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Human Physiology/The Urinary System

Introduction
The Urinary System is a group of organs in the body concerned with filtering out excess fluid and other substances from the bloodstream. The substances are filtered out from the body in the form of urine. Urine is a liquid produced by the kidneys, collected in the bladder and excreted through the urethra. Urine is used to extract excess minerals or vitamins as well as blood corpuscles from the body. The Urinary organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The Urinary system works with the other systems of the body to help maintain homeostasis. The kidneys are the main organs of homeostasis because they maintain the acid base balance and the water salt balance of the blood.

Functions of the Urinary System
One of the major functions of the Urinary system is the process of excretion. Excretion is the process of eliminating, from an organism, waste products of metabolism and other materials that are of no use. The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water that is excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of the blood. Several body organs carry out excretion, but the kidneys are the most important excretory organ. The primary function of the kidneys is to maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) for optimal cell and tissue metabolism. They do this by separating urea, mineral salts, toxins, and other waste products from the blood. They also do the job of conserving water, salts, and electrolytes. At least one kidney must function properly for life to be maintained. Six important roles of the kidneys are:

Regulation of plasma ionic composition. Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphates are regulated by the amount that the kidney excretes.

Regulation of plasma osmolarity. The kidneys regulate osmolarity because they have direct control over how many ions and how much water a person excretes.

Regulation of plasma volume. Your kidneys are so important they even have an effect on your blood pressure. The kidneys control plasma volume by controlling how much water a person excretes. The plasma volume has a direct effect on the total blood volume, which has a direct effect on your blood pressure. Salt(NaCl)will cause osmosis to happen; the diffusion of water into the blood.

Regulation of plasma hydrogen ion concentration (pH). The kidneys partner up with the lungs and they together control the pH. The kidneys have a major role because they control the amount of bicarbonate excreted or held onto. The kidneys help maintain the blood Ph mainly by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate ions as needed.

Removal of metabolic waste products and foreign substances from the plasma. One of the most important things the kidneys excrete is nitrogenous waste. As the liver breaks down amino acids it also releases ammonia. The liver then quickly combines that ammonia with carbon dioxide, creating urea which is the primary nitrogenous end product of metabolism in humans. The liver turns the ammonia into urea because it is much less toxic. We can also excrete some ammonia, creatinine and uric acid. The creatinine comes from the metabolic breakdown of creatine phospate (a high-energy phosphate in muscles). Uric acid comes from the break down of nucleotides. Uric acid is insoluble and too much uric acid in the blood will build up and form crystals that can collect in the joints and cause gout.

Secretion of Hormones The endocrine system has assistance from the kidney's when releasing hormones. Renin is released by the kidneys. Renin leads to the secretion of aldosterone which is released from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone promotes the kidneys to reabsorb the sodium (Na+) ions. The kidneys also secrete erythropoietin when the blood doesn't have the capacity to carry oxygen. Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production. The Vitamin D from the skin is also activated with help from the kidneys. Calcium (Ca+) absorption from the digestive tract is promoted by vitamin D.

CC: Chapter Check: Name the role of the kidneys and how they work?

Kidneys And Their Structure

The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped, brown organs about the size of your fist.It measures 10-12 cm long. They are covered by the renal capsule, which is a tough capsule of fibrous connective tissue. Adhering to the surface of each kidney is two layers of fat to help cushion them. There is a concaved side of the kidney that has a depression where a renal artery enters, and a renal vein and a ureter exit the kidney. The kidneys are located at the rear wall of the abdominal cavity just above the waistline, and are protected by the ribcage. They are considered retroperitoneal, which means they lie behind the peritoneum. There are three major regions of the kidney, renal cortex, renal medulla and the renal pelvis. The outer, granulated layer is the renal cortex. The cortex stretches down in between a radially striated inner layer. The inner radially striated layer is the renal medulla. This contains pyramid shaped tissue called the renal pyramids, separated by renal columns. The ureters are continuous with the renal pelvis and is the very center of the kidney.

Renal Vein
The renal veins are veins that drain the kidney. They connect the kidney to the inferior vena cava. Because the inferior vena cava is on the right half of the body, the left renal vein is generally the longer of the two. Unlike the right renal vein, the left renal vein often receives the left gonadal vein (left testicular vein in males, left ovarian vein in females). It frequently receives the left suprarenal vein as well.

Renal Artery
The renal arteries normally arise off the abdominal aorta and supply the kidneys with blood. The arterial supply of the kidneys are variable and there may be one or more renal arteries supplying each kidney. Due to the position of the aorta, the inferior vena cava and the kidneys in the body, the right renal artery is normally longer than the left renal artery. The right renal artery normally crosses posteriorly to the inferior vena cava. The renal arteries carry a large portion of the total blood flow to the kidneys. Up to a third of the total cardiac output can pass through the renal arteries to be filtered by the kidneys.

Ureters
The ureters are two tubes that drain urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Each ureter is a muscular tube about 10 inches (25 cm) long. Muscles in the walls of the ureters send the urine in small spurts into the bladder, (a collapsible sac found on the forward part of the cavity of the bony pelvis that allows temporary storage of urine). After the urine enters the bladder from the ureters, small folds in the bladder mucosa act like valves preventing backward flow of the urine. The outlet of the bladder is controlled by a sphincter muscle. A full bladder stimulates sensory nerves in the bladder wall that relax the sphincter and allow release of the urine. However, relaxation of the sphincter is also in part a learned response under voluntary control. The released urine enters the urethra.

Urinary Bladder
The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular and distendible or elastic organ that sits on the pelvic floor (superior to the prostate in males). On its anterior border lies the pubic symphysis and, on its posterior border, the vagina (in females) and rectum (in males). The urinary bladder can hold approximately 17 to 18 ounces (500 to 530 ml) of urine, however the desire to micturate is usually experienced when it contains about 150 to 200 ml. When the bladder fills with urine (about half full), stretch receptors send nerve impulses to the spinal cord, which then sends a reflex nerve impulse back to the sphincter (muscular valve) at the neck of the bladder, causing it to relax and allow the flow of urine into the urethra. The Internal urethral sphincter is involuntary. The ureters enter the bladder diagonally from its dorsolateral floor in an area called the trigone. The trigone is a triangular shaped area on the postero-inferior wall of the bladder. The urethra exits at the lowest point of the triangle of the trigone. The urine in the bladder also helps regulate body temperature. A bladder when operating normally empties completely upon a complete discharge, otherwise it is a sign that its elasticity is compromised, when it becomes completely void of fluid, it may cause a chilling sensation due to the rapid change of body temperature.

Urethra

The urethra is a muscular tube that connects the bladder with the outside of the body. The function of the urethra is to remove urine from the body. It measures about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in a woman but up to 8 inches (20 cm) in a man. Because the urethra is so much shorter in a woman it makes it much easier for a woman to get harmful bacteria in her bladder this is commonly called a bladder infection or a UTI. The most common bacteria of a UTI is E-coli from the large intestines that have been excreted in fecal matter. Female urethra

In the human female, the urethra is about 1-2 inches long and opens in the vulva between the clitoris and the vaginal opening.

Men have a longer urethra than women. This means that women tend to be more susceptible to infections of the bladder (cystitis) and the urinary tract.

Male urethra

In the human male, the urethra is about 8 inches long and opens at the end of the head of the  penis.

The length of a male's urethra, and the fact it contains a number of bends, makes catheterisation more difficult.

The urethral sphincter is a collective name for the muscles used to control the flow of urine from the urinary bladder. These muscles surround the urethra, so that when they contract, the urethra is closed.

 * There are two distinct areas of muscle: the internal sphincter, at the bladder neck and
 * the external, or distal, sphincter.

Human males have much stronger sphincter muscles than females, meaning that they can retain a large amount of urine for twice as long, as much as 800mL, i.e. "hold it".

Nephrons
A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. The name nephron comes from the Greek word (nephros) meaning kidney. Its chief function is to regulate water and soluble substances by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. Nephrons eliminate wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. Its functions are vital to life and are regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone. Each nephron has its own supply of blood from two capillary regions from the renal artery. Each nephron is composed of an initial filtering component (the renal corpuscle) and a tubule specialized for reabsorption and secretion (the renal tubule). The renal corpuscle filters out large solutes from the blood, delivering water and small solutes to the renal tubule for modification.

