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Wikibooks:Etiquette

Wikibookians have different backgrounds and hold widely different views. When interacting with respect, users can cooperate effectively to develop free educational textbooks. In the vast majority of cases, people seem to get along, but occasionally people bump up against one another.

Like any community, Wikibookians have developed among themselves a certain etiquette to facilitate productive cooperation.

The community
Wikibooks is divided into a large number of books. Many of these have no active editors and most never see more than a single active contributor at any given time. There are, however, instances where multiple users find themselves working on the same book. In most cases the team-work that grows out of the interaction leads to better content as they bounce ideas off each other.

Given the open nature of the wiki, anyone is free (and encouraged) to start editing any page in any book they think is worth contributing to. In some cases a contributor will start editing pages that one or more editors had until then been alone with. As new ideas can rock the status quo, disagreements can arise.

While the community isn't the goal of the project, a well functioning one helps. Don't limit interactions to the negative: If you see people doing good work, let them know. Do your best to avoid conflicts and resolve those that arise. Don't hold grudges, bury the hatchet and give people a chance to redeem themselves.

Tread softly around your fellow Wikibookians. Contributors have often put a considerably amount of work into the content they have uploaded and can become offended when it is subjected to criticism. Help:Pages has some advice on how to properly approach contributors to pages that are out of scope.

Conflict avoidance and resolution

 * Assume good faith
 * This is an extremely useful principle. Rather than assume that other users are out to get you or "your" content, understand that the content isn't yours and they are editing the book out of a desire to help. Listen to what they have to say, communicate your thoughts and start a dialogue to figure out the best way forward.

 * Ask questions
 * Rather than just trying to convince your counterpart(s), ask them questions of their views and invite them to convince you. You cannot argue against a viewpoint you don't fully understand. Furthermore, there might well be something useful in their position.

 * Leave your pride at the door
 * No matter how long you've been at Wikibooks or editing a specific book, you're going to make mistakes. Acknowledge any mistakes and make apologies when you are wrong or being unfair. Don't get offended.

 * Stay calm or take a break
 * Most edits are easily reversible. If you're not making progress, just take a break for a while to calm yourself and let the dust settle.

title: Wikibooks:Etiquette


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Northern Arizona University/Environmental Ethics/Handouts/Syllabus

Topics in Ethics: Philosophy of Law Jeffrey Downard Office: BAA 104 Hours: Monday 2-3:30 and Wed 3:00-4:00

Texts
Readings available online through the course web page

Aims of the Course
This course is designed to offer the class--teacher and students alike--an opportunity to reflect philosophically on some fundamental questions in the philosophy of law. The primary aim is examine the philosophical foundations of both constitutional law and international law. Given all of the troubles one faces--both theoretical and practical--in any attempt to make sense of the foundations of international law, our hope is that a comparison to constitutional law might help to shed some light on the matter. We will range over a number of different types of readings, including different constitutions, significant court cases, and arguments by legal theorists and philosophers, in the hopes of sorting out the important questions, methods and plausible answers. While we will look at a number of different issues, I do hope to take a closer look at the status of indigenous peoples such as Native American tribes in both constitutional law and international law because it serves as a useful test case for thinking about the limits of the law. My proposal is to run the course as a seminar and to let input from you help to shape the topics, reading list, and questions that we will address over the course of the semester.

Class Format
Most philosophical issues are best understood and appreciated in oral and written discussion, so I will encourage discussion rather than lecturing (by teacher or students) in class. By "discussion" I mean: (1) a situation in which all members of the class take responsibility for what happens in class;  (2) a situation in which class members talk to one another--discussions don't consist solely of a series of dialogues between the teacher and particular students. The rules governing student conduct are available in the student handbook and will be made available on the course web page.

Attendance and Participation
I will work hard on planning and teaching this class, and I expect you to do the same when taking it. In discussion classes such as this one, it is often difficult or impossible to take notes from the teacher during class. This does not mean, however, that it is not worth coming to class. The assigned readings are vitally important, and much of the work for the course gets done in class. My experience has been that those who do not come to class and participate regularly have a hard time writing decent papers or doing well on exams. Minimally, therefore, I expect each student to do the assigned reading, think about the issues raised, and come to class regularly, prepared to discuss the issues. You are always welcome to stop by my office to talk about the material, to raise questions or concerns about the course, or to get extra help. If my hours do not fit your schedule, feel free to make an appointment. I am more than happy to help.

Grading
Short papers 25%

Reading questions and online discussion 25%

Term Paper 40%

Final Exam 10%

The grade will be lowered 1/2 of a letter grade for each class day that an assignment is late unless you have an official excuse or have made prior arrangements with me. Consistent attendance and active participation is expected from every student; lack of either will be figured into the final grade.

Reading Questions, Short Assignments and the Term Paper
Each week, as you do the readings for the course, I will ask you to develop a critical question and turn it in via the course web page. If another person has raised a question online that you find interesting, you may also respond to such a question. I will spell out the guidelines for these critical questions and responses in a separate handout.

A number of times during the term I will give you a question about the readings for the class. The short papers will be due at the beginning of the Thursday class. I ask that you outline an answer to each question as you work through the readings. I will feel free at any time to ask you to explain your response to the questions. My reasons for doing this are fourfold: (1) to ensure that you work through the material carefully, (2) to help you learn to focus on the arguments and assumptions made by the author, (3) to help me see how much you understand the material so that I can help you improve your comprehension, (4) to provide a common basis to ensure that our class discussions are focused and productive. You will have the opportunity over the next few months to write a paper that engages in a philosophical argument concerning the philosophical foundations of the law. Go ahead and start to think about the topic and problem that you would like to address in your paper.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Lucy Alibar

Wrote screenplay for “I Know Where the Crawdads Sing”.
Additional Information “Lucy Alibar” Wrote screenplay for “I Know Where the Crawdads Sing”. Married producer Pavun Shetty August 29, 2022 in Florence. 2601:243:0:B980:D87E:83F9:8663:E439 (talk) 23:43, 15 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lucy Alibar


text:
Conlang/Intermediate/Writing

(All phonemic and phonetic transcriptions mentioned here are in X-SAMPA)

Scripts, or writing systems, are one of the first things many people notice when they come in contact with another language. Many people, at some point in their life, have tried making some sort of "code", with a one-to-one correspondence between their symbols and their native language's letters. Read on to learn how to make a realistic script for a language.

Types of Script
There are five main types of scripts. This page lists them in order from most to least evolved. All these systems have different advantages and disadvantages, for example, the logographic writing system would be useful if a language had many different dialects, but an alphabet would be useful if you want to have a higher literacy rate among the speakers in your conlang.

 * 1) Alphabets are the type you may be more familiar with. They consist of a series of symbols, usually between 10 and 45, where each symbol represents a consonant or vowel in the language. Some may have some duplicate letters (e.g., English C, K, and Q), but these usually have some historical meaning, discussed later on. Other will have symbols for consonant clusters, such as Greek "Ξ" /ks/, Cyrillic "Ц" /ts/, or even English "X" /ks, gz/.
 * 2) Abjads, also known as Consonantal Alphabets, mark consonants but not vowels. Arabic and Hebrew are examples. While these do have a means of showing vowels, via diacritics, they usually are not shown, except in children's books, books for foreigners, or religious texts. Some, such as Phoenician, had no system for marking vowels at all! They usually contain between 15 and 35 symbols.
 * 3) Abugidas contain consonants paired with vowels that can be changed with diacritics. Hindi and many other South Asian languages are examples. Each symbol has an "inherent vowel", commonly /a/, so you have each individual symbol meaning /pa/, /ba/, /ta/, /da/, etc. The vowels can be changed or muted with diacritics. They usually contain between 30 and 60 symbols, not counting diacritics.
 * 4) Syllabaries contain different symbols for every syllable in the language, such as Amharic, Yi, or Cherokee. In other words, there is a separate syllable for /ka/, /ke/, /ki/, /ko/, etc., for each vowel and consonant. The symbols standing for the same consonant may be related (as in Ojibwe, where symbols are rotated), or may bear no resemblance to other symbols, such as in Yi or Cherokee. Syllabaries generally range in size between about 40 symbols and up to 400, with Yi being the largest standardized one, with over 800.
 * 5) Logographic systems contain symbols that represent single, or the smallest meaningful unit in language. (e.g. "hand", "-er", "un-" in English.) Many languages contain some logographic symbols, such as "1", "@", and "&", but there are some languages, such as Chinese, Japanese, ancient Egyptian, and Mayan, that use(d) logographs to represent much or all of their entire language.

Ideographic systems use one symbol for one thought or idea. Since languages aren't made up directly of thoughts and ideas, and writing systems represent language, true ideographic systems do not exist. They will be covered for the purposes of "alien" languages, though. Chinese is often described as "ideographic" — this is either just a loose use of the term to mean "logographic", or it is a misunderstanding — Chinese characters do not represent ideas directly. Japanese kanji come closer to the "ideographic" ideal, with one symbol representing any of several synonyms in context.

Alphabets
Alphabets are the dominant writing system in use in Europe and areas formerly colonized by Europe. Basically, they represent one symbol per sound, including vowel sounds.

All too often, however, alphabets, especially the Latin alphabet, are more complex. Each symbol often represents more than one sound, sometimes distinguished in the language, sometimes not. For example, English  represents /k/ and /s/,  /ks/ and /gz/ (as in e x ist), or  /a/, /A/, /{/, /O/, or /@/. The main reason for this is that the Latin alphabet was made for Latin and simply adapted for later languages. English itself had originally used a runic script, as did the Scandinavian languages. Latin written in the Latin script is entirely phonetic.

Many alphabets also have combinations of letters representing a completely different sound. These are called digraphs. In English, the main consonant digraphs are  /S/,  /tS/, and  /N/, plus many others. Diphthongs, or vowel-combinations, also occur often. English <i> represents /aj/ as well as /i/ or /I/. Some languages make use of digraphs for diphthongs, such as  for /ej/.

Note that situations like the above happen very often. As languages change, their orthography (writing system) may adapt, but not always grow to match it. Almost never does a language have letters that represent only one sound but no others. A realistic con-script should not have a direct correspondence between English and itself as well.

