement and difference? Under what circumstances is it appropriate to use this method rather than the method of agreement or the method of difference?''

 * It consists of two applications of the method of agreement:
 * First application
 * We look at a variety of circumstances in which a occurs and find that the only antecedent they have in common, so far as we can tell, is A.
 * The method of agreement suggests A is the cause of a.
 * But it still might be that the situations have something in common other than A which is the real cause, so the conclusion is dubious.
 * Second application
 * We look at a variety of circumstances in which a does not occur and find that they agree in not containing A and nothing else so far as we can see.
 * The method of agreement suggests the absence of A is the cause of the absence of a.
 * From the two applications together we infer that A is the cause of a or an indispensable part of the cause of a.
 * The second part makes it stronger than method of agreement
 * The first part leaves open the possibility that the real cause is not A but some factor we've overlooked that is common to the situations.
 * If that were true, a could occur when A is absent
 * But the second application suggests this isn't so

 * This method can be used in some cases where the methods of agreement and difference are not usable, and to further test the right account.

''11. What is the method of residues? What must we know in order to identify a cause using this method?''

 * The method
 * If we subtract from a phenomenon the part that is known to be the effect of certain antecedents, the remainder of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents.
 * Symbolic example
 * If ABC is followed by abc, and the effect of A is a, and the effect of B is b, then the cause of c is C.
 * Knowledge assumed in this example
 * We must have previously determined the effects of A and B by some other method, such as the method of difference.
 * We must here know that there is no antecedent besides A, B, and C that could be relevant to the effect.
 * Scientific example: Discovery of Neptune

''12. What is Mill's method of concomitant variations? Give an example of the use of this method.''

 * If two phenomena always vary together in a particular manner then one is the cause of the other, or at least there is a causal connection between them. Example: high tide always occurs when the moon is closest, so using the method of concomitant variations one can conclude that one is the cause of the other or at least there is a causal relation between them.

''13. Could Copernicus have argued that the earth orbits the sun using any of the forms of induction recognized by Mill? Justify your answer by stating Copernicus' hypothesis in cause-effect terms and considering each of the forms of induction recognized by Mill.''

 * No. Hypothesis in cause-effect terms:
 * Effect (m): Observed motion of the heavenly bodies relative to the earth.
 * Cause (M): Rotation of earth, and orbit of earth and other planets around the sun.
 * The method of agreement requires us to observe 2 situations where M occurs, but we can't observe M. Therefore we can't use the method of agreement.
 * The method of difference requires us to observe 2 situations, the first where M occurs and the second where M doesn't occur, but we can't observe M. Therefore, can't use the method of difference.
 * Similarly the other three methods Mill describes can't be used as they require us to observe M which we can't do (in fact, we're trying to establish M).

''14. Could Darwin have argued that species arose from natural selection using any of the forms of induction recognized by Mill? Justify your answer by stating Darwin's hypothesis in cause-effect terms and considering each of the forms of induction recognized by Mill.''

 * No. Hypothesis in cause-effect terms:
 * Effect (n): origin of species.
 * Cause (N): natural selection, operating over a very long time.
 * Can't use any of Mill's methods because they all require one to observe N which we can't do since that's what we're trying to establish

''15. When Newton argued that the moon is kept in its orbit by gravity, did he use any of the forms of induction recognized by Mill? Justify your answer.''

 * Newton argues that the force on the moon is directly towards the earth and varies inversely with the square of the distance. This is inferred from
 * The line from earth to the moon traces out equal areas in equal times, and
 * Apogee of the moon's orbit is stationary.
 * Yet none of these phenomena is really observed since Newton made deductions to adjust the data. So because he didn't just use induction, he didn't really follow Mill's methods.

16. Explain what it means for a statement to be analytic or synthetic and give an example of each kind of statement.

 * For a statement to be analytic is has to be true due to the meaning of words. An example could be "all bachelor's are married".  For a statement to be synthetic it's truth or falsity depends on facts.  An example could be "Popper was a bachelor".

17. State Popper's argument that induction is unjustified.

 * Argument:
 * To justify induction we must establish a principle of induction.
 * This principle must be synthetic and universal.
 * Any attempt to justify the principle of induction would use induction.
 * So the attempt to justify induction leads to an infinite regress.

