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User:Selenaj03/sandbox

Precious Knowledge is a 2011 educational and political documentary that centers on the banning of the Mexican-American Studies (MAS) Program in the Tucson Unified School District (TUSD) of Arizona. The documentary was directed by Ari Luis Palos and was produced by Eren Isabel McGinnis, both founders of Dos Vatos Productions.

Precious Knowledge interweaves the stories of students and teachers in the Mexican-American Studies (MAS) Program–also known as "la Raza Studies"– at Tucson Magnet High School. It narrates the progression of local legislation proposed by the former Arizona Department of Education Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tom Horne, and other Arizona legislatures to eliminate the program, arguing that it fosters ethnic chauvinism and teaches "anti-American" values. The proponents of the program argue that the program has made a positive academic impact on the students and that the removal of the program would send an underlying message that Mexican-American students and their culture don't belong in America. Although the MAS Program was removed, MAS teachers and students challenged the banning at federal court. On August 22, 2017, a federal judge ruled that the ban on the program was racially discriminatory.

Content
= Plot = The opening scene introduces Crystal Terriquez, Priscila Rodriguez and Gilbert Esparza, all Mexican-American students participating in the Mexican-American Studies Program at Tucson High Magnet School in Tucson, Arizona. Crystal shares that she plans to attend college in order to set a proper example for her younger siblings. In the following scene, Priscila is shown preparing the dinner table and saying grace with her family. One seat at the dinner table is empty. Months earlier, Priscila's father had gone to the Department of Motor Vechicles (DMV) but failed to return home; their family was later informed of his detention and deportation due to his status as an undocumented immigrant. Priscila states that the MAS Program saved her from dropping out of high school during her freshman year and set her on a college-bound path. Sitting in a MAS Program classroom, Gilbert speaks about his academic struggles. After enrolling in the program, Glibert states that for the first time in his academic career he was enthralled by what he was being taught, resulting in an improvement of his grades. Over the course of the film, Crystal, Priscila, and Gilbert transform from reserved, disinterested individuals to academically challenged students—as well as engaged citizens within their community—advocating to keep the MAS Program alive.
 * 1. Plot
 * 2. After the film
 * 3. Production
 * 3.1 Directors
 * 4. Film Reception
 * 4.1 Awards
 * 5. References
 * 6. External links

Precious Knowledge also depicts the program's overall positive academic impact on students, citing a decrease in the dropout rate among Mexican-American students and an increase in the graduation rate. At the time, it was estimated that the dropout rate for Mexican-American students across the United States was approximately 50%. This percentage rate was particularly startling for the Tucson Unified School District given that their Latino student population was around 32,500.

According to Dr. Agustine Romero, the Director of Student Equity of Tucson United School District, who's featured in the documentary, the educational experience of the majority of Latino children had been inadequate for some time in the United States. In the 1950's, Chicano students were prohibited from speaking Spanish in school. In addition, minority students were subjected to corporal punishment at a 4:1 ratio, and Chicano and Chicana students were placed in vocational classes rather than college preparatory courses. In the 1960's, the Chicano Movement emerged as a result of the educational inequalities that generations of Mexican-American students faced during the preceding decades. In 1997, the Tucson city council established a study committee to determine ways to decrease the dropout rate among Latino students and boost educational success among this group. As a result, the Tucson school board voted to create the Hispanic Studies Department which later evolved into the MAS Program. At the time in which Precious Knowledge was being filmed, TUSD reported that students enrolled in ethnic studies courses were demonstrating "significant improvement" on Arizona standardized tests and that the graduation rate within that student group increased to 93%.

The following scene then introduces two MAS Program teachers, Curtis Acosta and José Gonzalez, who create a learning environment influenced by what they call the 'social justice pedagogy,' " influenced the book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed by Paulo Freire. Gonzalez, who teaches American government with a social justice perspective, explains that they teach students to “seek the root of the truth, [and] that in that truth there is a greater justice.” They emphasize "the importance of culture, politics, commitment to their community and social activism—factors that contribute to the transformation of students’ lives."  The next scene cuts to Acosta, who teaches Latino Literature. Described by the Huffington Post as "a Latino version of Robin Williams' portrait of the inspiring poetry teacher in the film classic, Dead Poets Society,"'' Acosta is characterized in the documentary as a charismatic, energetic teacher whom the students grow to trust and even consider as a father figure. Everyday, at the start of Acosta's class he leads students in a recitation of “In Lak’ech,” a poem by Luis Valdéz, a Chicano playwright. The poem starts with, “You are my other me/ If I harm you / I do harm to myself / If I love and respect you / I love and respect myself.”