Glomerulus
The glomerulus is a capillary tuft that receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for fluid and solutes to be filtered out of the blood and into the space made by Bowman's capsule. The remainder of the blood not filtered into the glomerulus passes into the narrower efferent arteriole. It then moves into the vasa recta, which are collecting capillaries intertwined with the convoluted tubules through the interstitial space, where the reabsorbed substances will also enter. This then combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins with the main bloodstream.

Afferent/Efferent Arterioles

The afferent arteriole supplies blood to the glomerulus. A group of specialized cells known as juxtaglomerular cells are located around the afferent arteriole where it enters the renal corpuscle. The efferent arteriole drains the glomerulus. Between the two arterioles lies specialized cells called the macula densa. The juxtaglomerular cells and the macula densa collectively form the juxtaglomerular apparatus. It is in the juxtaglomerular apparatus cells that the enzyme renin is formed and stored. Renin is released in response to decreased blood pressure in the afferent arterioles, decreased sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule and sympathetic nerve stimulation of receptors (beta-adrenic) on the juxtaglomerular cells. Renin is needed to form Angiotensin I and Angiotensin II which stimulate the secretion of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex.

Glomerular Capsule or Bowman's Capsule
Bowman's capsule (also called the glomerular capsule) surrounds the glomerulus and is composed of visceral (simple squamous epithelial cells) (inner) and parietal (simple squamous epithelial cells) (outer) layers. The visceral layer lies just beneath the thickened glomerular basement membrane and is made of podocytes which send foot processes over the length of the glomerulus. Foot processes interdigitate with one another forming filtration slits that, in contrast to those in the glomeruluar endothelium, are spanned by diaphragms. The size of the filtration slits restricts the passage of large molecules (e.g., albumin) and cells (e.g., red blood cells and platelets). In addition, foot processes have a negatively-charged coat (glycocalyx) that limits the filtration of negatively-charged molecules, such as albumin. This action is called electrostatic repulsion.

The parietal layer of Bowman's capsule is lined by a single layer of squamous epithelium. Between the visceral and parietal layers is Bowman's space, into which the filtrate enters after passing through the podocytes' filtration slits. It is here that smooth muscle cells and macrophages lie between the capillaries and provide support for them. Unlike the visceral layer, the parietal layer does not function in filtration. Rather, the filtration barrier is formed by three components: the diaphragms of the filtration slits, the thick glomerular basement membrane, and the glycocalyx secreted by podocytes. 99% of glomerular filtrate will ultimately be reabsorbed.

The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml/min, equivalent to ten times the blood volume daily. Measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a diagnostic test of kidney function. A decreased GFR may be a sign of renal failure. Conditions that can affect GFR include: arterial pressure, afferent arteriole constriction, efferent arteriole constriction, plasma protein concentration and colloid osmotic pressure.

Any proteins that are roughly 30 kilodaltons or under can pass freely through the membrane. Although, there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes. Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not. As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman's capsule is very similar to blood plasma in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule. Together, the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule are called the renal corpuscle.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
The proximal tubule can be anatomically divided into two segments: the proximal convoluted tubule and the proximal straight tubule. The proximal convoluted tubule can be divided further into S1 and S2 segments based on the histological appearance of it's cells. Following this naming convention, the proximal straight tubule is commonly called the S3 segment. The proximal convoluted tubule has one layer of cuboidal cells in the lumen. This is the only place in the nephron that contains cuboidal cells. These cells are covered with millions of microvilli. The microvilli serve to increase surface area for reabsorption.

Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including approximately two-thirds of the filtered salt and water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids). This is driven by sodium transport from the lumen into the blood by the Na+/K+ ATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. Much of the mass movement of water and solutes occurs in between the cells through the tight junctions, which in this case are not selective.

The solutes are absorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate. However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient out of the nephron.

Loop of the Nephron or Loop of Henle

The loop of Henle (sometimes known as the nephron loop) is a U-shaped tube that consists of a descending limb and ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla, and then returns to the cortex to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. Its primary role is to concentrate the salt in the interstitium, the tissue surrounding the loop.

 * Descending limb:Its descending limb is permeable to water but completely impermeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. Longer descending limbs allow more time for water to flow out of the filtrate, so longer limbs make the filtrate more hypertonic than shorter limbs.

 * Ascending limb:Unlike the descending limb, the ascending limb of Henle's loop is impermeable to water, a critical feature of the countercurrent exchange mechanism employed by the loop. The ascending limb actively pumps sodium out of the filtrate, generating the hypertonic interstitium that drives countercurrent exchange. In passing through the ascending limb, the filtrate grows hypotonic since it has lost much of its sodium content. This hypotonic filtrate is passed to the distal convoluted tubule in the renal cortex.

Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
The distal convoluted tubule is similar to the proximal convoluted tubule in structure and function. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria, enabling active transport to take place by the energy supplied by ATP. Much of the ion transport taking place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and excretes more phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium excreted. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the distal convoluted tubule to excrete more sodium. In addition, the tubule also secretes hydrogen and ammonium to regulate pH. After traveling the length of the distal convoluted tubule, only 3% of water remains, and the remaining salt content is negligible. 97.9% of the water in the glomerular filtrate enters the convoluted tubules and collecting ducts by osmosis.

Collecting ducts
Each distal convoluted tubule delivers its filtrate to a system of collecting ducts, the first segment of which is the connecting tubule. The collecting duct system begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the medulla. As the urine travels down the collecting duct system, it passes by the medullary interstitium which has a high sodium concentration as a result of the loop of Henle's countercurrent multiplier system. Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). As much as three-fourths of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or dilute. Dehydration results in an increase in ADH, while water sufficiency results in low ADH allowing for diluted urine. Lower portions of the collecting duct are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla of the kidney, thus maintaining its high ion concentration (which is very important for the nephron).

Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papilla, emptying into the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and finally into the bladder via the ureter. Because it has a different embryonic origin than the rest of the nephron (the collecting duct is from endoderm whereas the nephron is from mesoderm), the collecting duct is usually not considered a part of the nephron proper.

Renal Hormones

1. Vitamin D- Becomes metabolically active in the kidney. Patients with renal disease have symptoms of disturbed calcium and phosphate balance.

2. Erythropoietin- Released by the kidneys in response to decreased tissue oxygen levels (hypoxia).

3. Natriuretic Hormone- Released from cardiocyte granules located in the right atria of the heart in response to increased atrial stretch. It inhibits ADH secretions which can contribute to the loss of sodium and water.

Formation of Urine
Urine is formed in three steps: Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion.

Filtration
Blood enters the afferent arteriole and flows into the glomerulus. Blood in the glomerulus has both filterable blood components and non-filterable blood components. Filterable blood components move toward the inside of the glomerulus while non-filterable blood components bypass the filtration process by exiting through the efferent arteriole. Filterable Blood components will then take a plasma like form called glomerular filtrate. A few of the filterable blood components are water, nitrogenous waste, nutrients and salts (ions). Nonfilterable blood components include formed elements such as blood cells and platelets along with plasma proteins. The glomerular filtrate is not the same consistency as urine, as much of it is reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate passes through the tubules of the nephron.

Reabsorption
Within the peritubular capillary network, molecules and ions are reabsorbed back into the blood. Sodium Chloride reabsorbed into the system increases the osmolarity of blood in comparison to the glomerular filtrate. This reabsorption process allows water (H2O) to pass from the glomerular filtrate back into the circulatory system.

Glucose and various amino acids also are reabsorbed into the circulatory system. These nutrients have carrier molecules that claim the glomerular molecule and release it back into the circulatory system. If all of the carrier molecules are used up, excess glucose or amino acids are set free into the urine. A complication of diabetes is the inability of the body to reabsorb glucose. If too much glucose appears in the glomerular filtrate it increases the osmolarity of the filtrate, causing water to be released into the urine rather than reabsorbed by the circulatory system. Frequent urination and unexplained thirst are warning signs of diabetes, due to water not being reabsorbed.

Glomerular filtrate has now been separated into two forms: Reabsorbed Filtrate and Non-reabsorbed Filtrate. Non-reabsorbed filtrate is now known as tubular fluid as it passes through the collecting duct to be processed into urine.

Secretion
Some substances are removed from blood through the peritubular capillary network into the distal convoluted tubule or collecting duct. These substances are Hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs. Urine is a collection of substances that have not been reabsorbed during glomerular filtration or tubular reabsorbtion.