18. State one similarity and two differences between Popper and Hume on induction.

 * They are similar in that they both argue that induction is unjustified.
 * They are different in that:
 * Hume says we should still use induction whereas Popper says we should not, and
 * Hume argued that to use induction we must assume that the future resembles that past. Popper says that we must assume something, but not necessarily that the future resembles the past. (So Popper's criticism of induction could be used against Laplace's theory of succession but Hume's criticism could not.)

19. Compare and contrast Popper's view of scientific method with the method of hypothesis (as advocated, for example, by Descartes).

 * His method is like the method of hypothesis because it begins with a hypothesis from which testable predictions are deduced and then are tested, but it differs in its verification. In the method of hypothesis, if the tested hypotheses are shown to verify the theory, the theory is taken as likely to be true, but Popper says that positive results don't give us any more information or more reason to believe the theory is true.

His method results on the resistance to falsification.

''20. What are Popper's requirements for an acceptable theory in empirical science? Explain what each requirement means.''

 * His requirements are that it must be:
 * Synthetic: relies on facts to say whether it is true or false
 * Falsifiable: inconsistent observation
 * Corroborated: the theory has been tested and has passed the tests.

''21. What is Popper's reason why only tested theories are acceptable in science? Is this consistent with other things popper says? Explain.''

 * Otherwise one would not know if the theories corresponded to the facts of the world. No this is not consistent with other things he says since passing a test doesn't add anything to a theory because multiple verification don't compile since he doesn't accept induction.

''22. What is the methodological rule that Popper uses to ensure that theories can be falsified? Why is a methodological rule needed?''

 * We only modify a hypothesis if the modified hypothesis creates new and testable predictions. Needed because deductive logic is not sufficient because it only shows whether one auxiliary hypothesis is wrong.

''23. Can Popper's scientific method ever require a true theory to be regarded as false? Explain.''

 * Yes it can. If counterevidence seems to falsify a hypothesis and an auxiliary hypothesis is regarded as untestable, then Popper's method falsifies they hypothesis.

''24. On Popper's theory of science, is science any better than reading tea leaves as a way to find the truth? Explain.''

 * No it's not. For Popper verification doesn't show confirmation of give any indication of probability.  Theories also cannot be falsified or even probably doubtable.

25. State a similarity and a difference between the following statements: (a) e logically implies h (b) The degree to which e confirms h is r

 * Each of the statements is actually a logical statement, which means that applicability of the statement does not depend on empirical data. These statements differ in that in part a) e logically implies h, meaning it is logically impossible for h not to be true; in part b) there is confirmation of h only to a certain degree, thus it is logically possible for h not to hold.

''26. What does Carnap mean by 'probability1' and 'probability2'? Are propositions involving these concepts analytic or synthetic, according to Carnap? What kind of things are related by these two kinds of probability?''

 * Carnap believes that there are two types of probability: probability1 and probability2. probability1 is conceptualized as a logical concept that relates propositions or sentences, and is concerned with degree of confirmation. Probability2 is a factual concept that relates classes of things. Probability2 also concerns relative frequency in the long run.

Though I don't have notes on the matter, conceptually probability1 seems to be analytic whereas probability2 seems synthetic. The distinction between 'logical' and 'factual' seems to coincide with the very distinction between analytic and synthetic. Please correct me if I am wrong.

27. Give an example in which the probability1 of a coin landing heads, given the available evidence, is different to the probability2 of the same coin landing heads.

 * Consider a 2-sided trick coin, that is such that it has two identical faces. Here, probability2 is either 1 or zero depending on the face that is represented on this coin. Probability1 is ½, since it is know that this coin has two sides with the same face, but it is not know what face that is.

''28. Was Laplace talking about probability1 or probability2? Justify your answer with reference to Laplace's principle of indifference and his statement that probability is relative to our knowledge.''

 * Laplace was tallking about probability1. Because the principle of indifference says that when we have no reason to believe one alternative over the other then those alternatives are equally probable.  If they're equally probable given our evidence (probability1), then that's plausible.  But if these alternatives happen equally often in the long run relative to what we know (probability2) then that's crazy.
 * Saying that probability given our evidence (probability1) is relative to our knowledge makes sense. Saying that things happen equally often in the long run (probability2) relative to our knowledge is crazy.