In attempts to offer a balanced coverage on the controversy surrounding the MAS Program, Precious Knowledge also explores the views held by those advocating to shutdown the program. Tucson Unified School District Superintendent Tom Horne makes an early appearance in Precious Knowledge, but his viewpoints are only fully explored until the latter half of the documentary. Horne denounces the MAS Program, claiming that it breeds racial segregation by “treating students separately due to ethnicity.” Ironically, the following scene shows students reading hate comments left online about them: "the race studies program teaches Tucson students to hate America.. what a great use of our tax dollars," one user writes. In response, students engage in meaningful dialogue to brainstorm project ideas to bring their community closer together.

The filmmakers also document the multiple attempts made by members of the Arizona legislature to pass bills aimed at terminating the MAS Program. The proposed bills shown in the documentary include Arizona Senate Bill (SB) 1108, Arizona Senate Bill (SB) 1069, Arizona House Bill (HB) 2281 and Arizona Senate Bill (SB) 1070. Introduced on April 16, 2008 by State Senator Russell Pearce, SB 1108 sought to authorize the Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tom Horne, to withhold public monies and take regulatory action if a public school was found to include curriculum that conflicted with the values of American citizenship. Although not explicitly stated, the legislation appeared aimed largely at the Tucson Unified School District's ethnic studies programs and ethnic-based organizations by characterizing them as “anti-American." In support of SB 1108, State Representative John Kavanagh testified:"'This bill basically says, you're here. Adopt American values... if you want a different culture, then fine, go back to that culture.'"Tucson resident Laura Leighton stated:"'We find that hate and revolution is being taught in their books. Mexico I believe is orchestrating this and they have an agenda known as 'la reconquista,' the reconquest. Many of our Chicano elected officials I believe are working directly for Mexico and towards the take over...'"

Governor Janet Napolitano threatened to veto the bill if it made it to her desk. However, her veto wasn't required because the bill died on the House side of the legislature. SB 1069 was introduced into the legislature by Pearce during the next session. Similar to SB 1108, SB 1069 sought to eliminate ethnic studies classes by threatening to cut 10 percent of any school district or charter school's monthly funds if they continued to offer ethnic studies classes. Pearce characterized the MAS Program as "anti-American" and hate-mongering. Mariah Harvey, a MAS Program student, attended the session.

She testified:"'It doesn't teach us to be anti-American. It teaches us to embrace America, all of its flaws and all. But certain things like racism, and certain things like oppression do exist. And we go for these classes first off from hearsay, because people that have graduated and gone to these classes have said nothing but positive things. They figure out who they really are as human being and they figure out how to handle situations to their best abilities. So the word 'anti-American' isn't even relevant in our classes.'"The next scene shows Horne being questioned by State Senator Richard Miranda. Miranda asks Horne why he hadn't visited the raza classes despite having been invited. Horne initially denies having been contacted by the MAS Program teachers, but he retracts his statement after being told that there was evidence that proved the teachers had in fact reached out to him. Miranda appears skeptic of Horne's intentions given that he was attempting to eliminate the ethnic studies program without having ever stepped foot in a MAS class. Romero also makes an appearance at the meeting, and he is interrogated by John Huppenthal who was a state senator at the time. "In terms of how we interact with students, parents and community, it's about understanding respect and appreciation. That has led to the place where our students perform academically much better than the students not in our courses. That's something that should be applauded," Romero stated. Huppenthal counters by questioning the program's use of the textbook Pedagogy of the Oppressed due to its references to Marx, Lenin, Mao, Che Guevara and Fidel Castro. "Our suspicion is [that] inside these classes these students are being indoctrinated by people who are in power to have a certain mindset of us versus them," Huppenthal states. Despite the testimony from MAS Program supporters, SB 1069 passed out of the committee to be voted on by the full legislature.