Maintaining Water-Salt Balance
It is the job of the kidneys to maintain the water-salt balance of the blood. They also maintain blood volume as well as blood pressure. Simple examples of ways that this balance can be changed include ingestion of water, dehydration, blood loss and salt ingestion.

Reabsorption of water
Direct control of water excretion in the kidneys is exercised by the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ADH causes the insertion of water channels into the membranes of cells lining the collecting ducts, allowing water reabsorption to occur. Without ADH, little water is reabsorbed in the collecting ducts and dilute urine is excreted. There are several factors that influence the secretion of ADH. The first of these happen when the blood plasma gets too concentrated. When this occurs, special receptors in the hypothalamus release ADH. When blood pressure falls, stretch receptors in the aorta and carotid arteries stimulate ADH secretion to increase volume of the blood.

Reabsorption of Salt
The Kidneys also regulate the salt balance in the blood by controlling the excretion and the reabsorption of various ions. As noted above, ADH plays a role in increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys, thus helping to dilute bodily fluids. The kidneys also have a regulated mechanism for reabsorbing sodium in the distal nephron. This mechanism is controlled by aldosterone, a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone promotes the excretion of potassium ions and the reabsorption of sodium ions. The release of Aldosterone is initiated by the kidneys. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a renal structure consisting of the macula densa, mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. Juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells, also known as granular cells) are the site of renin secretion. Renin is an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen (a large plasma protein produced by the liver) into Angiotensin I and eventually into Angiotensin II which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone. The reabsorption of sodium ions is followed by the reapsorption of water. This causes blood pressure as well as blood volume to increase.

Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is released by the atria of the heart when cardiac cells are stretched due to increased blood volume. ANH inhibits the secretion of renin by the juxtaglomerular apparatus and the secretion of the aldosterone by the adrenal cortex. This promotes the excretion of sodium. When sodium is excreted so is water. This causes blood pressure and volume to decrease.

Hypernatremia
An increase in plasma sodium levels above normal is hypernatremia. Sodium is the primary solute in the extracellular fluid. Sodium levels have a major role in osmolarity regulation. For excitable cells the electrochemical gradient for sodium across the plasma membrane is critical for life. Water retention and an increased blood pressure usually are signs of hypernatremia. If the plasma sodium levels are below normal it is called hyponatremia. Signs of this are low plasma volume and hypotension.

Diuretics
A diuretic (colloquially called a water pill) is any drug that elevates the rate of bodily urine excretion (diuresis). Diuretics also decrease the extracellular fluid (ECF) volume, and are primarily used to produce a negative extracellular fluid balance. Caffeine, cranberry juice and alcohol are all weak diuretics. In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hypertension and certain kidney diseases. Diuretics alleviate the symptoms of these diseases by causing sodium and water loss through the urine. As urine is produced by the kidney, sodium and water – which cause edema related to the disease – move into the blood to replace the volume lost as urine, thereby reducing the pathological edema. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning. The antihypertensive actions of some diuretics (thiazides and loop diuretics in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect. That is, the reduction in blood pressure is not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses than that required to produce diuresis. Indapamide was specifically designed with this is mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics. Chemically, diuretics are a diverse group of compounds that either stimulate or inhibit various hormones that naturally occur in the body to regulate urine production by the kidneys. Alcohol produces diuresis through modulation of the vasopressin system.

Diseases of the Kidney
Diabetic nephropathy (nephropatia diabetica), also known as Kimmelstiel-Wilson syndrome and intercapillary glomerulonephritis, is a progressive kidney disease caused by angiopathy of capillaries in the kidney glomeruli. It is characterized by nodular glomerulosclerosis. It is due to longstanding diabetes mellitus, and is a prime cause for dialysis in many Western countries. In medicine, hematuria (or "haematuria") is the presence of blood in the urine. It is a sign of a large number of diseases of the kidneys and the urinary tract, ranging from trivial to lethal.

Kidney stones, also known as nephrolithiases, urolithiases or renal calculi, are solid accretions (crystals) of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys or ureters. They vary in size from as small as a grain of sand to as large as a golf ball. Kidney stones typically leave the body in the urine stream; if they grow relatively large before passing (on the order of millimeters), obstruction of a ureter and distention with urine can cause severe pain most commonly felt in the flank, lower abdomen and groin. Kidney stones are unrelated to gallstones.

Case Study I was 34 weeks pregnant when I noticed blood in my urine. I immediately went to my OBGYN where I was told that I had a bladder infection and given an antibiotic. The next morning I experienced the most intense pain. I was rushed to the ER where I was told that I had kidney stones. The doctors explained that there was nothing they could do as long as I was pregnant. The next 3 weeks of my life were filled with intense pain and multiple painkillers. After I delivered my baby, CAT scans were done and I was informed that I had 6 kidney stones. It took three more weeks for me to pass all of the stones the largest measuring 5 mm. The stones were tested and I was informed that my body had been building up calcium due to my pregnancy and this was the cause of the kidney stones. I continued to have kidney pain for 6 months after passing the stones. I now live my life on a low calcium diet and the hope that my body will not develop more kidney stones.

Pyelonephritis When an infection of the renal pelvis and calices, called pyelitis, spreads to involve the rest of the kidney as well, the result is pyelonephritis. It usually results from the spread of fecal bacterium Escherichia coli from the anal region superiorly through the urinary tract. In severe cases, the kidney swells and scars, abscesses form, and the renal pelvis fills with pus. Left untreated, the infected kidney may be severely damaged, but administration of antibiotics usually achieve a total cure.

glomerulonephritis Inflammation of the glomerular can be caused by immunologic abnormalities, drugs or toxins, vascular disorders, and systemic diseases. Glomerulonephritis can be acute, chronic or progressive. Two major changes in the urine are distinctive of glomerulonephritis: hematuria and proteinuria with albumin as the major protein. There is also a decrease in urine as there is a decrease in GFR (glomerular filtration rate). Renal failure is associated with oliguria (less than 400 ml of urine output per day).

Renal Failure Uremia is a syndrome of renal failure and includes elevated blood urea and creatinine levels. Acute renal failure can be reversed if diagnosed early. Acute renal failure can be caused by severe hypotension or severe glomerular disease. Diagnostic tests include BUN and plasma creatinine level tests. It is considered to be chronic renal failure if the decline of renal function to less than 25%.

Diabetes Insipidus
This is caused by the deficiency of or decrease of ADH. The person with (DI) has the inability to concentrate their urine in water restriction, in turn they will void up 3 to 20 liters/day. There are two forms of (DI), neurogenic, and nephrogenic. In nephrogenic (DI) the kidneys do not respond to ADH. Usually the nephrogenic (DI) is characterized by the impairment of the urine concentrating capability of the kidney along with concentration of water. The cause may be a genetic trait, electrolyte disorder, or side effect of drugs such as lithium. In the neurogenic (DI), it is usually caused by head injury near the hypophysisal tract.

Urinary tract infections (UTI's)
The second most common type of bacterial infections seen by health care providers is UTI's. Out of all the bacterias that colonize and cause urinary tract infections the big gun is Escherichia coli. In the hospital indwelling catheters and straight catheterizing predispose the opportunity for urinary tract infections. In females there are three stages in life that predispose urinary tract infections, that is menarche, manipulation between intercourse, and menopause. However, a small percentage of men and children will get urinary tract infections. In men it is usually due to the prostate gland growth which usually occurs in older age men. In children it can occur 3% to 5% in girls and 1% in boys, uncircumcised boys it is more common than circumcised ones to have a urinary tract infection, in girls it may be the result of onset of toilet training, some predispositions for getting urinary tract infection include family history and  urinary tract anomalies. In neonates urinary tract infections is most common when bacteremia is present.

Dialysis and Kidney Transplant

Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished will renal failure develop. If renal function is impaired, various forms of medications are used, while others are contraindicated. Provided that treatment is begun early, it may be possible to reverse chronic kidney failure due to diabetes or high blood pressure. If creatinine clearance (a measure of renal function) has fallen very low ("end-stage renal failure"), or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms, dialysis is commenced. Dialysis is a medical procedure, performed in various different forms, where the blood is filtered outside of the body.

Kidney transplantation is the only cure for end stage renal failure; dialysis, is a supportive treatment; a form of "buying time" to bridge the inevitable wait for a suitable organ.