''29. What is deductive logic about, according to Carnap? What is inductive logic about?''

 * Deductive logic studies logical implication. Inductive logic studies degree of confirmation (which is probability).  They are both logical relations, whether they hold is analytic, not synthetic.

''30. What is primitive psychologism in logic? Does Carnap agree with primitive psychologism? State two reasons Carnap gies for his position.''

 * Primitive psychologism holds that logic is about how people actually think. Carnap disagrees with this because:
 * Logic would be part of psychology, and accordingly could be investigated empirically.
 * Logical laws would be false.

''31. What is qualified psychologism in logic? Does Carnap agree with qualified psychologism? State a reason Carnap gives for his position.''

 * Qualified logic holds that logic is about correct or rational thinking. Carnap objects to this as he thinks the reference to thinking is superfluous.

''32. How can induction be justified according to Carnap? What is Carnap's basis for claiming that this justification is not circular?''

 * Carnap asks if we can justify a man acting in accordance with probability1.
 * Justification:
 * 1.If x acts in accordance with probability1 and the world is probably1 highly uniform, then x will probably1 be successful in the long run.
 * 2.The world is probably1 highly uniform.
 * Therefore 3. If x acts in accordance with probability1, then x will probably1 be successful in the long run.

 * Carnap claims that this justification is not circular because Premise 2 is an analytical claim, not synthetic.

33. What is an effective procedure?

 * A procedure which has rules that uniquely determine each step, and the solution has a finite number of steps.

''34. Is inductive reasoning less subject to effective procedures than deductive reasoning is, according to Carnap? Justify your answer by stating the kinds of problems for which each kind of logic does and does not provide effective procedures.''

 * No, it is not less subject to effective procedures. To find a conclusion, there is no effective procedure in deductive or inductive logic.  To examine a result there is no effective procedure in deductive or inductive logic.  However, to examine a proof, there is an effective procedure in deductive and inductive logic.

''35. Why are creativity and intuition needed in inductive reasoning? Does it follow from this that there cannot be exact rules of inductive logic? Justify your answer (for example, by making a comparison with deductive logic).''

 * Because there are problems of inductive logic for which there are no effective procedures so one must use creativity and intuition. It does not follow because in deductive logic we observe that even if there exists an effective procedure for a subject, it does not necessarily become mechanical.  You need to use creativity and intuition to reach a conclusion.

''36. The “four-color theorem” states that four colors are sufficient to color a map so that regions with a common boundary are colored differently. For a long time mathematicians were unable to either prove or disprove this theorem but in 1976 it was proved using a computer.''

(a) Which of Carnap’s three kinds of problems was the computer being used to solve?

 * Examining the results

''(b) Computers follow mechanical rules. So is the fact that a computer proved this theorem a counterexample to Carnap’s claim about the need for creativity and intuition in this kind of problem? Why, or why not?''

 * No, the computer only works for a specific case, whereas an effective procedure has to work in every case. In this situation, the computer only works in this specialized case.

''37. Do good scientists follow Popper’s rules of scientific method? Support your answer with an example.''

 * 'No, Newton did not form a new auxiliary hypothesis when he found an anomaly in his theory concerning the calculated and observed movement of the moons apogee. This anomaly was resolved in 1750, and was due to using the wrong mathematical approach. Newton followed Popper's method, his theory would have been wrongly abandoned.'

38. What must happen in order for scientists to give up a paradigm, according to Kuhn?

 * The following must happen for a paradigm to be rejected:
 * The anomalies must be severe and prolonged, resisting all attempt to deal with them. (This causes a sense of crisis.)
 * These must be a better alternative paradigm.

''39. Can the following claims of Kuhn be explained in terms of what is probable given the evidence? Justify your answers.''

(a) Anomalies normally don’t cause a paradigm to be abandoned.

 * Since it's a paradigm, it's a hugely successful theory, and there is so much evidence to support it that it is probably correct. Hence, since anomalies are probably mistakes, they normally don't cause a paradigm to be abandoned.

(b) Severe and persistent anomalies cause a sense of crisis.