Diacritics are another method alphabets may use. Creating new symbols can be difficult and hard to remember, so many languages created "diacritics", or small, additional strokes, to letters to mark new sounds. The main diacritics used in Latin script languages are the acute: ' (á,é, etc., and usually mark stress), the grave (à, è, etc.), the circumflex (â, ê), the diaeresis (ä, ë), the tilde (ã, ñ, usually marking nasalization on vowels), the cedilla (ç), and many others. "Ligatures", or combinations of letters, may also be brought in, such as "æ". The symbol "&" is actually a heavily-modified ligature of  and , making "et", the Latin word for "and".

Some languages, though, do make new letters, which are often based on previous systems. Examples include the "þ" (thorn, /T/), which was derived from a rune (ᚦ) and "ð" (eth, /D/), developed in the Middle Ages, which are used in Icelandic, Old English, and several related languages.

Some letters may not make a sound themselves, but do affect other letters. For example, the Cyrillic <Ь> (soft sign) palatalizes the consonant before it. Some letters can perform both a function and a sound, such as the Russian <Я> ("ya"), which both palatalizes the previous consonant and is pronounced /a/.

There are a few scripts termed featural which tend to be similar to alphabets but show phonemic features rather than phonemes themselves. The best example is undoubtedly Korean hangul, though featural elements also occur in a few other scripts, such as Japanese hiragana and katakana, which are mostly syllabaries but take diacritics to indicate voicing.

Examples of Natlang Alphabets

 * Latin (includes English, German, French, Spanish, Romanian, Polish, Czech, Swahili, Finnish, Vietnamese, Nahuatl and many others)
 * Cyrillic (includes Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Kazakh, and several others)
 * Greek
 * Georgian
 * Armenian
 * Mongolian

Abjads
Abjads are the main writing system of the Middle East. Basically, they mark consonants in an alphabetic fashion, but vowels are not typically marked.

The Arabic and Hebrew abjads are entirely composed of consonants. Vowels can be marked, but generally aren't. Arabic has six vowel marks. Three of them, the 'short vowels', are only marked with diacritics. The other three, the 'long vowels', share symbols with some of the consonants. /a/ shares 'alif /?/, /i/ shares yaa /j/, and /u/ shares waaw /w/. When they are treated as consonants or as vowels can be more clearly seen when vowels are shown.

Arabic has an additional diacritic called the "sukuun", meaning the letter it is placed over does not have a vowel over it. If the sukuun is placed over 'alif, yaa, or waaw, they function as consonants. If there is no sukuun, but instead a vowel marker, they become long vowels. They can also become diphthongs if they have a sukuun, but the previous consonant has a vowel. So, the following form is pronounced /kaj/:

Ø a

Y K

(where Ø is the sukuun, and remember that Arabic is read from right to left).

Since vowels aren't usually marked, pronunciation has to be inferred by context. The sequence "KY" (using English order) can be pronounced:

/ kaja kajI kajV kIja kIjI kIjV kVja kVjI kVjV kaj /

Examples of Natlang Abjads

 * Arabic (including Arabic, Iranian, and Pashto)
 * Urdu
 * Hebrew (including Hebrew and Yiddish)
 * Syriac (used by modern Syriac/Aramaic)
 * Phoenician and Demotic, all extinct.

Abugidas
Abugidas are the main writing system of India, other South Asian countries, and South-East Asia. They are basically a group of syllables with a common inherent vowel, which has to be changed with diacritics.

All syllables start out with an inherent vowel, usually /a/, and a different consonant: ka, ca, t a, ta, pa, etc. These each have their own symbol. So, say you want to make the syllable . The  diacritic is then added to the  symbol, and negates the /a/. Note that in the Indian and South-East Asian languages diacritics can come before and after a letter instead of only above or below.

Hindi has diacritics for all of its vowels and diphthongs — a, e, i, o, u, r, ai, and au. But what if a word or syllable begins with a vowel? There are two ways you could potentially handle this. In most of the abugidas of Asia, there is a set of "independent vowels", which are full letters just like any of the other consonants, and their purpose is only for syllable-initial vowels.

The other way is not done in any of the South Asian abugidas, but still doable. Just make a "vowel carrier", a letter that makes no sound, but can carry vowel diacritics, like the Hebrew aleph.

Many of these abugidas also contain "Conjunct Consonants", which you don't have to do too. These are basically ligatures, where the form of two letters are combined into one "space", and they together can take a vowel. For example, when "ta" and "ka" are combined, they become "tka", which can take diacritics like any other consonant.

Examples of Natlang Abugidas

 * Devanagari, used by Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, and many other languages
 * Malayalam, used by Malayalam, Konkani, and sometimes Kodagu.
 * Bengali, used by Bengali and Assamese.
 * Gurmukhi, used by Punjabi.
 * Gujarati, used by Gujarati and Kachchi.
 * Oriya, used by Oriya and several other languages.
 * Tamil, used by the Tamil language, and sometimes for liturgical Sanskrit.
 * Sinhala, used by Sinhalese.
 * Kannada, used by Kannada and Tulu.
 * Telugu, used by Telugu.
 * Tibetan, used by Tibetan and Dzongkha
 * Thai, used by Thai, Southern Thai, and several other languages.
 * Khmer, used by Khmer and sometimes Pali.
 * Lao, used by Lao and some other languages in Laos.
 * Burmese, used by Burmese, Mon, and the Karen languages.

Syllabaries
Syllabaries are spread around the world in use. They contain separate symbols for every CV (consonant + vowel) combination in the language, although final consonants have many ways of being done.

Here is an example of a typical syllabary, romanized. This is the Cree system:

ê pê tê kê cê mê nê sê šê yê wê rê lê i pi ti ki ci mi ni si ši yi wi ri li î pî tî kî cî mî nî sî šî yî wî rî lî o po to ko co mo no so šo yo wo ro lo ô pô tô kô cô mô nô sô šô yô wô rô lô a pa ta ka ca ma na sa ša ya wa ra la â pâ tâ kâ câ mâ nâ sâ šâ yâ wâ râ lâ -h -p -t -k -c -m -n -s -š -y -w -r -l

Note that there are also symbols for the vowels alone. To make final consonants (of the CVC form), the last row of symbols, called the "Finals", are added. So, "tak" would be written with two symbols:  and <-k>. Many syllabaries use this method, and it is basically limited to languages with a small number of legal final consonants.

Another system for finals, used by the Mayan syllabary system, is the "Principle of Synharmony". This states that a final vowel is marked by reduplicating the previous vowel. For example, a word like "kalo" is done with two symbols, as usual: ka-lo. But, if you want the syllable "kal", the previous vowel is repeated: ka-la. Since the vowel was repeated, it is ignored on the second syllable. This applies for any vowel. But what if you want to make the syllable "kala"? That requires three syllables, adding in a simple vowel: ka-la-a. The second "a" is negated, but returned by the next syllable.

A third system, used by Hittite, comprised of two sets of syllables, one set in CV form, and another set in VC form. This way, when a syllable of the form C1VC2 was needed, one would write C1V-VC2, for instance, <ka><al> for "kal". Additionally, when the vowel in question needed to be made long, like "kāl", the pattern became C1V-V-VC2: <ka><a><al>. For "kala" one would simply write <ka><la> as the /l/ would move onto the next syllable.

Sometimes, though not always, syllables with a relation, such as the same consonant, look similar. For example, the syllables "ka", "ke", "ki", etc., may look similar. In systems such as in Ojibwe, the vowel signs are changed by simply rotating the symbol around.

Examples of Natlang Syllabaries

 * Cree (rotational), used by Ojibwe, Cree, Inuktitut, and many other Native American languages; collectively may be known as "Aboriginal Syllabics".
 * Cherokee
 * Ethiopian, used by Amharic, Ge'ez, Tigrinya, and several other languages
 * Katakana and Hiragana, used by Japanese
 * Yi
 * Cypriot, Linear B, and Celtiberian, all extinct

And many more systems.

Semisyllabaries
There is a set of scripts from pre-Roman Spain that sit in an intermediate category between true alphabets and syllabaries. In those scripts, the plosives combine with the following vowels in a single syllabogram — for instance, there is a single symbol for PA, another for PI, another for PE, etc. — but all other consonants and vowels also have single symbols. In such a system, for example, the phrase "barenarkenti" would be spelled with the nine symbols <ba> <r> <e> <n> <a> <r> <ke> <n> <ti>. In fact, it's likely that such systems evolved out of so-called redundant alphabets, where the stops had separate signs depending on the vowel that followed them, much like the ancient Etruscan alphabet, where the /k/ sound was written <K> before <A>, <C> before <E> or <I>, and <Q> before <U> (the Etruscan language lacked an /o/ sound).

Logographic systems
Logographic systems are/were used to write Chinese, Japanese, ancient Egyptian, Mayan, Sumerian, and many other languages. Ancient civilizations created logography first, and then evolved them into other systems.

In a pure logographic system (if there were such a thing in nature), each symbol represents a morpheme, or the smallest meaningful part of language. For example, "hand", "red", "place", "-er", "-ist", "un-" and "anti-" are all morphemes. In a logographic system, each of these would get its own symbol. As you can probably imagine, there are thousands of morphemes in most languages, and hence thousands of symbols exist in any logographic system.

These symbols are not all random. In general, symbols of words that represent visible ideas or things are often little drawings. (Remember though that writing constantly develops, so after a few thousand years, there wouldn't be too much resemblance left!) For example, words like "sun", "moon", "man", "child", "water", "fire", "left", "right", "dog", "horse", "tree", "flower", etc. are likely to be drawn as pictures.

Not all words can be drawn this way. How are you going to draw "love", or "-er", or "anti-"? Different languages had different approaches. In some cases a word with a similar pronunciation is substituted, for example, writing "ant" to mean "anti-". If you do this often enough, you're on your way to a syllabary, an abugida, or an abjad. In some cases however, another picture is drawn to "explain" the new word: for example, you might draw a spear next to "ant" to mean "anti-" — spear means you're opposed, right? In ancient Egyptian, the spear would be set aside as a separate symbol, while in Chinese the spear would be incorporated into the "ant" symbol to make a new symbol for "anti-". (This is why scripts like Egyptian are sometimes called logophonetic, a name also applied to languages using a mix of logographs and some other system.) The choice here is really up to you.