The first successful kidney transplant was announced on March 4, 1954 at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. The surgery was performed by Dr. Joseph E. Murray, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1990 for this feat.

There are two types of kidney transplants: living donor transplant and a cadaveric (dead donor) transplant. When a kidney from a living donor, usually a blood relative, is transplanted into the patient's body, the donor's blood group and tissue type must be judged compatible with the patient's, and extensive medical tests are done to determine the health of the donor. Before a cadaveric donor's organs can be transplanted, a series of medical tests have to be done to determine if the organs are healthy. Also, in some countries, the family of the donor must give its consent for the organ donation. In both cases, the recipient of the new organ needs to take drugs to suppress their immune system to help prevent their body from rejecting the new kidney.

Review Questions

 * Answers for these questions can be found here

1. While reading a blood test I notice a high level of creatinine, I could assume from this that
 * A) There is a possibility of a UTI
 * B) There is a possibility of diabetes
 * C) There is a possibility of kidney failure
 * D) There is nothing wrong, this is normal

2. Direct control of water excretion in the kidneys is controlled by
 * A) Anti-diuretic hormone
 * B) The medulla oblongata
 * C) Blood plasma
 * D) Sodium amounts in the blood

3. Nephrons
 * A) Eliminate wastes from the body
 * B) Regulate blood volume and pressure
 * C) Control levels of electrolytes and metabolites
 * D) Regulate blood pH
 * E) All of the above

4. If I am dehydrated, my body will increase
 * A) ATP
 * B) ADP
 * C) Diluted urine
 * D) ADH

5. Which part of the nephron removes water, ions and nutrients from the blood?
 * A ) vasa recta
 * B ) loop of henle
 * C ) proximal convoluted tubule
 * D ) peritubular capillaries
 * E ) glomerulus

6. Kidneys have a direct effect on which of the following
 * A ) Blood pressure
 * B ) How much water a person excretes
 * C ) Total blood volume
 * D ) pH
 * E ) all of the above

7. Why do substances in the glomerulus enter the Bowman's capsule?
 * A ) the magnetic charge of the Bowman's capsule attracts the substances
 * B ) the substances are actively transported into the Bowman's capsule
 * C ) blood pressure of the glomerulus is so great that most substances in blood move into capsule
 * D ) little green men force it in with their ray guns

8. What happens in tubular excretion?
 * A ) urine bonds are formed between the wastes
 * B ) wastes are diffused from the tubule
 * C ) wastes move into the distal convoluted tubule from the blood
 * D ) blood pressure forces wastes away from the kidney

9. The countercurrent exchange system includes_________and_________.
 * A ) glomerulus and macula densa
 * B ) proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule
 * C ) loop of  Henle and collecting tubule
 * D ) afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole
 * E ) ureters and bladder

10. The function of the loop of the nephron in the process of urine formation is:
 * A ) reabsorption of water
 * B ) production of filtrate
 * C ) reabsorption of solutes
 * D ) secretion of solutes

11. Name the six important roles of the kidneys.

Glossary
Antidiuretic: lessening or decreasing of urine production or an agent that decreases the release of urine.

Catheterisation: a catheter is a tube that can be inserted into a body cavity, duct or vessel. Catheters thereby allow drainage or injection of fluids or access by surgical instruments. The process of inserting a catheter is catheterisation. In most uses a catheter is a thin, flexible tube: a "soft" catheter; in some uses, it is a larger, solid tube: a "hard" catheter.

Dehydration: condition resulting from excessive loss of body fluid.

Diabetes: a general term for a disease characterized by the beginning stages and onset of renal failure. It is derived from the Greek word diabaínein, that literally means "passing through," or "siphon", a reference to one of diabetes' major symptoms—excessive urine production.

Diuresis: secretion and passage of large amounts of urine.

Diuretic: increasing of urine production, or an agent that increases the production of urine.

Erythropoietin: hormone that stimulates stem cells in the bone marrow to produce red blood cells

Fibrous Capsule: the kidney's loose connective tissue

Glomerulus: capillary tuft that receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation.

Gluconeogenesis: the cycle of producing a glucose form fat or protein; preformed by the kidney in times of long fasting, initially gluconeogenesis is preformed by the liver

Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells: Renin-secreting cells that are in contact with the macula densa and the afferent arterioles of the renal nephron.

Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): A site of juxtaglomerular cells connecting with the macula densa where renin is secreted and sensor for control of secretion of golmerular filtration rate.

Loop of Henle/ Nephron Loop: u-shaped tube that consists of a descending limb and ascending limb; primary role is to concentrate the salt in the interstitium, the tissue surrounding the loop

Medullary Pyramids or Renal Pyramids: the cone shaped masses in the kidney

Micturition: another name for excretions

Nephron: basic structural and functional unit of the kidney; chief function is to regulate water and soluble substances by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine

Podocytes: filtration membrane, in the visceral layer of the bowman's capsule

Renal Calculi: kidney stones, solid crystals of dissolved minerals in urine found inside the kidneys

Renal Cortex: outer portion of the kidney

Renal Lobe: each pyramid together with the associated overlying cortex

Renal Pelvis: a central space, or cavity that transmits urine to the urinary bladder via the ureter

Renin: hormone released by the Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells of the kidneys when blood pressure falls

TURP: transurethral resection of the prostate. During TURP, an instrument is inserted up the urethra to remove the section of the prostate that is blocking urine flow. This is most commonly caused by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). A TURP usually requires hospitalization and is done using a general or spinal anesthetic. It is now the most common surgery used to remove part of an enlarged prostate.

Urethra: a muscular tube that connects the bladder with the outside of the body

Ureters: two tubes that drain urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Urine: liquid produced by the kidneys, collected in the bladder and excreted through the urethra

Urinary Bladder: a hollow, muscular and distensible or elastic organ that sits on the pelvic floor

Urinary System: a group of organs in the body concerned with filtering out excess fluid and other substances from the bloodstream

title: Human Physiology/The Urinary System


text:
User:Ramdhenusangha

Ramdhenu sangha is bron in Gogamukh Dhemaji district Assam India 07/01/1993.Ramdhenu sangha is not only colours combination it also differens differens tribes combination.Ramdhenusangha it make differens to the other culb.as of me to create proud.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Ramdhenusangha


text:
Talk:Batey (sugar workers' town)

Rename/move suggestion
Hi,

This should be moved or whatever to Batey. A batey, we gather, is a place, not a quantity. "Unit of production" suggests a quantity, like "bushel" or "hogshead" or some such. --Mashford 13:51, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Overly Politicized?
Hi,

I worry that some of the content on this page is overly colloquial, politicized or makes claims that should be referenced.

For example: "...that the conditions are absolutely deplorable" "These Haitians are being held for ransom in this deplorable places." "The Batey is a modern form of slavery where Haitians are paid less than $2.00 American dollars for 12-14 hours of labor. They are forced to sleep on foam boards and live without electricity,running water."

While I'm not trying to argue for or against the opinions expressed, I feel that this should contain appropriate references and documentation.

Pbulsink (talk) 01:43, 2 April 2016 (UTC)

Out-of-date
The photo of the ingenio in Consuelo is representative, but it has been torn down as of several years ago. It might be relabeled "former" or something to indicate it's now historical only. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:08, 17 August 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Batey (sugar workers' town)


text:
Boreing

Boreing may refer to:

People

 * Jeremy Boreing (born 1979), American director
 * Vincent Boreing (1839–1903), U.S. Representative from Kentucky

Other

 * Boreing, Kentucky, a community in the United States

title: Boreing


text:
Top-rated United States television programs of 2007–08

This table displays the top-rated primetime television series of the 2007–08 season as measured by Nielsen Media Research.


text:
Wikijunior:Solar System/Saturn

Saturn Facts:
 * If you could find a bathtub big enough, Saturn would float in it.
 * Some of Saturn's moons control the width of its rings. These are known as shepherd moons.
 * Although it is made mostly of gases, scientists believe Saturn has a small rocky core.

Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun, and is one of the gas giants. Although it is very large – almost ten times wider than Earth – it is mostly gas and liquid, and therefore very light. Its distinctive rings aren't solid, they're actually loose clusters of moving particles of rock and ice.

How big is the planet?
Saturn is 120,536 km or 9.449 Earths wide at the equator.