 * Initially one would say the anomaly is due to a mistake, however if they become severe and persistent it becomes clear that there is a bigger problem. It becomes probably that something is deeply wrong - i.e. something about the paradigm is not right.

(c) Paradigms are not abandoned without a better alternative.

 * The paradigm has been enormously successful, so will probably continue being be very useful. So despite the severe and persistent anomalies there must be some truth to the paradigm.  It does not make sense to change to a theory that's not at least as good.

40. What is Kuhn’s argument for his claim that debate between proponents of different paradigms must be circular?

 * P1: Paradigms contain not only theories but also standards that a scientific work must meet.
 * P2: Different paradigms have different standards as well as different theories.
 * So, debates between proponents of different paradigms is necessary circular since each proponent will use different standards.

''41. What is a historical example that Kuhn uses to illustrate his claim that debate between proponents of different paradigms must be circular? Does this example support or contradict Kuhn’s claim? Justify your answer.''

 * Kuhn's example contradicts his claim/argument. He uses a comparison between Newton and Descartes - allegedly two paradigms with different standards - but Newton's paradigm did not adopt different standards than Descartes.  Newton himself believed in Descartes' standards as he searched for a mechanical explanation for gravity.  So this example contradicts P2 of his argument.

External resources

 * Philosophy of science at Wikipedia
 * Philosophy of Science at Wikibooks

title: Philosophy of science


text:
puistaa

Etymology
From. Cognates include 🇨🇬 and 🇨🇬.

Verb

 * 1)  to shake
 * 2)  to shake off
 * 1)  to shake off

title: puistaa


text:
Dendrobium

Hypernyms

 * ; - subfamily;  - tribe;  - subtribe

Hyponyms

 * - type species; for the very numerous other species see

title: Dendrobium


text:
User:ARUN KONDAJI

Name: ARUN KUMAR KONDAJI Dob: 10/06/1994 Place of birth : Nirmal, Telangana Profession: Civil Engineer

title: User:ARUN KONDAJI


text:
annegare

Etymology 1
From earlier, from , derived from. Compare 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Verb

 * 1)  to drown, to kill by drowning
 * 2)  to drown, to die by drowning

title: annegare


text:
avet

Etymology
, from.

Noun

 * 1) fir

Etymology
.

Noun

 * 1)  ghost, apparition

Alternative forms

 * (when preceding a verb)

Pronoun

 * 1) First-person exclusive plural pronoun: they (many) and I, them (many) and me

title: avet


text:
Talk:Historical introduction to philosophy

Historical introduction to philosophy course is now a subpage
I removed the tag Please share your thoughts about whether to merge this page with Historical introduction to philosophy course and made it a subpage of this project Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 18:32, 30 December 2022 (UTC)


text:
Latin/Appendix G

Latin Mottos

 * Aliena pericula, cautiones nostrae
 * Others' dangers are our warnings.

 * Anno Domini (A.D)
 * In the Year of Our Lord

 * Ante Meridiem (am)
 * Before midday

 * Ars Gratia Artis (MGM slogan)
 * Art for the sake of art

 * Carpe diem
 * Seize the day

 * Caveat emptor
 * Let the buyer beware.

 * Cave canem
 * Beware of the dog.

 * Cavete a canibus
 * Beware of the dogs.

 * Dum Spiro, Spero
 * While I breath, I hope

 * E pluribus unum
 * Out of many, one

 * Exempli Gratia (e.g.)
 * For (the sake of) example

 * Id est (i.e.)
 * That is

 * Lapsus linguae
 * a slip of the tongue

 * Per se
 * In itself

 * Post Meridiem (pm)
 * After midday

 * Quod erat demonstrandum (QED)
 * What was to be demonstated

 * Quid pro quo
 * Something for something

 * Sic semper tyrannis
 * Thus always to tyrants

 * Semper fidelis
 * Always faithful

 * Semper paratus
 * Always ready

 * Tempus fugit
 * Time flies

 * Terra firma
 * Solid land

 * Veni, vidi, vici
 * I came, I saw, I conquered

 * Versus (vs.)
 * Turned to (competing against)