Precious Knowledge chronicles the days leading up to the bill's final vote deadline. Acosta, Gonzalez and students of the MAS program along with members of the community gather to run 110 miles from Tucson to the Arizona State Capitol in Phoenix. That afternoon, the bill ultimately failed to pass, but it wasn't the last time legislatures would challenge the program's legality. Shortly after, Governor Napolitano became former President Obama's new Director of Homeland Security, and she was replaced by Jan Brewer, who had been serving as the Secretary of State of Arizona. Lawmakers grew confident that they could pass two pieces of legislation aimed partly against ethnic studies programs: SB 1070 and HB 2281.

Rhetoric against the MAS Program increased, as demonstrated by cameos of raza studies opponents at a peaceful march orchestrated by MAS Program students, teachers and community leaders to protest the impending ban of ethnic studies. As the students march and chant "Si se puede," counter-demonstrators yell back "U.S.A!" One group white counter-demonstrators are shown burning a Mexican flag.

In one the documentary's scenes, Huppenthal accepts an invitation to visit Acosta's class as part of his research for deciding what his vote would be for the passage of HB 2281. As usual, the class begins by students reciting the poem "In Lak'ech." Huppenthal expresses some of his concerns about the program: "...[we're] concerned that you're breaking away from traditions that we know resulted in freedom and prosperity. There's a real fear when we see books like Pedagogy of the Oppressed... that we're going, 'you know, that's Marxist, Leninist, Collectivist.' That's part of the fear that people have about these kind of studies." One student then challenges Huppenthal's remarks: "But the Civil Rights Movement was something that everybody was afraid of, right?" At one point, Huppenthal takes issue with a poster of Che Guevara hanging on the classroom wall. He wonders why there's not a poster of Benjamin Franklin instead. In he background, one of the program's directors states, "Benjamin Franklin also warned the country of the darkening of the country. And he was against the inclusion of the tawnian [dark skinned] people." Another program director also takes a stand: "It's not a disregard of those founding fathers, but we try to encourage in our students and facilitate a process wherein we have the courage to examine our history for what it is." Later with an interview with the filmmakers, Huppenthal discloses that he didn't think his visit reflected what a typical day was in a MAS class. At the Senate Education Committee voting session for SB 2281, Huppenthal speaks about his visit to Acosta's class. He states that while he was in the classroom, "the founder of la Raza started talking about Benjamin Franklin being a racist" and that he thought that it was "completely inappropriate to trash our founding fathers [who] put their lives on the line for our freedom and prosperity." HB 2281 was approved and sent to Governor Jan Brewer for her signature.

In the next sequence, the film captures students participating in another rally, this time against HB 2281. Acosta gives the following speech to participants:"'We're standing [here] today with and for our community in peaceful protest to the most hateful legislative session in our state's history. And we stand here today with the stories in history of our families–abuelitos, abuelitas and antepasados– who have walked this continent freely for thousands of years, have given their strength of their backs and hands to build this United States and [have] sacrifice[ed] their own blood in defending this country. Regardless of what anybody else says, we have taught you love.'"Later at the rally, the Tucson Brown Berets make an appearance to demonstrate their support. A picture of them is displayed one week later at a press conference held by Margaret Dugan, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Horne. Dugan explains that the picture of students wearing brown shirts, bandannas and sunglasses demonstrates that the MAS Program is teaching kids to hate the United States. Horne adds that "students are being taught a revolutionary curriculum" and that "anybody who says that kids can't learn unless they're subject to that kind of militancy is the clearest example of racism that [he] could think of."

The sequential segment shows students, teachers and community members staging a sit-down at the state building where Dugan and Horne are holding their press conference. The students' chants are heard inside as a journalist asks Horne if he's ever attended a MAS class. Horne explains that his visit would probably affect what the students were being taught on that particular day and he would therefore not get a true picture of what went on in the classroom. He adds that if he was later asked what went on in the classroom, he would would have to say "well it was just this benign class." The students don't get a chance to speak to Horne. Instead, four students and eleven adults are arrested for refusing to leave the state building. They tell a reporter that it was "worth it to make this strong statement."