In fact, it is estimated that 90%+ of Chinese characters are formed using the above method: taking an existing symbol with a similar pronunciation, and incorporating another symbol to explain the meaning. Over time, however, these characters' shapes have fossilized, and a lot of sound and meaning changes occur, so some characters are made up of symbols that really don't represent their meanings or sounds very well any more.

The sheer size of such a system guarantees it won't be pure; bits of it, or whole sections of it, may be sliding toward some other sort of system, and different parts of it may be sliding in different directions. There will be morphemes represented by multiple symbols that don't have independent meanings, and symbols that represent multiple words.

Languages using Logographic systems

 * Chinese
 * Japanese Kanji, Korean Hanja, and Vietnamese Chu-Nom, all borrowings of Chinese logographs
 * Khitan, an extinct Altaic language of ancient northeastern Asia
 * Jurchen, the precursor to the Manchu language
 * Tangut, an ancient language of northwestern China
 * Naxi, a Burmese-Lolo language of Yunnan, China

Languages using Logophonetic systems

 * Japanese
 * Korean (mixed Hangul and Hanja form)
 * Ancient Egyptian
 * Luwian (in ancient Asia Minor)
 * Sumerian
 * Akkadian
 * Mayan
 * Zapotec
 * Mixtec
 * Aztec

Now, if you have decided what kind of writing system you want, there are three more steps left to take: Writing Direction, Script History, and Mediums of Writing. Then you can get on to the actual script-making.

Writing direction
All scripts have a certain writing direction. Latin writes from left-to-right. Hebrew and Arabic write from right-to-left. Mongolian is top-to-bottom. These are the main types of directions accounted for in real Earth scripts:

 * Left-to-Right: English, Cyrillic, Greek, and many other systems.
 * Right-to-Left: Hebrew, Arabic, Urdu, Assyrian, and several other systems.
 * Top-to-Bottom: Mongolian, and sometimes in Chinese
 * Boustrophedon: Ancient Greek

"Boustrophedon" is where on one line a text is read left-to-right, on the next right-to-left, on the next left-to-right again, and so forth.

THIS IS AN EXAMPLE ИI HƧI˩GИƎ FO BOUSTROPHEDON .Ǝ˩YTƧ

Note that in Ancient Greek, a Boustrophedon language, sometimes the letters would literally be flipped over when reading in the other direction. So, for example, the Greek letter  ('digamma') would be  when read left-to-right, but the prongs would face left when reading right-to-left.

If you would like to stick with one of the above methods, go ahead. Most scripts use them. A few more complex systems are described below:

Some scripts can be written in many directions, that is, left-to-right, right-to-left, and top-to-bottom are all acceptable. Chinese and Ancient Egyptian do/did this. In Ancient Egyptian, all of the hieroglyphs with a face would face toward the direction in which to start reading. So, if you were reading right-to-left, all of the hieroglyphs that had a face (or a discernible front side) would 'face' right. In Chinese, it must be determined by context.

Another system is the "Rotational" system, a very rare one. As far as we've heard, only one script ever used it, (the Easter Island script). It is similar to boustrophedon, except that the letters also rotate 180 degrees after each line! If you rotate the reading board around after each line, they would look normal. Here is an example of this using English letters:

Some other ideas that, so far as we've heard, have not yet been used:

 * Spiraling in or out
 * Writing in clockwise or counterclockwise circles, rotating each character as you write; essentially left to right or right to left but with each sentence on a separate ring outside the last.
 * Vertexual; each part of the sentence is on its own line, which points towards a vertex that the entire sentence converges at.

Script history
Scripts are not static. They change constantly, just as language does. Compare writing like Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics and modern Latin script. Believe it or not, modern Latin script ultimately derives from Proto-Sinaitic, a small collection of Egyptian hieroglyphs. These hieroglyphs were later adopted into Phoenician, where they were drastically simplified and each assigned a single sound. Through heavy contact with the Phoenicians, soon the Greeks adopted their alphabet, but changed some of their consonant letters, representing sounds that don't exist in Greek, into the Greek vowel signs. Sometime, though we're not entirely sure why, Greek started being written in boustrophedon instead of right-to-left, and then ultimately stuck with left-to-right. When this switch occurred, all of the letters were 'flipped' over horizontally, giving the modern-day Greek alphabet. Then the Etruscans and Latins in the Italian peninsula adopted the Greek alphabet with minor modifications, the Latin one ultimately becoming the script now used throughout most of Europe. Cyrillic script also came from Greek, after the Russians' conversion to Orthodox Christianity, and after about 1,000 years of change, the modern Cyrillic alphabet came to be.

In Proto-Sinaitic and Phoenician the letter stood for the glottal stop /?/, but Greek lacked this sound, so it became /a/.

"A" originally started out as 'aleph, the ox. Later the body disappeared, leaving only the head. Then the head was simplified to a simple line, leaving the most distinctive parts (the horns) intact. Eventually the horns pierced the line, and the letter flipped on its side in Phoenician. In Greek, it was flipped again, and after several lines were trimmed down, it became the modern Latin/Greek/Cyrillic "A".

Note the change of complexity. Early writing is almost guaranteed to be some sort of picture-writing like hieroglyphics, where each symbol represents exactly what it looks like. But, as time goes on and writing spreads, for many this just became pointless complexity. The symbols start to simplify and sometimes turn into alphabets. When one literate people start to trade with an illiterate one, their writing system has a very good opportunity to spread. Sometimes one script wins over another. For example, in ancient India, there were two main scripts used: Brahmi and Kharosthi, but Kharosthi fell out of use and now all of the major scripts of India and parts of South-East Asia are descended from it.

Sometimes the early pictographic systems never simplify that much. In the Ancient Chinese writing, the characters did change, but many did not simplify as significantly as the Proto-Sinaitic ones. The modern Chinese logographic system is still very complex. The major reform in 1949 was instituted by the Chinese government.

One thing to note is the diversity of scripts in Europe compared to South-East Asia. Almost all of Europe uses Latin script or Cyrillic script, but in South-East Asia every country has at least one of its own scripts. This was probably because of the Roman Empire. The Romans unified most of Europe and had their script well established before they fell, and their script stayed. Such an empire did not exist in South-East Asia, leading to the vast diversity of scripts. So, basically, the ancient hieroglyphic systems simplify when they are no longer only for priestly use, and therefore can be abbreviated. For the common person, carefully elaborating each symbol is just a major waste of time. This is still true today, to a lesser extent, but that is where cursive came from. Even the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs had heavily-reduced forms, known as "Demotic", and this was used by the common person. You can see demotic, for example, in the middle section of the (image at right).

Here's a link to a good chart (external to wikimedia) showing the evolution of a single symbol through the South-East Asian languages:

Medium of Writing
The surface upon which a script is written actually does influence the script a great deal. When carved into stone, such as in the Fuþark or other Runic scripts, the letters tend to be very angular and composed of straight lines. Curves are harder to do in stone than on paper. Also, despite being carved on stone in the Rosetta Stone, the Egyptian Demotic script is much more 'fluid' than the hieroglyphs, and it generally was written on papyrus.

The ancient Sumerians wrote on clay, using a reed stylus to impress symbols on it. This also gives it a very unique look. This type of writing is known as "Cuneiform".

Some modern languages, such as, retain their unique scripts from the past. The rounded shape of Burmese stems from the fact that it was originally written on palm leaves, which would tear if there were too many straight lines.

In the mixed-case systems of Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts (meaning there is both an "upper-case" (majuscule) and a "lower-case" (minuscule)), the lower-case forms came from cursive versions of the capital letters.

Now, if you have thought about your script and chosen a script type, writing direction, and a medium, now you are ready to create your own script.

title: Conlang/Intermediate/Writing


text:
User:AdenosineTriphosphate

Hi, I'm adenosine Triphosphate (a.k.a ATP) and I am interested in math and sciences. I can help with any topic in biology and math (up to calc II) so far.

title: User:AdenosineTriphosphate


text:
Isuzu Motors Saudi Arabia

Isuzu Motors Saudi Arabia Company Limited is a commercial vehicle manufacturer and dealer based in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. It is a joint venture between Isuzu (99%) and Isuzu Motors Asia (1%).

History
The first concrete plans for this project can be traced back to 2007, but a corresponding declaration of intent and the establishment of the company were delayed until 2011 due to the Great Recession. At the end of 2012, the plant was opened in the presence of the Saudi Arabian Minister of Economics. It is the first complete production plant for Japanese trucks in the Gulf region.

The company has more than 100 employees. The theoretical capacity is 3000 units. Despite a planned capacity expansion to 25,000 copies at the time of opening, around 2000 and 1700 vehicles were produced in 2016 and 2017 respectively.

Models
The F series is produced by Isuzu Motors Saudi Arabia.

title: Isuzu Motors Saudi Arabia


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/2seasonshotels.com

Links

 * 2seasonshotels.com resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is globally blacklisted by \b2seasonshotels\.com\b
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is globally blacklisted by \b2seasonshotels\.com\b

Additions

 * Displayed all 7 additions.


text:
Instructional design/Psychomotor behaviors

Welcome!
We envision this Wiki learning module as a paradigm designed by a team of educated and experienced instructional designers for other education professionals. Our mission is to provide teachers and instructional designer with the theories, information, and tools to improve the quality of learning.

We hope this web page will be helpful. Please let us know how this web site works for you. We look forward to hearing your comments!

Module Goal
Training developers will be able to create and/or select instructional strategies for teaching specific psychomotor topics. Additionally, they will be able to effectively and correctly evaluate different methods and strategies within the psychomotor domain, and will be able to decide which training or instructional options would be the best option to meet very specific training goals within the domain. The result shall be an instructional unit that is efficient, effective, and appealing.