 * Vice versa
 * The other way around

Latin

title: Latin/Appendix G


text:
Talk:Denise Mina

Hellblazer
Changed from "she was replaced by Andy Diggle" to "she was succeeded by", because she had only planned 13 issues in the first place and I think there's an implication in the original wording that she was laid off because of negative fan reaction. The negative fan talk did happen, by the way, but the only thing I can think to link to is the Straight to Hell (a Hellblazer fan site) message boards. Would they count? --Mister Six (talk) 10:26, 12 December 2007 (UTC)
 * In the context of Mina's bio, does it matter who succeeded her? That's only important to Hellblazer fans, and this isn't a Hellblazer article (and I say this as a HB fan who has never read Mina's prose work).  My anonymous self (sorry) is going to take it out altogether.  <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 01:06, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Denise Mina. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120628125803/http://www.deckarakademin.se/pagesSE/priser.html to http://www.deckarakademin.se/pagesSE/priser.html
 * Added tag to http://media.edbookfest.co.uk/bookfestival/index.php?q=node%2F141

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:41, 8 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Denise Mina


text:
Helium dimer

The helium dimer is a van der Waals molecule with formula He2 consisting of two helium atoms. This chemical is the largest diatomic molecule—a molecule consisting of two atoms bonded together. The bond that holds this dimer together is so weak that it will break if the molecule rotates, or vibrates too much. It can only exist at very low cryogenic temperatures.

Two excited helium atoms can also bond to each other in a form called an excimer. This was discovered from a spectrum of helium that contained bands first seen in 1912. Written as He2* with the * meaning an excited state, it is the first known Rydberg molecule.

Several dihelium ions also exist, having net charges of negative one, positive one, and positive two. Two helium atoms can be confined together without bonding in the cage of a fullerene.

Molecule
Based on molecular orbital theory, He2 should not exist, and a chemical bond cannot form between the atoms. However, the van der Waals force exists between helium atoms as shown by the existence of liquid helium, and at a certain range of distances between atoms the attraction exceeds the repulsion. So a molecule composed of two helium atoms bound by the van der Waals force can exist. The existence of this molecule was proposed as early as 1930.

He2 is the largest known molecule of two atoms when in its ground state, due to its extremely long bond length. The He2 molecule has a large separation distance between the atoms of about 5200 pm (= 52 ångström). This is the largest for a diatomic molecule without ro-vibronic excitation. The binding energy is only about 1.3 mK, 10−7eV or 1.1×10−5 kcal/mol. According to high-level theoretical calculations, the bond is 5000 times weaker than the covalent bond in the hydrogen molecule.

Both helium atoms in the dimer can be ionized by a single photon with energy 63.86 eV. The proposed mechanism for this double ionization is that the photon ejects an electron from one atom, and then that electron hits the other helium atom and ionizes that as well. The dimer then explodes as two helium cations repel each other, moving with the same speed but in opposite directions.

A dihelium molecule bound by Van der Waals forces was first proposed by John Clarke Slater in 1928.

Formation
The helium dimer can be formed in small amounts when helium gas expands and cools as it passes through a nozzle in a gas beam. Only the isotope 4He can form molecules like this; 4He3He and 3He3He do not exist, as they do not have a stable bound state. The amount of the dimer formed in the gas beam is of the order of one percent.

Molecular ions
He2+ is a related ion bonded by a half covalent bond. It can be formed in a helium electrical discharge. It recombines with electrons to form an electronically excited He2(a3Σ+u) excimer molecule. Both of these molecules are much smaller with more normally sized interatomic distances. He2+ reacts with N2, Ar, Xe, O2, and CO2 to form cations and neutral helium atoms.

The helium dication dimer He22+ releases a large amount energy when it dissociates, around 835 kJ/mol. However, an energy barrier of 138.91 kJ/mol prevents immediate decay. This ion was studied theoretically by Linus Pauling in 1933. This ion is isoelectronic with the hydrogen molecule. He22+ is the smallest possible molecule with a double positive charge. It is detectable using mass spectroscopy.