What is its surface like?
Saturn is mostly gas and liquid. Saturn may have a small core of rock and ice. The atmosphere has bands, but they are not as colorful as Jupiter's.

What are its rings like?
Saturn's rings are composed of rock and ice particles ranging in size from specks of dust to the size of a house. Some particles might even be a few kilometers wide! The particles in the rings are actually spaced far apart. It would be easy to pass through the rings.

What are its moons like?

Saturn has 146 moons, and many of them have names. The size of Saturn's moons and the size of the chunks of ice in its rings are similar, which means that we can never know the exact number of moons. New moons are still being discovered. Saturn's biggest moon is named Titan, and is large enough to be a planet in its own right!

Shepherd moons
There are small potato-shaped moons in or near Saturn's rings. They control the ring particles with their gravity. That is why they are called shepherd moons. Six of them are known, and there may be more.

Mimas
Mimas is mostly made of water ice with a small amount of rock. It has a large crater for its size called Herschel. It is 130 km across, making it about a third as big as Mimas. The crater makes Mimas look like the Death Star from the Star Wars movies.

Enceladus
Enceladus is made of ice. It is denser than the other icy moons. That suggests it also has some rock inside. It has smooth areas, cracks and some craters. The smooth areas are younger. Craters there have been erased within the past 100 million years. Water vapor was found over a smooth area around the south pole. The cracks and grooves suggest tectonics similar to Ganymede's. Some ridges similar to Europa's ridges were also found. Those suggest oceans like Europa's under some areas of Enceladus. Tidal forces from Dione could be powering some of this activity. It is because Enceladus orbits Saturn twice for every orbit by Dione. This makes Dione and Saturn tug on Enceladus. This is similar to how Europa and Ganymede's tidal forces on Io power Io's volcanoes.

Tethys
Tethys is an icy moon that has many craters, including the huge Odysseus. It is 400 km across, 1/5th as big as Tethys is. The crater had become flattened because the icy material does not hold its shape as well as rock would. There is also a large valley called Ithaca Chasma. It is 3 to 5 km deep, 100 km wide and 2000 km long, three fourths of the way around Tethys.

There are two moons, Telesto and Calypso, which share Tethys' orbit. Telesto is ahead of Tethys and Calypso is behind it.

Dione
Dione is made of lots of ice and there may be some rock in its core. It has lots of craters. The craters are flattened because the ice does not hold their shape as well as rock. One side has bright white lines that are fractures. Two moons share Dione's orbit. Helene is ahead of Dione and Polydeuces is behind it.

Rhea
Rhea is an icy moon similar to Dione with some rock in the core. It has many craters mostly on one side, and the other side has some bright white icy areas.

Titan
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn and the second largest one in the solar system. It is the only moon in the Solar System that has a thick atmosphere. The atmosphere is made of nitrogen, argon, methane and various organic compounds. Its surface has light and dark areas and few craters. The Cassini probe discovered a huge crater 440 km wide.

Hyperion
Hyperion is made of water ice with a little rock. It is potato shaped. It wobbles instead of rotating in the same way other moons do.

Iapetus
Iapetus is almost entirely ice. It has a light area called Roncevaux Terra that has craters. There is a big dark area called Cassini Regio that covers half of Iapetus. The dark material may be from Phoebe. Some of it is on the bottom of craters. Some huge craters and a ridge have been discovered in Cassini Regio by the Cassini probe. The ridge stretches 1300 km along the equator. It is up to 20 km high, which is over 2.26 times higher than Mount Everest. More huge craters were found in Roncevaux Terra when Cassini went by Iapetus again.

Phoebe
Phoebe is made of ice and rock. It looks dark because it has a layer of dark material on the outside. It also looks rough.

Other moons
There are two groups of small outer moons. Phoebe is part of the second outermost group.

How long is a day on this planet?
One day on Saturn is about 10 hours and 39 minutes in Earth time.

How long is a year on this planet?
One year on Saturn is about 29.46 Earth years long. That is 10,760 Earth days!

What is it made of?
Saturn has a rocky core. Around the core, there is ice. Above the ice is liquid metallic hydrogen. On top of that is gaseous hydrogen. There is no place where the hydrogen suddenly turns from a gas to a liquid.

The gaseous hydrogen makes up most of Saturn's atmosphere. Other gases there include helium and some other gases. There may be rain made of helium falling through the hydrogen. There is also ammonia on the surface.

How much would Saturn's gravity pull on me?
If you were floating close to the cloud tops of Saturn, it would pull you down with a force only a little stronger than the force of Earth's gravity. The effects of Saturn's large radius and its mass almost cancel each other out, making the force only a little bigger. So, if you weighed 100 lbs. on Earth, you would weigh 106 lbs. on Saturn.

Who is it named after?
Saturn is named after the most important Roman god of agriculture and harvest time. He taught people how to farm. He was the father of Jupiter. Saturday is named after him.

Next Topic: Uranus

ar:ويكي الأطفال:نظام شمسي/زحل Wiki junior Sunčev sistem/Saturn Wikijunior_Sonnensystem/_Saturn Wikichicos/Sistema_Solar/Saturno fr:Wikijunior:Système_solaire/Saturne nl:Wikijunior:Zonnestelsel/Saturnus pl:Wikijunior:Układ_Słoneczny/Saturn Wikijunior_Aurinkokunta/Saturnus

title: Wikijunior:Solar System/Saturn


text:
Talk:Jane Kleeb

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:53, 19 September 2021 (UTC)
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title: Talk:Jane Kleeb


text:
Talk:Dimestore soldiers

"A nickel during this time"?
Five cents is still a nickel today, and it will be for the foreseeable future, so we really need to say, "...cost five cents, a nickel during this time..."? Best regards TheBaron0530 (talk) 16:38, 19 January 2017 (UTC)theBaron0530

External links modified
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title: Talk:Dimestore soldiers


text:
Light in moving media

Requisites
Relativistic addition of velocities

Refractive index

Problem
Light moves through a slowly moving medium with refractive index n. That medium moves with a speed v in parallel with the direction of light. What speed will be measured for that light by a rest observer?

Solution
If we have a medium with refractive index n, the speed of light relative to that medium is c/n.

Using relativistic addition of velocities, we get for the rest observer:

$$V=\frac{c/n+v}{1+v/nc}$$

But as $$v \ll c$$, we can expand that expression in terms of $$v/c$$:

$$V=c \frac{1/n+(v/c)}{1+(v/c)/n}$$ $$ \begin{align} V & =c \frac{1/n}{1} +c \frac{1 \cdot(1)-1/n \cdot(1/n)}{1} v/c + ... \\ & \approx \frac{c}{n} +c \left (1 - \frac{1}{n^2} \right ) v/c \\ & = \frac{c}{n} +v \left (1 - \frac{1}{n^2} \right ) \\ \end{align} $$

The factor $$\left (1 - \frac{1}{n^2} \right )$$ was known as the Fresnel drag coefficient. It is easily measured with interference experiments.

Generalization
$$v'=V+v/\Gamma^2$$

title: Light in moving media


text:
1944 Kansas Jayhawks football team

The 1944 Kansas Jayhawks football team represented the University of Kansas in the Big Six Conference during the 1944 college football season. In their second season under head coach Henry Shenk, the Jayhawks compiled a 3–6–1 record (1–4 against conference opponents), tied for last place in the Big Six, and were outscored by opponents by a combined total of 153 to 128. They played their home games at Memorial Stadium in Lawrence, Kansas.

The team's statistical leaders included Charlie Moffatt with 300 rushing yards, 222 passing yards, and 43 points scored (seven touchdowns and one extra point), and Dwight Sutherland with 148 receiving yards. Warren Riegle was the team captain.

NFL draft
The following Jayhawks were selected in the National Football League draft following the season.

title: 1944 Kansas Jayhawks football team


text:
simply connected

Adjective

 * 1)  Having its fundamental group a singleton.

Translations

 * Chinese:
 * Mandarin: 单连通的
 * Danish: enkeltsammenhængende
 * Polish: jednospójny
 * Swedish: enkelt sammanhängande
 * Turkish: basit bağlantılı

title: simply connected


text:
Hernsheim & Co.