Psychomotor Instructional Strategies Lessons
Click a lesson title to begin that lesson.
 * 1) Introduction to the Psychomotor Behaviors
 * 2) Psychomotor Behaviors in Practice
 * 3) Self Talk in Psychomotor Skills
 * 4) Strategies in Psychomotor Assessment


text:
Talk:General Relativity

Please Read Before Making Any Serious Changes/Overhauls
 * Notes to GR editors
 * Standardizing notation

 * Where to put covariant derivative?

 * Intro to Tensors Section

 * IMPORTANT-Please read!

Hi folks. I think this would be great as a one-stop shop for general relativity info. There are actually a fair number of resources online for GR, but they're scattered and sometimes hard to find. In the textbook I'd like there to be a fairly good solid online/offline bibliography to help folks find those resources.

As for the text itself, I'm still sketching out an outline that might work. There's the obvious stuff, both mathematical - parallel transport, tensors, etc. - and physical - Einstein Cand Ricci tensors, etc. - but how much detail do you think is appropriate? I don't want to go the way of Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler's famous tome, but nor do I want to be as sketchy as many of the online intros are. Suggestions warmly welcomed.

--George McAllister 02:23, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I am the original designer of this Wikibook, and would like to revive it if possible. Go to "IMPORTANT-Please read!" section above; I have posted my intention to revive the text in that section.

-blathem

So, here goes: when there is a moon in the rings of Saturn, there is a stripe around the entire ring. That moon is orbiting at a different speed from the moonlets. Thus Einstein's equivalence principle is disproved. Instead of warped space-time causing gravity, gravity causes warped space-time. In the atom, when the electron curves it radiates which causes it to slow down. There is an energy-producing system that replaces the lost energy, and it burns space-time as a fuel. The inflow of space-time is gravity. <IP_ADDRESS>

 * I would oppose any change of this nature. Relativity has stood the test of time, and it will take more than vaguely worded claims of unclear relevance to shake it. Reyk (discuss • contribs) 18:41, 31 March 2015 (UTC)

A generalization of the Einstein-Maxwell equations
I think the solutions I have obtained will be of interest to readers of this wikibook. Since I am the author, I cannot make any related edits. The article has been published open access CC BY 4.0. Cotton, F.W. A generalization of the Einstein–Maxwell equations. ''Eur. Phys. J. Plus'' 136, 162 (2021).

https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01115-6 <IP_ADDRESS> (discuss) 19:53, 30 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:General Relativity


text:
Military Miniatures

Military Miniatures is a book by Simon Goodenough published in 1977.

Contents
Military Miniatures is a book about miniatures including their history, information about collecting them, how to assemble miniatures kits, techniques for painting them, how to do conversions of miniatures, building dioramas, as well as moulding and casting miniatures.

Reception
C. Ben Ostrander reviewed Military Miniatures in The Space Gamer No. 18. Ostrander commented that "The book is highly recommended to the novice and old pro alike. If nothing else, the great photos show what can be done with a little time and effort."

Reviews

 * Campaigns: An International Magazine of Military Miniatures
 * Craft, Model, and Hobby Industry Magazine

title: Military Miniatures


text:
Cocoa Programming/Memory management

Someone, please fix this page

Dynamic allocation
In Objective-C (unlike in C++), all objects are created dynamically. This means that they continue to exist until they are explicitly destroyed.

To create an object, send its class an alloc message: [aClass alloc];. Note that this returns a new instance of the class but does not initialize its data. Typically you want to immediately send the new object an init message to remedy this. Allocation and initialization are usually combined in one line:

aClass *newobj = [[aClass alloc] init];

There is a class method called new which allocates and provides a bare-bones initialization of the object, but has been deprecated in favor of alloc and init.

Reference counts
In C++, every dynamically created object needs to be explicitly deleted (using the delete operator). In Java, every dynamically created object (that is, every object) will be automatically deleted when the garbage collector detects that the object is no longer referenced. In Objective-C neither of these approaches is used.

An Objective-C object keeps a reference count. When an object is created, its reference count is initialized to 1. When the reference count reaches zero, the object will self-destruct.

Release
To tell an object that you will no longer use it, send it a <tt>release</tt> message: "<tt>[anObject release];</tt>". This decrements the object's reference count by one. If you were the last user of the object, the object will destroy itself.

After sending <tt>release</tt> to an object it is not safe to use that object anymore since the object may have self-destroyed.

Retain
When you want to retain an object, i.e. prevent it from disappearing, send it a <tt>retain</tt> message: "<tt>[anObject retain];</tt>". Note that you should not send a retain message to an object you have created with an <tt>alloc</tt> message, because <tt>alloc</tt> always implies <tt>retain</tt>. Therefore, <tt>retain</tt> is only needed, if you need to use an object that is created elsewhere (and will be sent the <tt>release</tt> message from there when it's not needed in that part of the program anymore).

Equilibrium
Every <tt>retain</tt> needs to be matched by one and only one <tt>release</tt>. Note that the <tt>new</tt>, <tt>alloc</tt>, <tt>copy</tt>, and <tt>mutableCopy</tt> methods also implicitly <tt>retain</tt> the returned object, so those methods also need to be balanced with <tt>release</tt>.

Autorelease pool
Sometimes an object cannot be released immediately: for example, a function creates an object and wants to return it to the caller. Now, the callee should release the object it has created and won't be using anymore. However, the caller need to get access to the returned object. If the callee would <tt>release</tt> the created object, the caller would never see the return value. One solution is to skip releasing the object in the callee and demand that the caller will release it. This is error-prone and breaks the principle of "match every retain with one release".

In Objective-C/OpenStep runtime, it is possible to send an object an <tt>autorelease</tt> message. This will cause the object to be added to the current autorelease pool. Objects in an autorelease pool will be released at some point in the future (when the current autorelease pool is destroyed). They are safe to use prior to that.

If the caller wants to keep the returned object, it must <tt>retain</tt> it. Otherwise, the object will be automatically released. Example:

title: Cocoa Programming/Memory management


text:
Talk:Brandon Decker

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 one external links on Brandon Decker. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110914045526/http://www.yabyummusic.com:80/2011/bands/decker-longasthenight.html to http://www.yabyummusic.com/2011/bands/decker-longasthenight.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111008050603/http://www.flaglive.com/flagstafflive_story.cfm?storyID=226022 to http://www.flaglive.com/flagstafflive_story.cfm?storyID=226022

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:07, 7 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Brandon Decker


text:
Xerothamnella

Xerothamnella is a genus of flowering plants in the family Acanthaceae, native to Queensland, Australia. A molecular study shows that it is nested within Peristrophe.

Species
Currently accepted species include:

 * Xerothamnella herbacea R.M.Barker
 * Xerothamnella parvifolia C.T.White

title: Xerothamnella


text:
User:Ltblood/Books/OPS

and Related almost everythig related

 * Philip Agee
 * James Jesus Angleton
 * Robert Baer
 * Milton Bearden
 * Otto von Bolschwing
 * Miles Copeland, Jr.
 * Gerry Droller
 * List of American spies
 * Yosef Amit
 * April Fool (spy)
 * George Bacon (CIA officer)
 * Josephine Baker
 * Tracy Barnes
 * Haji Bashar
 * Mike Beaver (FBI agent)
 * Gary Berntsen
 * Richard M. Bissell, Jr.
 * Cofer Black
 * Mary Bowser
 * Belle Boyd
 * Nelson Brickham
 * William F. Buckley, Jr.
 * William Francis Buckley
 * Career of Richard Helms
 * William J. Casey
 * Juanita Castro
 * Charlotte Hatfield
 * Julia Child
 * Duane Clarridge
 * Thomas G. Clines
 * Charles Cogan
 * Brandon Darby
 * Larry Devlin
 * Nancy Hart Douglas
 * Hilaire du Berrier
 * Allen Dulles
 * Eufrosina Dvoichenko-Markov
 * William A. Eddy
 * Sarah Emma Edmonds
 * Jacob Esterline
 * Alan Fiers
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 * Porter Goss
 * Rose O'Neal Greenhow
 * Robert Grenier (CIA)
 * Virginia Hall
 * Marguerite Harrison
 * Howard Hart
 * William King Harvey
 * Gardner Hathaway
 * Jack Hawkins (U.S. Marine Corps officer)
 * Richard Helms
 * E. Howard Hunt
 * William Harding Jackson
 * Jessie Scouts
 * Ishmael Jones
 * René Joyeuse
 * Mohammad Khaksar
 * J.C. King
 * Thomas Knowlton
 * Larry J. Kolb
 * Fritz Kolbe
 * Emilio Kosterlitzky
 * Ryszard Kukliński
 * Lawrence A. Corcoran
 * Gertrude Sanford Legendre
 * Katrina Leung
 * William Alvin Lloyd
 * Lily Mackall
 * Douglas Mackiernan
 * Alice Marble
 * Victor Marchetti
 * Frederick Mayer (spy)
 * George Mayfield
 * John A. McCone
 * James W. McCord, Jr.
 * Ralph McGehee
 * Elizabeth Peet McIntosh
 * Richard J. Meadows
 * Cord Meyer
 * Ali Mohamed
 * Vladimiro Montesinos
 * David Sánchez Morales
 * Lindsay Moran
 * Arturo Munoz (intelligence)
 * Operation 40
 * Jerzy Pawłowski
 * Jose Sanjenis Perdomo
 * David Atlee Phillips
 * Valerie Plame
 * Edmond Pope
 * Rafael Quintero
 * Mircea Răceanu
 * Hugh Francis Redmond
 * Félix Rodríguez (soldier)
 * Jose Rodriguez (intelligence officer)
 * Rolando Sarraff Trujillo
 * Glen Roy Rohrer
 * Lola Sánchez (Confederate spy)
 * Gary Schroen
 * Winston M. Scott
 * Sharon Scranage
 * Barry Seal
 * Consuelo Seoane
 * Theodore Shackley
 * John K. Singlaub
 * James J. Smith
 * Frank Snepp
 * John Stockwell
 * Henry Strasak
 * Frank Sturgis
 * Joseph Cheesman Thompson
 * Peter Tompkins
 * Loreta Janeta Velázquez
 * Victor Kaliadin
 * Mary Edwards Walker
 * Andrew Warren
 * Billy Waugh
 * Richard Welch
 * John Whitten
 * Donald Wilber
 * Edwin P. Wilson
 * Frank Wisner
 * Alexander Zaporozhsky
 * Daniel Zaret
 * Central Intelligence Agency
 * Abu Omar case
 * Acoustic Kitty
 * Air Bridge Denial Program
 * Albanian Subversion
 * MS Alfhem
 * Allegations of CIA drug trafficking
 * American Committee on United Europe
 * SS Aquila (1940)
 * Argo 16
 * SS Armonia (1924)
 * Project ARTICHOKE
 * Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro
 * Battalion 3-16 (Honduras)
 * Battle of Luang Namtha
 * Bay of Pigs Invasion
 * William Beale (aviator)
 * Canadian Caper
 * 1973 Chilean coup d'état
 * Church Committee
 * CIA Tibetan program
 * CIA transnational anti-terrorism activities
 * Civilian Irregular Defense Group program
 * Project COLDFEET
 * Contras
 * Covert United States foreign regime change actions
 * Cuban Project
 * MV Daronia
 * Disposition Matrix
 * Edgewood Arsenal human experiments
 * Khalid El-Masri
 * European Youth Campaign
 * Executive actions of the CIA
 * Extraordinary rendition
 * Extraordinary repatriation
 * Farewell Dossier
 * SS Flying Lark
 * Project FUBELT
 * Gladio in Italy
 * Operation Gold
 * Greystone (CIA operation)
 * Habbush letter
 * HTLINGUAL
 * 1953 Iranian coup d'état
 * 1989 Jamba Hercules crash
 * Project Azorian
 * JMWAVE
 * Joint Advisory Commission, Korea
 * Death of Osama bin Laden
 * Lao Veterans of America
 * Laotian Civil War
 * Operation Merlin
 * Project MERRIMAC
 * Project MKDELTA
 * Project MKNAOMI
 * Project MKUltra
 * Operation Mockingbird
 * Operation Mongoose
 * Battle of Nam Bac
 * National Security Archive
 * Operation CHAOS
 * Operation Charly
 * Operation Cyclone
 * Operation IA Feature
 * Operation Kufire
 * Operation Kugown
 * Operation Matador (1975)
 * Operation MIAS
 * Operation Midnight Climax
 * Operation Momentum
 * Operation Pincushion
 * Operation Washtub (Nicaragua)
 * Operation PBFORTUNE
 * PBHistory
 * 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état
 * Phoenix Program
 * Plausible deniability
 * Allen Lawrence Pope
 * Premier Executive Transport Services
 * Project CHATTER
 * Project Dark Gene
 * Project MKCHICKWIT
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 * Psychic driving
 * Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare
 * Rendition (law)
 * Rendon Group
 * SS San Flaviano
 * Siberian pipeline sabotage
 * SS Springfjord
 * Stargate Project
 * Subproject 22
 * Table of organization and equipment for an ADC company
 * Tepper Aviation
 * United States and state-sponsored terrorism
 * United States intervention in Chile
 * Vang Pobzeb
 * Code name
 * List of Apple codenames
 * Operation Anadyr
 * Operation Anthropoid
 * Opération Baliste
 * Operation Barbarossa
 * Operation Barclay
 * Project Big Ben
 * Operation Bumblebee
 * Project Camel
 * Cargo 200 (code name)
 * Chagai-I
 * Chagai-II
 * Operation CHASE
 * CIA cryptonym
 * Operation Clausewitz
 * Code name Geronimo controversy
 * COINTELPRO
 * Operation Crossbow
 * Operation Crossroads
 * Cub-1
 * Opération Daguet
 * Operation Desert Storm
 * List of code names in the Doctrine and Covenants
 * Operation Dominic
 * Operation Enduring Freedom
 * Operation Fair Play
 * Fat Man
 * Field Information Agency; Technical (FIAT)
 * Operation Flagpole (World War II)
 * Operation Flax
 * Operation Frankton
 * Operationsbefehl Hartmut
 * Operation Houndsworth
 * Operation Iceberg
 * List of Intel codenames
 * Operation Jubilee
 * Operation Just Cause
 * List of computer technology code names
 * List of Microsoft codenames
 * Little Boy
 * Manhattan Project
 * Operation Market Garden
 * Operation Mincemeat
 * NATO reporting name
 * List of Nintendo codenames
 * Northrop Tacit Blue
 * Operation Kingpin (World War II)
 * Operation Paperclip
 * Operation Overlord
 * Palace Chase
 * Operation Peppermint
 * Pokhran-II
 * PROFUNC
 * Project National Glory
 * Project Simoom
 * Project-706
 * Battle of the Mareth Line
 * List of Rainbow Codes
 * Operation Red Dog
 * Operation Reinhard
 * Operation Retribution (1943)
 * Operation Sandblast
 * Operation Sea Orbit
 * Secret identity
 * Secret Service codename
 * Smiling Buddha
 * Sonderaktion 1005
 * Operation Spring
 * Tempest (codename)
 * Thin Man (nuclear bomb)
 * Trinity (nuclear test)
 * Triplex (espionage)
 * Tsūshōgō
 * Tube Alloys
 * USAF/DoD reporting names
 * Weingut I
 * Operation Weserübung
 * Federal government of the United States
 * Black site
 * Ain Aouda secret prison
 * Black jail
 * Bright Light (CIA)
 * Camp Eggers
 * Camp Nama
 * Camp No
 * Dark prison
 * Diego Garcia
 * Mihail Kogălniceanu International Airport
 * Olsztyn-Mazury Regional Airport
 * Salt Pit
 * Stare Kiejkuty (base)
 * Temara interrogation centre

title: User:Ltblood/Books/OPS


text:
Old Glory, Tennessee

Old Glory is an unincorporated community in Blount County, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.

History
A gas station owner who painted his building the colors of Old Glory caused the surrounding community's name to be adopted.

title: Old Glory, Tennessee


text:
Talk:Mon kingdoms

Lines of Mon monarchs
I just realized that there really are more lines of Mon monarchs than the early modern one in lower Burma (c. 1287-1539). There's also Haripunchai. These can be added to this page later, if someone wants or if I get to that point. This table serves as a to do list of monarchs to write articles for, everyone that doesn't have a link.

I guess "Ramanya" or "Ramannadesa" is good, but the name that this kingdom used to refer to iself should really be used. Perhaps Mon inscriptions would answer this question, better look at Shorto's dictionary of Mon inscriptions. "Monarchs" seems to be a Wikipedia standard.(Jonfernquest 15:43, 11 August 2006 (UTC))

Title
I think we should write about History of Mon people rather than Mon kingdoms only. Soewinhan (talk) 13:00, 9 December 2010 (UTC)
 * You may want to start with the history section of the Mon people article. It provides a good overview but can definitely use a rewrite. (I wrote much of the lead but haven't had time to redo the rest.) Also, the article is very thin--there's little else outside the history. The culture section has just a few sentences. If you are knowledgeable about Mon culture, and have good references (Burmese language books are fine), please contribute. Look up Nai Pan Hla's books on Mon culture and history. Hybernator (talk) 04:08, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

Micheal Aung Thwin's argument
I don't know who is he. But, I think his argument in relationship with delta sedimentation is flawed indeed. There are self-evident truths that several inscriptions can be found today (including those I put in the article). Kyansittha's marriage with Khin Oo is not just a legend. Myazedi inscription is an evident. (Of course, no body could create thousands of inscriptions and chronicles to make a legend)

Overall, it's all depend on the premise that delta sedimentation is at a certain rate, which itself not the case. Sedimentation depends on topography, soil conditions of the upper river, amount of sedimentation itself, and storms and weather conditions which make it difficult to predict across the ages.

I won't remove his argument (without consensus). But I think removing it is better. Soewinhan (talk) 20:35, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I added the piece which you have since modified. Michael Aung Thwin is a historian of Myanmar/Burma (Pagan specialist), from the University of Hawaii (I believe). As far as I know, he's one of the few that has done painstakingly detailed research on the Pagan era. His assertions are certainly in the minority because they are quite new. But Victor Lieberman, one of the foremost authorities on Burmese history today, accepts much of Aung-Thwin's arguments.

 * His argument is not that the Mon did not exist but that the influence of the Mon has been exaggerated. Or at least not backed by evidence. Of course, the mainstream opinion (which Aung Thwin calls the "Mon paradigm") is still that the Mon were a major influence on the culture of Upper Burma (which I personally still ascribe to). However, one has to keep an open mind when someone like Aung-Thwin, who has done the grunt work, puts forth a bold new theory. Especially because he is half-Mon (from his father's side); he stated that he started out his research to prove the Mon paradigm but just couldn't find any evidence for it.