The negative helium dimer He2− is metastable and was discovered by Bae, Coggiola and Peterson in 1984 by passing He2+ through cesium vapor. Subsequently, H. H. Michels theoretically confirmed its existence and concluded that the 4Πg state of He2− is bound relative to the a2Σ+u state of He2. The calculated electron affinity is 0.233 eV compared to 0.077 eV for the He−[4P∘] ion. The He2− decays through the long-lived 5/2g component with τ~350 μsec and the much shorter-lived 3/2g, 1/2g components with τ~10 μsec. The 4Πg state has a 1σ2g1σu2σg2πu electronic configuration, its electron affinity E is 0.18±0.03 eV, and its lifetime is 135±15 μsec; only the v=0 vibrational state is responsible for this long-lived state.

The molecular helium anion is also found in liquid helium that has been excited by electrons with an energy level higher than 22 eV. This takes place firstly by penetration of liquid He, taking 1.2 eV, followed by excitation of a He atom electron to the 3P level, which takes 19.8 eV. The electron can then combine with another helium atom and the excited helium atom to form He2−. He2− repels helium atoms, and so has a void around it. It will tend to migrate to the surface of liquid helium.

Excimers
In a normal helium atom, two electrons are found in the 1s orbital. However, if sufficient energy is added, one electron can be elevated to a higher energy level. This high energy electron can become a valence electron, and the electron that remains in the 1s orbital is a core electron. Two excited helium atoms can form a covalent bond, creating a molecule called dihelium that lasts for times from the order of a microsecond up to second or so. (Excited helium atoms in the 23S state can last for up to an hour, and react like alkali metal atoms. )

The first clues that dihelium exists were noticed in 1900 when W. Heuse observed a band spectrum in a helium discharge. However, no information about the nature of the spectrum was published. Independently E. Goldstein from Germany and W. E. Curtis from London published details of the spectrum in 1913. Curtis was called away to military service in World War I, and the study of the spectrum was continued by Alfred Fowler. Fowler recognised that the double headed bands fell into two sequences analogous to principal and diffuse series in line spectra.

The emission band spectrum shows a number of bands that degrade towards the red, meaning that the lines thin out and the spectrum weakens towards the longer wavelengths. Only one band with a green band head at 5732 Å degrades towards the violet. Other strong band heads are at 6400 (red), 4649, 4626, 4546, 4157.8, 3777, 3677, 3665, 3356.5, and 3348.5 Å. There are also some headless bands and extra lines in the spectrum. Weak bands are found with heads at 5133 and 5108.

If the valence electron is in a 2s 3s, or 3d orbital, a 1Σu state results; if it is in 2p 3p or 4p, a 1Σg state results. The ground state is X1Σg+.

The three lowest triplet states of He2 have designations a3Σu, b3Πg and c3Σg. The a3Σu state with no vibration (v=0) has a long metastable lifetime of 18 s, much longer than the lifetime for other states or inert gas excimers. The explanation is that the a3Σu state has no electron orbital angular momentum, as all the electrons are in S orbitals for the helium state.

The lower lying singlet states of He2 are A1Σu, B1Πg and C1Σg. The excimer molecules are much smaller and more tightly bound than the van der Waals bonded helium dimer. For the A1Σu state the binding energy is around 2.5 eV, with a separation of the atoms of 103.9 pm. The C1Σg state has a binding energy 0.643 eV and the separation between atoms is 109.1 pm. These two states have a repulsive range of distances with a maximum around 300 pm, where if the excited atoms approach, they have to overcome an energy barrier. The singlet state A1Σ+u is very unstable with a lifetime only nanoseconds long.

The spectrum of the He2 excimer contains bands due to a great number of lines due to transitions between different rotation rates and vibrational states, combined with different electronic transitions. The lines can be grouped into P, Q and R branches. But the even numbered rotational levels do not have Q branch lines, due to both nuclei being spin 0. Numerous electronic states of the molecule have been studied, including Rydberg states with the number of the shell up to 25.

Helium discharge lamps produce vacuum ultraviolet radiation from helium molecules. When high energy protons hit helium gas it also produces UV emission at around 600 Å by the decay of excited highly vibrating molecules of He2 in the A1Σu state to the ground state. The UV radiation from excited helium molecules is used in the pulsed discharge ionization detector (PDHID) which is capable of detecting the contents of mixed gases at levels below parts per billion.

The Hopfield continuum is a band of ultraviolet light between 600 and 1000 Å in wavelength formed by photodissociation of helium molecules.