Despite their best efforts, Governor Jan Brewer signed HB 2281 into law. According to Precious Knowledge, MAS Program teachers proceeded to file an anti-discrimination civil lawsuit in order to prevent the implementation of the law.

The last day of school is also documented. In both Acosta's and Gonzalez's classrooms, students are in a somber mood, yet there also seems to be some hope left within them. Gonzalez tells his students to "always look in the mirror, look at [their] heart, know [their] heart and have Quetzalcoatl precious knowledge of who [they] are as a human being."

Acosta and his students appear very emotional. He tells his students that despite the attacks and hateful comments that he endured, his students made it worth it. "The struggle hasn't ended and it will never end, but it will continue because of us," Crystal says.

Although the outcome wasn't what the students wanted, this experience changed their lives. In one of the closing scenes, MAS students, particularly Crystal, Priscila, and Gilbert, are filmed at their graduation ceremony. Priscila is shown attending the University of Arizona, Crystal gets a tattoo of a hummingbird as a reminder of huitzilopochtli and Gilbert reflects on the lessons he's learned.

The closing credits reveal that before becoming Attorney General, Tom Horne "declared the [MAS] classes in violation of the [HB 2281] and stated that the district's only avenue to compliance was through the elimination of the Raza Studies program." Tucson United School District was forced to cancel the MAS classes and reassign the teachers of the program as a result. Despite its removal, the MAS Program influenced the creation of several ethnic studies programs across the United States. According to Precious Knowledge, the program served as a model in the following places: San Francisco Unified School District, Houston Independent School District, School District of Philadelphia, Los Angeles Unified School District, New Haven Unified School District, Boston Public Schools, Sacramento City Unified School District and Pomona Unified School District.

After the film
In 2011, following the events of the film, an audit was performed by the request of John Huppenthal in hopes of findings justifications to remove the program. However, the audit’s findings showed that the program was in line with the bill passed into law, HB 2281. Despite the results of the audit, the Arizona state government informed the TUSD that it would lose $14 million of funding if the program were to continue. As a result, the Tucson United School District cut the Mexican-American studies (MAS) program in early 2012.

Certain books taught in MAS Program classrooms were also banned from TUSD school for the same reasons used to eliminate the MAS Program. The follow works were accused of presenting "anti-American" sentiments and creating resentment toward America. According to eyewitness reports by MAS students, the books were confiscated by school officials in front of students. One student noted, "We were in shock... it was very heartbreaking to see hat happening in the middle of class."
 * 1) 500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures edited by Elizabeth Martinez
 * 2) Chicano! The History of the Mexican Civil Rights Movement by Arturo Rosales
 * 3) Critical Race Theory by Richard Delgado
 * 4) Message to Aztlan by Rodolfo Corky Gonzales
 * 5) Occupied America: A History of Chicanos by Rodolfo Acuña
 * 6) Pedagogy of the Oppressed by Paulo Freire
 * 7) Rethinking Columbus: The Next 500 Years, edited by Bill Bigelow and Bob Peterson.

In March of 2013, Curtis Acosta and other teachers and students of the program took the issue to federal court. They challenged the legality of HB 2281 and its application, with the hope that if it were overturned, the MAS program would be reinstated. The plaintiffs took issue with (1) the constitutionality of HB 2281; (2) the fact that there was no “legal justification to eliminate the Mexican-American Studies Program”, (because it was in line with the law, evidenced by the audit performed in 2011); and (3) the vague language of the law, which presented opportunity for discriminatory misinterpretation. Ultimately, the federal district court left the law mostly intact. The court nullified only the section of the statute, that restricted classes "designed for a particular ethnic group," because it infringed upon their First Amendment. Unsatisfied with the results, the plaintiffs—at this point reduced to two students Korina Lopez and Maya Arce, as well as the director of the MAS program, Sean Arce (also Maya’s father)—filed an appeal. The case went to the U.S. Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit on July 7, 2015, as Arce v. Douglas. The appellate court decided to return the case to the district court to give the plaintiffs a trial on their claims of racial discrimination.