 * Another thing to keep in mind is that our national cultural memory (like many other national myths) is shaped by legends. It's important to keep an open mind, especially when the likes of Lieberman and Aung-Thwin question it. Hybernator (talk) 23:40, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Btw, the Rakhine History article is another one, just parroting their national cultural memory without including any modern research. Let's try to make Burma-related articles as sound as possible. Hybernator (talk) 23:48, 12 January 2011 (UTC)
 * It may be a legend. But, lack of evidence of script prior to Anawrahta invasion directly supports that upper Burma may have taken script from lower Burma (since the script is the same). Until evidence of writing from upper Burma (prior to Anawrahta invasion) has been uncovered, Micheal Aung Thwin's assertion will largely remain as a hypothesis rather than a discovery. Soewinhan (talk) 05:04, 20 January 2011 (UTC)
 * I'm with you as far as the Mon script being the source of the Burmese script. Mon is also considered the source of Lan Na script. The earliest evidence of Burmese script is 1058, just a year after the Thaton conquest. It's too coincidental not to be. But his thesis is just more than the script. He's questioned the prevailing wisdom that the Mon of Lower Burma provided much of the civilization of Upper Burma. He argues that the existing evidence points the source to the Pyu, not the Mon. Although I don't agree with with his assertions wholesale, they do appear to be based on well-researched theses, and have been accepted by at least one renown historian of Burma. But, of course, we need more Burmese language educated historians to verify Aung-Thwin's thesis in particular, but also understand more about Burmese history than what the chronicles say or what the colonial era historians say. Be sceptical but keep an open mind.Hybernator (talk) 20:56, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

Aung-Thwin part 2
Why has someone gone around posting the same blocks of text on several Mon-related articles? It comes across as a bit of a political campaign. More to the point, it doesn't add to the overall quality of articles about Mon stuff. If we're going to have an article, let's have a merged comprehensive one, rather than a plethora of little ones where some fan of "Michael Aung-Thwin" has gone around copypasting the same block of text with references to him - I've seen three instances so far, it's lazy to say the least; moreover, it doesn't add to the overall body of knowledge on the subject. There must be more researchers on this subject in the world whose take on things can be brought into the article. macdaddy

 * Since you're the same IP from the Jinakalamali page, look at my response at the talk page of Jinakalamali . As discussed on that page, Aung-Thwin's views are certainly *a* mainstream, if not the prevalent, view among the modern-day scholarship. I agree that more research is needed. Unfortunately, Pagan and pre-Pagan scholars are few and far between. (As of 2005, there had been just five PhDs worldwide whose dissertation papers were on Pagan. Ever!) Burma studies is still largely stuck on the theories/conjectures from the colonial times. If you can find other (ideally, peer-reviewed) sources, feel free to add. Btw, before accusing someone of a political campaign, do a bit more research beyond whatever Google spits out on the first page. Thank you. Hybernator (talk) 15:15, 2 August 2015 (UTC)

Aung-Thwin part 3
Thank you for the above discussion. I can claim to be a sort of expert on 15th century Myanmar history with several long published papers in peer-reviewed journals and frequently cited in Myanmar history Wikipedia articles (e.g. []). Michael Aung-Thwin (MAT) cites and uses my narratives in his 'Myanmar in the Fifteenth Century: A Tale of Two Kingdoms' and a 2018 Siam Society article on Tai history uses my narratives as a main source.

As mentioned, the issues of where one would do a PhD on this topic or publish on it are real. Deep scholarly engagement with historical sources by scholars with the necessary linguistic skills is lacking. The most primary sources which would be their focus are, however, the right place to begin. This largely means 'chronicle narratives' since 'epigraphy' is lacking. However, many would not consider these chronicle sources primary sources at all since they are, following the tradition of Pali and Sanskrit literature, literary embellishments of history (cf the very similar Kashmiri chronicle tradition in Sanskrit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajatarangini).

The work of Michael Aung-Thwin (MAT) consists of a far-reaching critique of the meager historical sources available, generating speculative theories in the process. Many, if not most, of the primary sources MAT employs are not publicly available in translation. This is a problem. For Razadarit Ayeidawpon, for instance, there is a rough translation manuscript, but you would have to go to the stacks of Chulalongkorn Library or the Siam Society to find it, which is where I found it, definitely an informal and very rough translation, but always cited in my works. For the Burmese chronicle, I have my own rough translation that I have used in the past and there is also one cited in Strong's 'Relics of the Buddha' (2004). And the manuscript of Shorto's translation of the most important Mon chronicle was handed out by a prominent scholar to other scholars with a promise not to share the original manuscript. An improved version by prominent Mon scholars was going to published about a decade ago but in the end never appeared.

In short, all the important sources that should be cited by wikipedia articles such as this one are not publicly available. A lot of this stems from western academia favoring PhD work that can be transformed into tenure-achieving monographs, while not valuing scholarly translation. This is not true in all scholarly domains however. Sanskrit and Pali studies have always prioritized close commentary on original texts.

Advances in natural language processing in AI (e.g. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BERT_(language_model)) have made machine translation a lot more accurate and this should eventually help a lot with scholarly translations. For example, yesterday I stepped through the online copy of the Thai Razadarit epic at the Thai National Library getting a rough translation just by using the Google Translate browser plugin I already had installed. This at least allows comparison with the Burmese and Mon versions and would be an substantial start for any scholarly translation.

I will be contributing to Myanmar history pages. For starters, I will try to share the informal translation sources mentioned (at least on my Google Drive) that should be the first source used and cited before speculative work by MAT (which uses these sources). There is also important work to be added such as current archival manuscript work in Thailand by a researcher focusing on Pali verions of the Razadarit epic. I will help with editorial comments when I see places for improvement or innaccuracies (I had editorial responsibilities at the Bangkok Post for a decade). In the process, I will always provide citations and adhere to the high Wikipedia standards. As my ethnomusicology professor at University of Hawaii used to say, Wikipedia is the best original source for info nowadays in many disciplines. One can no longer dismiss it as scholars once did. Cheers. Yggdrasil1001 — Preceding undated comment added 04:41, 8 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mon kingdoms


text:
Talk:Blues basics

Question of Clarity
What do these symbols represent? Roman Letters? I IV I IV I V IV I  I understand the letter sequence of notes E, A, E, A, E, B, A, E.    So is it a cycling pattern sequence of 1, 4, 1, 4, 1, 5, 4, 1 where 1 is E then up three notes a,b,c,d,e,f,g,a so Chord C is 3=C, 4+3=7=G, C, G, C, 5+3=8=A, G, C  so a C Chord is  C,G,C,G,C,A,G,C? Mirwin 22:58, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

 * The Roman numerals represent chord progressions. They are the degrees of the diatonic scale. I is a chord built based on the tonic of a given scale. Similarly, IV represents a subdominant chord. You can use these numbers like this:

 * For example, suppose your key signature is D major. The notes would be
 * D - tonic (I)
 * E - supertonic (II)
 * F# - mediant (III)
 * G - subdominant (IV)
 * A - dominant (V)
 * B - submediant (VI)
 * C# - leading note (VII)
 * D - tonic (I)

 * A simple I chord (or "tonic chord") could consist of the notes D, F# and A. Note that these are made up of the 1st, 3rd, and 5th (I, III, V) degrees of the scale. Similarly, the IV chord would be made of the 4, 6, 8th notes of the scale, which would be G, B and D. Well...the 8th note is really the first note...but this makes it simple to explain.

 * To play the same chord progressions in C major, I would be the C chord, IV would be the F chord, V would be the G chord. To figure these out, you can count like this:

 * C - (I)
 * D - (II)
 * E - (III)
 * F - (IV)
 * G - (V)
 * A - (VI)
 * B - (VII)
 * C - (I)

 * My suggestion for figuring out the chords is first to identify the notes in the scale, and the count from the tonic note in order to determine which notes are part of the chord. Hope this helps! --HappyCamper 03:30, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually, I should mention that the first chord being E is significant: the lowest note on the guitar is an E. Not only this, it is also an open note, so it resonates quite well, and helps to bring out the blues. --HappyCamper 23:55, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Audio resources
I started recording some Blues basics using Audacity, a guitar (Ibanez acoustic), a tamborine and finally a software drum machine. I emulated a base by playing the bass line on guitar and halving the frequency using Audacity's "pitch" control. I started out with a very "standard" 12-bar arrangment:
 * - I talk out the chords, E, A, and B7 while my "sidekick" reiterates for clarity. We do one round.
 * - I started this by making a stereo drum track (pain in the neck) with Hydrogen and export/import into Audacity. Then put in the bass, a light rythem, heavy rythem, and a very loose lead - all on the Ibanez. Finally I add a tamborine with an "air mix" to give a live raucus sound.

These were quite a bit of work but I "learned by doing" and it was exciting and fun. I hope you like them and look forward to making some collaborative pieces. Maybe I can make some other tracks with just a couple of tracks and someone else can add parts. Let me know how ya'll would like to move forward. --CQ 08:20, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Very nice clips :-) Let me comment on the second recording first. The guitar part sounds improvised...some things:
 * You seem to have a very intuitive feel for how 7th chords relate to each other
 * Measured use of chromaticism...tastefully done :-)
 * The one triplet inserted in there was quite creative
 * Pitchwise, it's slightly too loose for my taste, but it's relaxed
 * The first bar is quite nice...the repeated Es in the base announce "here I am! listen to me!!"
 * The guitar line can be brought out a little more - the bass is a little overpowering
 * The last chord has a very nostalgic feel to it, which I like.
 * I've got a little challenge for you...see if you can use more C#, G#, F# and Fs in the guitar part. I picked these notes because they don't show up quite as often as the others. Also, try, make the baseline more interesting by experimenting with chord inversions. That's all for now. --HappyCamper 23:05, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I liked these clips a lot - but am slightly in awe of HappyCamper's musical ear! I just thought they were "kinda cool" :-) Cormaggio beep 23:48, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I can't wait to listen to CQ's next set of music clips!! --HappyCamper 19:04, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

Wishlist
We need an easy way of sharing musical scores here...ideas anyone? --HappyCamper 23:14, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Interesting - are you talking here about existing musical scores, or a way of writing out notation for others to play around with? If the latter, it can be done - see Music markup. If the former, they of course need to be outside of copyright - see eg. Project Gutenberg's sheet music project. Cormaggio beep 23:48, 15 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Music markup is what I'm looking for!! But it doesn't seem to work here though. Do we just do this on our computers locally, and then upload the images here? --HappyCamper 00:14, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * That's strange - but it seems to be based on TeX, which I seem to recall others having trouble with here on Wikiversity. I'll ask around.. Cormaggio beep 01:03, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * JWSchmidt has demoed pretty scoring capability but I think it with Mac. I we have someone with Mac willing with propor software, we could scan handscored music blank paper to them,  they can probably post blank sheet we can print and annotate, if we work neatly enough the scanned image will be useable just obviously scanned handwork.  <IP_ADDRESS> 09:41, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blues basics


text:
Live! (Scott Henderson album)

Live! is a 2005 live album by fusion / jazz guitarist Scott Henderson. It's a double-CD, recorded at the La Vee club in Los Angeles, mixed by Michael Landau. The album features live-versions of songs from Henderson's previous solo-releases and songs by his fusion-band Tribal Tech

Track listing
CD1:
 * 1) "Slidin'" – 7:27
 * 2) "Well To The Bone" – 4:08
 * 3) "Sultan's Boogie" – 7:26
 * 4) "Xanax" – 6:25
 * 5) "Lady P" – 7:55
 * 6) "Jakarta" – 7:26
 * 7) "Tacos Are Good" – 5:38

CD2:
 * 1) "Dog Party" – 9:20
 * 2) "Fee Fi Fo Fum" – 8:58
 * 3) "Meter Maid" – 4:52
 * 4) "Nairobe Express" – 12:27
 * 5) "Devil Boy" – 7:51
 * 6) "Hillbilly In The Band" – 6:17

Personnel

 * Scott Henderson - Guitars
 * Kirk Covington - Drums and vocals
 * John Humphrey - Bass

title: Live! (Scott Henderson album)


text:
Talk:Bureya Dam

Official page
More info is available (in english and more in russian) at the company's official site. --Jowe 03:13, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Bureya Dam


text:
svak

Etymology
.