Hernsheim & Co. was a German trading company in the Western Pacific Ocean with main offices on Yap in the Caroline Islands, Jaluit in the Marshall Islands and Matupi in the Bismarck Archipelago. Hernsheim & Co. mainly specialized in the copra export to Europe. After the loss of their Pacific possessions in the aftermath of World War I, the company attempted a new beginning in the French Mandate of Cameroon in Africa. In the heyday of their ”South Sea” business (circa 1882–1885), Hernsheim & Co. exported almost 30% of the copra produced in the Western Pacific Ocean. Many of their agents were also dealers in ethnographic objects.

Founding (1875)
Hernsheim & Co. was founded in November 1875 by the brothers Franz and Eduard Hernsheim in Sydney, Australia. The starting capital consisted of various trading stations already built by Eduard Hernsheim on Malakal (Koror, Palau), Nif and Tomil (Caroline Islands) and Niata (Duke of York Islands), and the schooner Coeran. Franz Hernsheim put in M 50,000. Ruben Jonas Robertson, an uncle of the Hernsheims, offered additional loans, together forming the parent company Robertson & Hernsheim in Hamburg.

First Expansion (1876-1882)
Between January and August 1876 Eduard Hernsheim conducted reconnaissance trips which led to the founding of Makada, the initial central station for the Bismarck Archipelago on the island Makada in the Duke of York Islands. A second central station, Jaluit, was founded for the Marshall Islands on the island of Jabor (Jaluit Atoll) followed. In addition, five dealers were contracted in the Ratak Chain of the eastern Marshall Islands. Lasty, a trading post was also probably founded on Ponape (formerly Pohnpei, on the Caroline Islands).

From the middle of 1876, the agent J. T. Blohm made trade contacts with the Talilibai and Kabaira on northern beaches of the Gazelle Peninsula, as well as the district of Birara in the southern Blanche Bay, all in New Britain. By 1883, more stations were founded on the Gazelle Peninsula: Kurakaul, Ragunai, Kabaira, Vlavolo / Nogai and Pulpul / Kabaira (northern beaches), and Rolavio (the port island of Matupi, Blanche Bay), Ruluana, Urakukuni, Ululai, Lagumgum, Tarram and Tawana (bank of the Blanche Bay / District Birara).

In June 1879, due to a malaria epidemic, the central station for the New Britain Archipelago was moved from Makada to Matupi. The existing station on there had its factory expanded, and supplemented by a second factory on the east coast of the island.

In February 1880, at the beginning of another series of exploratory voyages, now with the smaller vessels Pacific and Alice, once again new stations were founded, now in the village of Pakail and on the port island of Nusa in northern New Ireland. These trade relations were extended by the agent Friedrich Schulle to the east coast of New Ireland (Kablaman, Butbut, Navangai, Lamerotte, Lagumbanje, Lauaru and Kapsu stations).

Other reconnaissance trips by Eduard Hernsheim only saw sporadic establishment of new stations: Woleai atoll (formerly Uleai) in March 1878, Kosrae (formerly Kusaie) in the Caroline Islands in August 1878, Nauru in September 1878, Carcone in the Hermit Islands in June 1879 and Oberlark in the Laughlan Islands in the Louisiade Archipelago, beginning probably in 1881.

Franz Hernsheim took over the management of the Jaluit business in 1877 and established in early 1878 a ship connection to the Gilbert Islands, over which copra purchases from the islands of Apamama, Aranuka and Kuria were introduced to the central warehouse on Jabor from 1883/84 onwards. He lived on Jaluit and served as the German Consul. By 1885 at the German acquisition of the Marshalls he was still there, but left the island in January 1886 to return to Europe.

For the business on Yap or St. David’s Island, in March 1878 and March 1880 the American captains C. P. Holcomb and D. D. O'Keefe were hired as general agents. However, these connections were resolved again in April 1884.

Introduction of "Agent System" (1882-1885)
The expansion of Hernsheim & Co.’s field of activity to a large part of the Western Pacific Ocean and the exploding operating costs to maintain traffic between the three main stations on Yap, Jaluit and Matupi forced the company to consolidate in October 1882. Instead of small drifters, the inter-island traffic was increasingly provided by cheaper sailing ships and the import and export to and from Europe were outsourced to charter vessels. In the New Britain Archipelago, the number of trading stations was reduced and the exchange transaction was transferred to independent agents who regulated the traffic with local negotiators or suppliers in their own. From October 1885, through the partnership with Mouton, Dupré & Co. the former dealer Friedrich Schulle acted as a general agent for northern Gazelle Peninsula in New Ireland. The general agent for Yap was Robert Friedländer. He had been sent out by the Hamburg parent company since December 1883. A cutthroat competition in the Marshall Islands with the German Trade and Plantation Company of the South Sea Islands of Hamburg (Deutsche Handels- und Plantagen-Gesellschaft, DHPG) forced Hernsheim & Co. to unite their possessions there with those of their rivals.

Concentration on Matupi and Diversification (1886-1892)
Upon the declaration of protectorate status by the German Empire over the New Kingdom Archipelago (renamed thereafter as the Bismarck Archipelago) in late-1884, Hernsheim & Co. reacted with a restructuring of their company possessions. The branches on the Marshall and Yap islands were merged with those of the DHPG to form the Jaluit Company (Jaluit-Gesellschaft) in December 1887. In contrast, the Matupi branch was outsourced, taken over by Eduard Hernsheim in sole responsibility and converted into the Hernsheim & Co. OHG in 1888/89.

Following individual deliveries to SMS Habicht, Carola, Hyäne and Albatros, as well as to HMS Espiègle and Dart on the English side, Hernsheim & Co. OHG was able to get a coal supply contract with the Imperial German Navy signed by the Hamburg parent company Robertson & Hernsheim with the  British Royal Navy, extended repeatedly until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. This, as well as supply contracts with various small businesses and public entities in the German protectorate, including the Wesleyan Mission, allowed the company to cross-finance its co-buyer business and give it an competitive edge ahead of DHPG and E.E. Forsayth. Increasing profits from 1888 onwards led to its conversion into a limited partnership in 1901 and finally, in 1909, into a corporation  (Aktiengesellschaft) in the form of Hernsheim & Co. AG, based in Hamburg with a registered capital of 1.2 million marks.

Second Expansion and Plantation Economy (1893-1914)
Maximilian Thiel was in charge for new management on the Bismarck Archipelago which included the Admiralty Islands (Komuli and Manus stations), the Ninigo Islands, the Solomon Islands (Bouka and Choiseul stations), the St. Matthias Islands and the Portland Islands. Due to spacing issue the main station was relocated in 1912 from Matupi to Rabaul.

An intensive plantation strategy in the same veins as those of the DHPG and E.E. Forsayth was applied by the new Hernsheim & Co. AG. The company operated labor-intensive plantations involving the importation of foreign workers in the grasslands near Rabaul and on their property on Makada (Duke of York Islands), as well as on Nusa, Nusalik and Pakail (New Ireland). Through expanding their palm tree cultivation in 1912 the company increased its share capital by M 600,000.

Participation in the Melanesia Company (1928-1930)
After the end of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles, all possessions of Hernsheim & Co. AG in the former German New Guinea were confiscated by the Australian Mandate Authority. After the passing of the War Indemnification Law in 1928 the company received from Germany 13% of their recognized claim for damages in the sum of 14 million marks plus a rebuilding surcharge of 2%. Together with the Hamburg South Sea Company (Hamburgische Südsee-Aktiengesellschaft, HASAG), Hernsheim & Co. acquired a stake in the London-based Melanesia Company Ltd., which had acquired parts of both German companies’ properties in New Guinea. As a result of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Melanesia Company ran into trouble; a joint attempt by HASAG and Hernsheim & Co. to sell their shares failed. After a collapse of the copra market in 1930, the plantations run by the Melanesia Company had to be sold at such a low price that not even the preferred main creditors - which included neither HASAG nor Hernsheim & Co. - could be satisfied.

Ventures in Edéa (1928-1939)
As part of the so-called "prior compensation", Hernsheim & Co. AG received a share of 900,000 Reichsmarks, - of their recognized claim for damages from the Weimar government. The former managing director for the Bismarck Archipelago, Maximilian Thiel, now CEO in Hamburg, initially invested this sum in the Dutch East Indies. From 1928 he also participated in the production of palm oil in Edéa in French Cameroon. Because of further collapses in the copra and palm oil market, the company had to accept new heavy losses from 1930, so that a settlement was only possible through write-offs and the inclusion of a mortgage on the property in Edéa. After 1932, the shares of Hernsheim & Co. circulated only with a "memorial value" of 1 Reichsmark in the books. After losses had been written without exception in the following years, the company initiated liquidation on January 7, 1939.

title: Hernsheim & Co.


text:
undercoat

Noun

 * 1) A layer of short hairs underneath the longer ones of an animal's fur
 * 2) A coat of paint or other material applied onto a surface before that of a topcoat; a coloured primer.
 * 3)  A coat for wearing indoors, under an overcoat.
 * 1)  A coat for wearing indoors, under an overcoat.