One mechanism for formation of the helium molecules is firstly a helium atom becomes excited with one electron in the 21S orbital. This excited atom meets two other non excited helium atoms in a three body association and reacts to form a A1Σu state molecule with maximum vibration and a helium atom.

Helium molecules in the quintet state 5Σ+g can be formed by the reaction of two spin polarised helium atoms in He(23S1) states. This molecule has a high energy level of 20 eV. The highest vibration level allowed is v=14.

In liquid helium the excimer forms a solvation bubble. In a 3d state a He$
 * 2$ molecule is surrounded by a bubble 12.7 Å in radius at atmospheric pressure. When pressure is increased to 24 atmospheres the bubble radius shrinks to 10.8 Å. This changing bubble size causes a shift in the fluorescence bands.

Magnetic condensation
In very strong magnetic fields, (around 750,000 Tesla) and low enough temperatures, helium atoms attract, and can even form linear chains. This may happen in white dwarfs and neutron stars. The bond length and dissociation energy both increase as the magnetic field increases.

Use
The dihelium excimer is an important component in the helium discharge lamp.

A second use of dihelium ion is in ambient ionization techniques using low temperature plasma. In this helium atoms are excited, and then combine to yield the dihelium ion. The He2+ goes on to react with N2 in the air to make N2+. These ions react with a sample surface to make positive ions that are used in mass spectroscopy. The plasma containing the helium dimer can be as low as 30 °C in temperature, and this reduces heat damage to samples.

Clusters
He2 has been shown to form van der Waals compounds with other atoms forming bigger clusters such as 24MgHe2 and 40CaHe2.

The helium-4 trimer (4He3), a cluster of three helium atoms, is predicted to have an excited state which is an Efimov state. This has been confirmed experimentally in 2015.

Cage
Two helium atoms can fit inside larger fullerenes, including C70 and C84. These can be detected by the nuclear magnetic resonance of 3He having a small shift, and by mass spectrometry. C84 with enclosed helium can contain 20% He2@C84, whereas C78 has 10% and C76 has 8%. The larger cavities are more likely to hold more atoms. Even when the two helium atoms are placed closely to each other in a small cage, there is no chemical bond between them. The presence of two He atoms in a C60 fullerene cage is only predicted to have a small effect on the reactivity of the fullerene. The effect is to have electrons withdrawn from the endohedral helium atoms, giving them a slight positive partial charge to produce He2δ+, which have a stronger bond than uncharged helium atoms. However, by the Löwdin definition there is a bond present.

The two helium atoms inside the C60 cage are separated by 1.979 Å and the distance from a helium atom to the carbon cage is 2.507 Å. The charge transfer gives 0.011 electron charge units to each helium atom. There should be at least 10 vibrational levels for the He-He pair.

title: Helium dimer


text:
Golden Pass (Disney)

The Golden Pass is a ticket which allows the holder lifetime access to all nine of the theme parks owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company. First awarded in 1955 to Dave MacPherson, the first member of the public to become a paying guest at Disneyland, the Pass is awarded to all Disney Legends and has been handed to dignitaries, the President of the United States and sitting heads of state, and all members of the board of directors.

Accepting locations
The Pass is valid at the following parks:

Disneyland Resort

 * 1) Disneyland
 * 2) California Adventure

Walt Disney World Resort

 * 1) Magic Kingdom
 * 2) Epcot
 * 3) Hollywood Studios
 * 4) Animal Kingdom

Paris Disney Resort

 * 1) Disneyland Paris
 * 2) Walt Disney Studios Paris

Hong Kong Disneyland Resort

 * 1) Hong Kong Disneyland

When Passes were renewed at the start of 2005, the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort was still under construction and it was noted on the Pass that it would not be valid for entry. This was changed in 2006. The two parks at the Tokyo Disney Resort - Tokyo Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea - are not part of the allowance, as they are owned and operated by The Oriental Land Company under licenses from Disney. On May 2, 2006, Disney honored the two billionth guest of a Disney park at Disneyland. The guest received a modified version of the Golden Pass entitling the holder to admission to the two theme parks at the Tokyo Disney Resort. The Oriental Land Company allowed this because the two billion count included guests at Tokyo Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea.

title: Golden Pass (Disney)