Noun

 * 1)  brother-in-law

Etymology
From, from , from. Compare with 🇨🇬.

Adjective

 * 1) weak
 * 2) faint

Etymology
From, from , from. Compare with 🇨🇬.

Adjective

 * 1) weak
 * 2) faint

Etymology 1
From earlier ; compare.

Noun

 * 1) brother-in-law (one's sister's husband)
 * 2) father-in-law (one's husband's father; )

Pronoun

 * 1) everyone (alternative form of /)

Noun

 * 1) brother-in-law

title: svak


text:
Ocracoke Island Airport

Ocracoke Island Airport is a public use airport located one nautical mile (2 km) east of the central business district of Ocracoke, a town on Ocracoke Island in Hyde County, North Carolina, United States. It located in the Cape Hatteras National Seashore, owned by U.S. National Park Service, and operated by the North Carolina Department of Transportation. This airport is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a general aviation facility.

Facilities and aircraft
Ocracoke Island Airport covers an area of 50 acres (20 ha) at an elevation of 5 feet (2 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 6/24 with an asphalt surface measuring 2,999 by 60 feet (914 x 18 m). It also has one helipad designated H1 with a concrete surface measuring 100 by 100 feet (30 x 30 m).

For the 12-month period ending September 9, 2009, the airport had 6,110 aircraft operations, an average of 16 per day: 98% general aviation, 2% air taxi, and <1% military.

title: Ocracoke Island Airport


text:
Van Dwelling/Choosing a Vehicle

Vandwellers live in many different kinds of vehicles, ranking from Steve Robert's tricked out Winnebiko, to a Sedan, to a proper van, to a 30 ft RV. The kind of vehicle most appropriate for you will depend on several factors.

Size of Group
It goes without saying that more people will require more space. Solo dwellers can get away with living out of a small car, while families will typically want a sizable RV. Particularly large groups may fare best with a fleet consisting of multiple vehicles.

Accommodations needed
If external accommodations are readily available in the region you plan on traveling, you may not need extra space in your vehicle for a shower, toilet, etc. Of course, if you're planning on going into the wilderness or even many rural areas it's better to have it and not need it, then need it and not have it.

Privacy
Privacy is a human need. If you're planning on dwelling in an urban area, consider how easy it is to conceal the inside of your vehicle for rest.

Efficiency
If you plan on traveling long distances, the fuel efficiency of your vehicle becomes a big factor. A sedan may sip gas, while an RV will guzzle it. For those who prefer electric vehicles, electric cars are far more common then electric RVs.

Reliability
When your vehicle is also your house, having a broken vehicle becomes a more serious issue. Reliability should be key among your criteria. Another factor to consider for those who are mechanically minded is how easy it is for you to repair your own vehicle. Some vehicles are easier to work on or find parts for then others.

title: Van Dwelling/Choosing a Vehicle


text:
1997–98 Pepsi Triangular Series

The 1997–98 Pepsi Triangular Series was a One Day International cricket tournament held in India in April 1998. It was a tri-nation series between the Australia, India and Zimbabwe. Australia defeated India in the final to win the tournament.

title: 1997–98 Pepsi Triangular Series


text:
hellsehen

Etymology
From.

Verb

 * 1) to be clairvoyant

Usage notes

 * This verb is common only in the infinitive.

title: hellsehen


text:
Talk:Healing the blind near Jericho

Untitled
The article should not be merged with that on the Gospel of Mark, since versions of the story also appear in the Gosple of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. Das Baz 16:16, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Luke
The article says that Luke mentions the healing of two blind men. But I have read the Bible and he only mentions one. So I am changing the article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 20:18, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Healing the blind near Jericho


text:
Talk:Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Laboratory

RB5X
Hi, I was wondering if my perpetually broken robot, RB5X, could be of any help to the people running this page? See this for more details. If someone could help me fix it, wikiversity could use it as a model testing platform for robotic tests.--Rayc 23:26, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

page won't load for me; not too much of a surprise since it's so old. Sounded neat though... 7yl4r 02:10, 14 November 2011 (UTC)

Hello
Hello, who now is engaged in it? SergeyJ 22:16, 25 April 2010 (UTC)

Hey! Looks like pretty much nobody... I'm wanting to get into editing here, and this is the subject of my current study and interest. Is anybody else around? If not I might just run with it. =P There is also these related pages that I'm looking at: Introduction to Robotics & Robotics I'd love to collab on this...7yl4r 02:10, 14 November 2011 (UTC)


text:
European Rugby Continental Shield

The European Rugby Continental Shield (formerly the European Rugby Challenge Cup Qualifying Competition) was a rugby union competition, organised by European Professional Club Rugby, Rugby Europe and the Federazione Italiana Rugby, for entry into the European Rugby Challenge Cup.

The Qualifying Competition was first announced in April 2014, at the same time as the announcement of the creation of the European Rugby Champions Cup and Challenge Cup competitions. The tournament featured teams from non-EPCR countries, such as Spain, Germany, Belgium, Romania, Georgia, Russia and Portugal, as well as select Italian Eccellenza clubs. In 2016–17, the qualification competition also became a European Rugby competition in its own right, the third tier European Rugby Continental Shield, with both successful play-off teams meeting in a final as a part of European Rugby Finals weekend.

Both editions of the Shield final were won by Russian club Enisey-STM.

The competition is the first third-tier European tournament since the suspension of the Parker Pen Shield in 2005.

The competition was discontinued after the 2018–19 edition.

Format
Under the Heads of Agreement announced on 10 April 2014, there were two places available in the European Rugby Challenge Cup through the Qualifying Competition.

For the 2014–15 season, given the time constraints in filling the competition, this was a reduced competition the form of 2 two-legged play-off matches, with the aggregate winners of each taking one of the two Rugby Europe spots in the draw, and it involved the 2 best teams from Italy's National Championship of Excellence, plus a Romanian and Georgian selection.

An expanded format was announced on 22 December 2014, the expanded format includes clubs from non-EPCR Unions Russia, Spain and Portugal alongside representatives from the Italian Eccellenza.

The 6 teams in the Qualifying Competition are split into 2 pools of 3 teams each. Each team will play the other teams in their pool once, before the two pool winners compete in a two-legged play-off against the teams currently competing in the Challenge Cup from the previous Qualifying Competition.

The winners, on aggregate, of these two play-offs will take up the Qualifying Competition places in the Challenge Cup.

In 2017, the competition was rebranded as the European Rugby Continental Shield, and it was announced that the two qualifiers would play each other as part of the EPCR's finals weekend, a practice which was discontinued for 2018–19.

2014
The reduced format for the inaugural Qualifying Competition included two Italian Clubs, a Romanian and a Georgian side. Sides were paired up and competed in two matches, home and away. The winners, on aggregate, of these two games received one of the two places in the 2014–15 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

Rugby Europe 1 play-off

 * Rovigo Delta won the play-off 46 – 39 on aggregate, and qualifies as Rugby Europe 1 for the 2014–15 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

Rugby Europe 2 play-off

 * București Wolves won the play-off 28 – 26 on aggregate, and qualified as Rugby Europe 2 for the 2014–15 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

2015
The expanded competition for entry into the 2015–16 European Rugby Challenge Cup features six teams, in two pools of three. Russia is represented in European competition for the first time. Matches are scheduled for the same weekends as the 2014–15 Challenge Cup, beginning with the 5th Round of the Challenge Cup.

Pool 1
Qualifying play-off

 * Calvisano won the play-off 52–24 on aggregate, and will play in the 2015–16 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

Pool 2
Qualifying play-off

 * Enisey-STM won the play-off 63–32 on aggregate, and will play in the 2015–16 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

2015–16
The Qualifying Competition was once again expanded, this time featuring 8 teams in two pools of four. Each team will play the teams in the other pool once. Belgium and Germany are represented in pan-European Rugby competition for the first time, through Royal Kituro and Heidelberger RK respectively.

Qualifying play-offs

 * On aggregate, Enisey-STM (Aggregate score: 70–5) and Timișoara Saracens (Aggregate score: 64–40) qualify for the 2016–17 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

2016–17
The format of the Qualifying Competition remains similar to the previous season. As before, two places in the next year's Challenge Cup will be available for teams in the Qualifying Competition.

This season's competition features clubs from the domestic leagues of non-EPCR unions Russia, Spain, Germany and Belgium, as well as four representatives from the Italian Eccellenza.

The eight participating clubs will compete in two pools with each club in Pool A playing once against each club in Pool B.

The two pool winners will then play off against Timișoara Saracens of Romania and Russia's Enisei-STM on a home and away basis to decide which two clubs will qualify for the 2017–18 Challenge Cup.

Mid-season it was announced the competition would become the European Rugby Continental Shield and the two qualifiers will play a final match as part of EPCR's 2017 Edinburgh Finals weekend.

Qualifying play-offs
EPCR will determine about one open question: If it was like the past years, according to the rating, Krasny Yar Krasnoyarsk would meet with the Romanian Timișoara. But Krasny Yar received a letter that EPCR will hold a meeting on the final round of qualifying Challenge Cup, which will be determined the opponents. On February 14, at the office of RK "Yenisei-STM" received a letter signed by the coordinator of the qualifying competitions EPCR Vincent Prebande. Mr. Prebande reports that, like last year, the second stage of Qualifying teams will play in accordance with the principle of sport. The two-legged confrontation "Yenisei-STM" will meet the Italian club "Mogliano" and "Krasny Yar" - with the Romanian club "Timișoara Saracens".