Translations

 * Finnish: aluskarva
 * Slovene: podlanka

 * Finnish: pohjamaali ; välimaali
 * French:
 * Hungarian:, alapozó festék/réteg, ,
 * Irish: fo-bhrat
 * Maori: kiriwai

Verb

 * 1)  To apply an undercoat to.

title: undercoat


text:
Cookbook:Caraway

| Herbs and Spices Caraway, also called carroway, meridian fennel, and Persian cumin, refers to the plant Carum carvi. It is often confused with cumin, and both belong to the same family of spices.

Characteristics
All parts of the caraway plant are edible. The leaves are delicate and green with an mild and dill-like flavor.  The roots are similar to carrots and parsnips. They have a light yellow color and a mild flavor. Caraway seeds are small and crescent-shaped, and they may be confused with the closely-related fennel and cumin seeds. They are aromatic, containing s-carvone, limonene, and anethole, with a flavor of anise and pepper.

Selection and storage
The young leaves should be stored in the fridge after picking and washed before use. The roots can be stored like potatoes in a cool, dry place and peeled before use. They seeds should be stored dry in an airtight container away from light, heat, and moisture.

Leaves
Caraway leaves are aromatic and can be used like parsley or dill as an herb. They go well in salads and can also be used in cooking or as a garnish.

Roots
The roots can be cooked much like any other root vegetable. Once peeled, they can be roasted, boiled, and/or incorporated into soups and stews.

Seeds
Caraway seeds are extremely aromatic and used as a spice in cooking and baking. Especially in Europe, they flavor many dishes, including curries, stews, liqueurs, breads, vegetables, and more. One common and well-known caraway-containing food is rye bread.

Substitution
Caraway can sometimes be substituted by other spices in the same family like cumin, coriander, aniseed, fennel seed, and dill seed.

title: Cookbook:Caraway


text:
Talk:Strachowice, Wrocław

PL wiki
You can not link to a Polish wiki

https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strachowice_(Wroc%C5%82aw)

title: Talk:Strachowice, Wrocław


text:
inner planet

Noun

 * 1)  Any planet of the Solar System whose orbit is located between the asteroid belt and the sun, i.e., any of Mercury, Venus, Earth, or Mars.

Translations

 * Estonian: siseplaneet
 * Finnish:
 * French: planète interne
 * German: innere Planet
 * Hungarian:
 * Italian: pianeta interno
 * Spanish: planeta interno
 * Turkish: iç gezegen

title: inner planet


text:
User:Apolygon/sandbox

Bold text Task Force Template Contents: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_by_country_of_descent 1.Scope: This Task Force covers graphic design-related articles including subcategories of Women Graphic Designers, African American (Black) Designers, and Graphic Design Organizations. 2.Participants: All Participants can self add to this section by username; 3.To-Do: Add pages for Graphic Designers, and subcategories of Graphic Designers by Nationality. Add/edit pages for graphic design publications, organizations, publishers, books, and awards. 4.Guidelines Tagging Pages with both Graphic Design Task Force and Graphic Design Wiki Project seems appropriate Task Force Logo? Determine a complete Category /Sub-Category structure for Graphic Design If Graphic Design is at the Top how do we encourage the definition to be adjusted to include …more… For Works to be presented, a largely visual medium, do graphic designers even have the rights to display the works they have made over their career, or does this fall under fair use for educational purposes
 * 1) Nigel D Lake (talk) 16:54, 21 January 2022 (UTC)
 * 4.1 Tagging and Assessment
 * 4.2 Categories and Subcategories
 * 4.3 Templates
 * 4.4 Resources

-- - - - - - - - - - - Sandhaus's book on West Coast design history, Earthquakes, Mudslides, Fires and Riots: California and Graphic Design 1936-1986 was inspired by English architectural historian Reyner Banham.[9] The book received exceptional press coverage including reviews from The New York Times,[10] The Guardian (London),[11] The Los Angeles Review of Books,[12] and Eye magazine.[13] An exhibition including page spreads of the proposed book was held at Los Angeles Municipal Art Gallery in 2008.[14] It was during the research phase for this book that inspired Sandhaus to create the initial design of a repository for graphic design artifacts which were encountered in need of additional collaborative research and attribution called the People's Graphic Design Archive.

The People's Graphic Design Archive American designer Louise Sandhaus created The Archive during the research phase for Earthquakes, Mudslides, Fires and Riots: California and Graphic Design 1936-1986 as a repository for graphic design artifacts encountered still in need of additional collaborative research and attribution. Researcher and educator Briar Levitt at Portland State University and Brockett Horne from Maryland Institute College of Art joined the team to amplify entries and use of the Archine to the larger Design interested community. In _______ the PGDA was acquired by The Letterform Archive. With an infusion of grant monies, and talent. the Archive is scheduled to have a substantial relaunch on its final platform designed by ___________, ______________, and ______.

Sandhaus lives in Ojai, California.

title: User:Apolygon/sandbox


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Deh-e Hallaj

Deh-e Hallaj (, also Romanized as Deh-e Ḩallāj) is a village in Mazul Rural District, in the Central District of Nishapur County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 565, in 150 families.

title: Deh-e Hallaj


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Micaela Retegui

Micaela Retegui (born 23 April 1996) is an Argentine field hockey player. She is the daughter of Argentina's hockey coach Carlos Retegui. She plays with the Argentina national field hockey team, winning silver medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics.

Hockey career
In 2019, Retegui was called into the senior national women's team. She competed in the team that finished fourth at the 2019 Pro League in Amstelveen.

She won a bronze medal at the 2014 Youth Olympics in Nanjing. She won a gold medal at the 2019 Pan American Games.

title: Micaela Retegui


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2018–19 UEFA Nations League A

The 2018–19 UEFA Nations League A was the top division of the 2018–19 edition of the UEFA Nations League, the inaugural season of the international football competition involving the men's national teams of the 55 member associations of UEFA. League A culminated with the Nations League Finals in June 2019, which crowned Portugal as the inaugural champions of the UEFA Nations League.

Format
League A consisted of the top 12 ranked UEFA members, split into four groups of three. The winners of each group advanced to the UEFA Nations League Finals. The third-placed team of each group was initially to be relegated to the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League B, but remained in League A following UEFA's reformatting of the next edition's groups.

The Nations League Finals took place in June 2019 and was played in a knockout format, consisting of the semi-finals, third place play-off, and final. The semi-final pairings, along with the administrative home teams for the third place play-off and final, were determined by means of an open draw on 3 December 2018. Host country Portugal was selected among the four qualified teams on 3 December 2018 by the UEFA Executive Committee, with the winners of the final crowned as the inaugural champions of the UEFA Nations League.

The four group winners were drawn into groups of five teams for the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying competition (in order to accommodate for the Nations League Finals). In addition, League A was allocated one of the four remaining UEFA Euro 2020 places. Four teams from League A which had not already qualified for the European Championship finals competed in the play-offs, which were played in October and November 2020. The play-off berths were first allocated to the group winners, and if any of the group winners had already qualified for the European Championship finals, then to the next best ranked team of the league, etc. If there were fewer than four teams in League A which had not already qualified for the European Championship finals, the play-off berths would be allocated to the next best ranked team of the following league, etc. The play-offs consisted of two "one-off" semi-finals (best-ranked team vs. fourth best-ranked team and second best-ranked team vs. third best-ranked team, played at home of higher-ranked teams) and one "one-off" final between the two semi-final winners (venue drawn in advance between semi-final 1 and 2).

Seeding
Teams were allocated to League A according to their UEFA national team coefficients after the conclusion of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying group stage on 11 October 2017. Teams were split into three pots of four teams, ordered based on their UEFA national team coefficient. The seeding pots for the draw were announced on 7 December 2017.

The group draw took place at the SwissTech Convention Center in Lausanne, Switzerland on 24 January 2018, 12:00 CET.

Groups
The fixture list was confirmed by UEFA on 24 January 2018 following the draw.

Times are CET/CEST, as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).

Group 4

Nations League Finals
 The host of the Nations League Finals, Portugal, was selected from the four qualified teams. The semi-finals pairings were determined by means of an open draw, along with the administrative home teams for the third place play-off and final. The draw took place on 3 December 2018, 14:30 CET (13:30 local time), at the Shelbourne Hotel in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. For scheduling purposes, the semi-final pairing involving the host team was considered to be semi-final 1.

Times are CEST (UTC+2), as listed by UEFA (local times are in parentheses).

Overall ranking
The 12 League A teams were ranked 1st to 12th overall in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League according to the following rules:
 * The teams finishing first in the groups were ranked 1st to 4th according to the results of the Nations League Finals.
 * The teams finishing second in the groups were ranked 5th to 8th according to the results of the league phase.
 * The teams finishing third in the groups were ranked 9th to 12th according to the results of the league phase.

Prize money
The prize money to be distributed was announced in March 2018. Each team in League A received a solidarity fee of €1.5 million. In addition, the four group winners received double this amount via a €1.5M bonus fee.

The four group winners of League A, which participated in the Nations League Finals, also received the following fees based on performance:
 * Winners: €4.5M
 * Runners-up: €3.5M
 * Third place: €2.5M
 * Fourth place: €1.5M

This meant that the maximum amount of solidarity and bonus fees for a team from League A was €7.5M.

Euro 2020 qualifying play-offs
The four best teams in League A according to the overall ranking that did not qualify for UEFA Euro 2020 through the qualifying group stage were set to compete in the play-offs, with the winners qualifying for the final tournament. As Iceland were the only team in League A that did not qualify, the remaining three slots were allocated to teams identified according to the path formation rules to be the three best-ranked un-qualified non-group winners from League C not drawn to Path C.

title: 2018–19 UEFA Nations League A


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Statistics for Business Decisions

Statistics in Marketing
Marketing uses a number of statistical techniques both to better understand and target materials to certain groups of customers as well as to measure the effectiveness of various marketing efforts. Some of these techniques are listed below...

Indexing
The use of indexes can be used to help identify that certain subgroups of data are different from an established benchmark. For a simplified example, let's compare the population of a hypothetical country and the population of a hypothetical school by age group.

Let's call the percentage distribution for the country the benchmark (this serves as a ruler to compare other groups too). In this case we will take the school percentage distribution column and divide it by the benchmark's percentage distribution. This establishes a new column which we will call the index.

The index column in table B can identify that the age distribution in the school differs significantly from the benchmark (the population of the country). The index indicates how much more or less likely it is to encounter a given group.

 Applying Indexes

Indexes can be applied against multiple groups of people and multiple variables. This can aid in understanding how customers differ in certain geographical areas. It can also be used as a basic tool to find if customers you are wanting to target are more likely to live in certain areas.

title: Statistics for Business Decisions


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Dani Theunissen

Dani Theunissen (born 20 December 1999) is a Dutch footballer who plays as a forward.

Club career
He made his Eerste Divisie debut for NEC on 1 September 2017 in a game against FC Eindhoven.

title: Dani Theunissen


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Portal:Physical Sciences/WikiProjects

Content development projects exist on pages in "School:" or "Topic:" namespaces.
 * School of Biology
 * School of Chemistry
 * School of Electronics
 * School of Engineering
 * School of Geology
 * School of Hydrology
 * School of Meteorology
 * School of Physics and Astronomy

title: Portal:Physical Sciences/WikiProjects


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Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2

In this lesson you are going to learn how to read and write カ、キ、ク、ケ、コ. Adding two small lines called dakuten, but commonly known simply as  tenten, meaning "two marks", causes clear sounds to change to their voiced sound. Thus, adding the tenten marks will cause カ、キ、ク、ケ、コ to be produced ガ、ギ、グ、ゲ、ゴ.

title: Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2


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File talk:Tafresh University Logo.svg

How can I get the previous version of this logo
I have created this logo years ago. I created it form several JPG images and camera photos. And it was a little different than the original logo because it was simplified. But now I see that some parts are deleted and I don't have access to the original version. Is there any way to get the original version that I have created before? Sefid par (talk) 06:15, 15 June 2023 (UTC)

title: File talk:Tafresh University Logo.svg


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Tehama Inc.

Tehama is a Canadian  Software as a Service (SaaS) company headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario, that provides a virtual, cloud-based, Desktop-as-a-Service (DaaS) platform for the secure exchange of work over the internet, allowing organizations to securely manage remote workers, third-party vendors, and freelancers, and integrate them into their working environments.

History
Tehama began as a suite of virtual desktop, zero-trust network access, auditable secret and file sharing and workflow-automation technologies enabling secure, remote Internet-based work amongst the global workforce and clientele of Pythian, an IT services company founded in 1997. In September 2018, to offer the Tehama platform to the public, CEO and entrepreneur Paul Vallée launched Tehama as a subsidiary business unit of Pythian.

In September 2019, in response to a surge in demand for the Tehama platform, the Tehama unit was spun-off as a company in its own right, independent of Pythian. Financing for this venture was provided by the New York-based private equity firm Mill Point Capital, which thereby gained a majority stake in Pythian. Vallée left his position at Pythian to become Tehama's CEO.

As one of Tehama's core services facilitates remote work, the company saw a notable upswing in interest in March 2020 during the COVID-19 crisis, with a 35-fold increase in inquiries from the prior month. By May 2020, having seen its client base grow to more than 150, Tehama announced that it had raised US$10,000,000 through Series A funding round led by OMERS Ventures.

In July 2020, Tehama conducted the Digital by Default Summit, an online virtual conference on the subject of remote work, with particular focus on its greater adoption in the wake of the COVID-19 crisis. The event occurred again in 2021 and featured a closing fireside chat with remote work expert Kate Lister.

title: Tehama Inc.


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Logic gates/NAND

NAND Gate = "NOT"-"AND"  ~   Therefore this indicates that the result of the inputs placed through the gate will go through the AND operation and the NOT operation. The correct order of processing is: Step 1. Put the inputs through the AND operation. Step 2. From the results of the first step - invert (using the NOT operation). Step 3. Take the result from Step 2 as the output.

The NAND gate and the NOR gate can be said to be universal gates since combinations of them can be used to accomplish any of the basic operations and can thus produce an inverter, an OR gate or an AND gate. The non-inverting gates do not have this versatility since they can't produce an invert.

Rules of a NAND gate
The output is high when either of inputs A or B is high, or if neither is high. In other words, it is normally high, going low only if both A and B are high. The rules of the gate are represented in the truth table below:

Circuit Symbol
The NAND gate is represented within a circuit diagram using the following circuit symbol:

In the example to the left we can see that A & B are the inputs and the output is the result of A & B processed through the "AND" operation and then the value is inverted. This is represented using a method of notation called "DeMorgans Logic Notation".

Physical Representation
NAND Gates are mass produced in the form of an IC Chip. A fourteen pin IC chip for the NAND operation normally contains four individual NAND gates.

External References
This online text has a great deal of further information about circuit analysis, design and Boolean Algebra.

title: Logic gates/NAND


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Inevitable (Thud EP)

Inevitable is an EP by Thud, released in 1993 by Fifth Colvmn Records. In September 2018 the songs "Conflict" and "Search" received airplay on WMUC-FM when Gary Young of The Drooling Zoomers DJed them on his scheduled program The Irrelevant Show, which plays classic west-coast songs from the 1990s.

Personnel
Adapted from the Inevitable liner notes.

Thud
 * Robert Dotolo – lead vocals, guitar, production, mixing
 * Gregg Hudson – drums, production
 * Chris Rasley – bass guitar, production
 * Adam Rutland – guitar, production

Production and design
 * Craig Albertson – photography
 * Julie Horowitz – cover art, photography
 * Nikolas H. Huffman – cover art, design
 * Larry Packer – producer, engineering

title: Inevitable (Thud EP)


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Tolstovsky

Tolstovsky (Толстовский) is a rural locality (a settlement) and the administrative center of Tolstovsky Selsoviet, Kamensky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 615 as of 2013. There are 8 streets.

Geography
Tolstovsky is located 33 km southwest of Kamen-na-Obi (the district's administrative centre) by road. Tambovsky is the nearest rural locality.

title: Tolstovsky