 * On aggregate, Enisey-STM (Aggregate score: 97–7) and Krasny Yar (Aggregate score: 39–35) qualify for the 2017–18 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

2017–18
The format of the Qualifying Competition remains similar to the previous season. As before, two places in the next year's Challenge Cup will be available for teams in the Continental Shield. Clubs from six countries will compete in the 2017–18 Continental Shield.

Four representatives from the Italian Eccellenza – Pataro Rugby Calvisano, Femi-CZ Rugby Rovigo, Rugby Petrarca and Rugby Viadana – will be joined by Romania's Timișoara Saracens, RC Batumi from Georgia, Heidelberger RK of Germany and Portugal's Centro Desportivo Universitario de Lisboa (CDUL Rugby) competing in two pools of four.

Following the pool stage matches, the winners of Pool A will play the runners-up in Pool B, and the winners of Pool B will play the runners-up in Pool A on a home and away basis.

The two clubs which advance will then play each other home and away with the winners securing a place in the Continental Shield final in Bilbao next May and also qualifying for the 2018–19 Challenge Cup.

The other Continental Shield finalist will be decided by a home and away play-off between Russia's Enisei-STM and Krasny Yar who have both received a bye into the knockout stage of the competition due to their participation in this season's Challenge Cup and to their success in last season's Continental Shield.

The winners of the Enisei-STM v Krasny Yar play-offs will go through to the Continental Shield final in Bilbao and will also qualify for the 2018–19 Challenge Cup.

The aim of the Continental Shield is to widen the footprint of club rugby across Europe and to give both emerging and established clubs in different territories the opportunity to qualify for the Challenge Cup.

Pool play-offs

 * On aggregate, Timișoara Saracens (Aggregate score: 32–18) and Heidelberger RK (Aggregate score: 51–42) qualify for Qualifying play-offs.

Qualifying play-offs
Despite Heidelberger RK defeating Timișoara Saracens with the aggregate score of 47-41 and going into the Challenge Cup for the first time, Heidelberger RK have been disqualified from the Challenge Cup so Timișoara Saracens will replace them.

2018–19
Clubs from Italy, Georgia and Belgium competed in the 2018/19 Continental Shield with a place in the Challenge Cup up for grabs.

Four sides from the Italian Eccellenza – Argos Rugby Petrarca, Pataro Calvisano, Femi-CZ Rugby Rovigo Delta and GS Fiamme Oro Rugby – were joined by Georgia's RC Locomotive Tbilisi and Belgian representatives, Belgium Rugby Barbarians XV, competing in two pools of three.

Locomotive Tbilisi, Calvisano and Fiamme Oro from Rome were drawn in Pool A while Pool B was made up of Petrarca, Belgium Rugby Barbarians XV and Rovigo. Clubs in the same pool played one another on a home and away basis and the two pool winners played off over two legs to decide which club qualified for the 2019/20 Challenge Cup.

A further place in the 2019/20 Challenge Cup was decided by a home and away play-off between Russia's Enisei-STM and Timișoara Saracens of Romania who are both competing in this season's Challenge Cup.

The aim of the Continental Shield is to widen the footprint of club rugby across Europe and to give both emerging and established clubs in different territories the opportunity to qualify for the Challenge Cup.

The Continental Shield, which was won for the second time by Enisei-STM in Bilbao in 2017–18, is organised by EPCR in conjunction with Rugby Europe and the Italian Rugby Federation (FIR).

Qualifying play-offs

 * On aggregate, Enisey-STM (aggregate score: 58–52) and Calvisano (aggregate score: 57-43) qualify for the 2019–20 European Rugby Challenge Cup.

title: European Rugby Continental Shield


text:
Introduction to Moral Reasoning/Traditions in Philosophy

Traditionally philosophy was divided between two 'traditions': those of Western Philosophy, which is commonly considered to have started in Ancient Greece and its colonies; and Eastern Philosophy, which is said to have originated from the regions of India and China, and is centred around the teachings of three philosophical schools which in many ways are like religions, Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism.

In the west the study of philosophy has always been bound up with the study of physics and of logic, whilst in the east it tended to be centered around morality and political philosophy (which are also important in the west).

However such a division of philosophy may be a crude one. 'The east' is a huge area from which many different schools of philosophy emerged, and many more came from the middle east and other civilized and 'uncivilised' areas. Furthermore, many religions contain treatises on morality and politics, similar in nature to those of 'eastern philosophy', thus anybody who wishes to define philosophy into traditions must at least consider Semitic, Islamic and Christian philosophies as well as 'Eastern' philosophy when considering competing philosophies to those of the ancient Greeks.

Arthur Schopenhauer started a kind of synthesis between the Eastern and Western traditions by mixing Kantian ideas with Buddhist philosophy.

Since the early 20th century, Western philosophy has been divided into the analytic Anglo-American and continental European traditions. In the 1700s, the English-language philosophers were empiricists, and people in continental Europe were rationalists. Somewhere along the line, this has got twisted over. Bertrand Russell was inspired by the German logician Frege and Russell's student and colleague Wittgenstein came to England from Austria. The British logical positivist A.J. Ayer was inspired by the Vienna Circle, which was finally broken up by nazism. So by then, logic-centred analytic philosophy had made its home in Britain. Meanwhile, phenomenology and existentialism, which are experience-centred, were rising in Germany and then France with the work of Husserl, Heidegger and Sartre.


text:
Talk:Bellante, Abruzzo

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title: Talk:Bellante, Abruzzo


text:
1226 in Norway

Events in the year 1226 in Norway.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: Haakon IV Haakonsson.

Deaths

 * Sigurd Ribbung, nobleman and pretender to the throne (born 1203).

title: 1226 in Norway


text:
Sackpfeife (mountain)

The Sackpfeife is a mountain, ,, in the Rothaar Mountains on the boundary of the counties of Waldeck-Frankenberg and Marburg-Biedenkopf in the German state of Hesse.

On top of the forested mountain, which is a well known and popular recreation area, are the Emperor William II Tower, which offers views over the Rothaar highlands, the Biedenkopf Transmitter and a ski lift.

Location
The Sackpfeife rises in the southern Rothaar Mountains in the western part of the state of Hesse on the border between the counties of Waldeck-Frankenberg to the north and Marburg-Biedenkopf to the south. It lies east of the Wittgensteiner Land in the extensive woodlands of Hatzfeld Forest between Hatzfeld in the north and Biedenkopf in the south.

Although the Sackpfeife is not one of the highest mountains in the Rothaar, whose summits reach 843.2 m, it towers prominently above its immediate surroundings and has a topographic isolation of about 8 km. Because the summit region is extremely wide in the direction of the range (north-northeast) its highest point lies clearly within the parish of Hatzfeld and thus in the county of Waldeck-Frankenberg, but, for example the site of the Biedenkopf Transmitter is in the borough of Biedenkopf at a height of 665 m, just under that of the main summit. Hence the Sackpfeife is also the highest mountain in Marburg-Biedenkopf and is marketed by the Biedenkopf Municipal Development Company to that end, whilst Waldeck-Frankenberg has clearly higher mountains in the Upland.

The Sackpfeife is accessible by car on a no-through road between Hatzfeld-Eifa and Biedenkopf that branches off the Bundesstraße 253.

title: Sackpfeife (mountain)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Australian government ministers

The result was   redirect to List of Australian ministries. j⚛e deckertalk 03:34, 17 February 2015 (UTC)

List of Australian government ministers

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Redundant to Cabinet of Australia and Abbott Ministry. Refer also to Articles for deletion/Current Australian Commonwealth ministry which resulted in a redirect. Ianblair23 (talk) 10:00, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Australia-related deletion discussions. Ianblair23 (talk) 10:11, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Politics-related deletion discussions. Ianblair23 (talk) 10:11, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Organizations-related deletion discussions. Ianblair23 (talk) 10:11, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Redirect to List of Australian ministries given that this is a generic term which isn't specific to any particular ministry. Nick-D (talk) 10:17, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Redirect per Nick-D; wholly inappropriate title for current content, but a useful redirect. Frickeg (talk) 13:04, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Lists of people-related deletion discussions. N ORTH A MERICA 1000 13:12, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Redirect to List of Australian ministries per User:Nick-D above. Lankiveil (speak to me) 10:20, 10 February 2015 (UTC).
 * Redirect, of course. Neutralitytalk 06:39, 15 February 2015 (UTC)


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/brendanfehr.com

Links

 * brendanfehr.com resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.

Users

 * Dexbot
 * User is whitelisted: User is in trusted groups bot, rollbacker on some wikis
 * User is whitelisted: User is in trusted groups bot, rollbacker on some wikis

Additions

 * Displayed all 6 additions.


text:
出入

Noun

 * 1) entrance and exit
 * 2) difference; discrepancy; inconsistency
 * 3) business turnover

Synonyms

Verb

 * 1) to go out and come in

Noun

 * 1) income and expenses
 * 2) free associations
 * 3)  run of the house (i.e., control of what happens in the house)

Verb

 * 1) enter and leave

title: 出入


text:
Elizabeth Hely Walshe

Elizabeth Hely Walshe (1835-1869), was an Irish writer of children's stories and histories.

Life
Elizabeth Hely Walshe was born in 1835 in Limerick, Ireland to an evangelical Protestant family. Her father was a clergyman and she had at least one sister. She lived in Canada for some years but was back in Ireland by 1865. She was an accomplished artist and musician. She worked as a Sunday-school teacher. She also believed in the education of the poor. Walshe was a regular contributor to Leisure Hour Magazine and Sunday at Home. She also worked with George Etell Sargent on stories for children. Like many writers of that era the Irish Famine has an impact on the themes of her stories.

Walshe was on the Isle of Wight in 1869 when she died of consumption.

title: Elizabeth Hely Walshe