On August 22, 2017, Judge A. Wallace Tashima ruled that "both enactment and enforcement [of] [HB 2281] were motivated by racial animus." He further added that HB 2281 demonstrated prejudice against Latino student, thus violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Judge Tashima also ruled that HB 2281 "violated students' [first] Amendment 'right to receive information and ideas.'" Racist blog posts and comments from Huppenthal also influenced Judge Tashima's ruling. While he was Arizona's Superintendent, Huppenthal used the pseudonyms "Thucydides" and "Falcon 9" to attack the MAS Program. In one comment, Huppenthal wrote, "Mexican American Studies classes use the same technique that Hitler used in his rise to power." Another comment left by him also said, "No spanish radio stations, no spanish billboards, no spanish tv stations, no spanish newspapers. This is American speak English... I don't mind them selling Mexican food as long as the menus are mostly in English."

In an interview with Ari Bloomekatz, Curtis Acosta spoke about the court's ruling. He stated, "We knew we had the truth on our side, we knew what we went through. We knew who these people were who did this to us, and it’s just after so many years of being told you’re crazy, and we have tinfoil hats, and down is up and up is down, it was just shocking to hear the clarity and the affirmation, the validity of our program, of my colleagues and me. Our integrity was restored through a 9th Circuit judge."

The large controversy and banning of the program in Arizona led to a rapid spread of school districts in California and Texas to consider Mexican-American Studies programs. The result of this controversy also led Acosta to start a consulting business in 2013 meant to further spread ethnic studies classes in the states of California, Oregon, Texas and Washington by guiding the creation process and training of such a program in these states.

According to the Arizona Daily Star, it is unlikely that the MAS program will be reinstated. The fate of the program rests in the hands of the Tucson Unified School District Board. Since the program was eliminated, the district has been "developing 'culturally relevant courses' to replace ethnic studies programming."

Production
Ari Luis Palos and Eren Isabel McGinnis began filming Precious Knowledge on October 31, 2008, after being granted permission by the Tucson Unified School District. The filmmakers were allowed complete access to the ethnic studies program in Tucson Magnet High School throughout the 2008-2009 school year. Early on, they planned to use a combination of interviews, footage from the inside and outside the MAS classrooms to convey the stories.

Directors
Eren Isabel McGinnis and Ari Luis Palos, filmmakers for Precious Knowledge, had a long history of filming documentaries centered on minorities before embarking on this project. According to McGinnis, their films “give voice to communities often silenced or stereotyped by mainstream media.” Eren Isabel McGinnis was also particularly invested in this film because she had a son attending Tucson High School during the controversy. Furthermore, both filmmakers are of Mexican descent and have a “deep reverence and love of all things Mexican”

McGinnis also revealed the meaning behind the film’s title in an interview that appeared in The Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States (MELUS), an academic journal. “Precious knowledge” is a reference to Mayan concepts that say to “self-reflect (Tezcatlipoca), seek out precious and beautiful knowledge (Quetzalcoatl), begin to act (Huitzilopochtli) and ultimately transform (Xipe Totec).” The documentary's focus on Quetzalcoatl—precious knowledge—highlights what the activists in the film are fighting for. This and other emphases on Aztec heritage throughout the film reveal the intent by the filmmakers to remind students of their own deep history and their indigenous ancestors. With this knowledge, Eren McGinnis hopes to support the same message supported by the Mexican-American Studies program that these Mexican-American students “are not ‘outsiders’ or invaders” to this country.

= Film reception = Precious Knowledge received positive reviews from nationwide and local outlets. Since its premiere on Independent Lens on May 17, 2012, the documentary is often screened at colleges across the country.

The Huffington Post published the following review:"“Casting aside the inflammatory rhetoric and national headlines of the anti-ethnic-studies instigators, Precious Knowledge provides a clear-eyed portrait of students, teachers and their community struggling to deal with the nation’s most unnerving campus witch hunt in recent memory. Tracing the political roots of the legislative ban—and the program’s own mandate and success to alleviate the long-time achievement gaps among Latino students—Precious Knowledge‘s riveting pacing and compelling portraits will astonish, infuriate and inspire viewers. In truth, Precious Knowledge is the type of unique and powerful film that could ultimately shift public perception and policy on one of the most misunderstood education programs in the country.”"ReadTheSpirit, an online magazine, wrote the following on Precious Knowledge: "'We would argue that the importance of this film is not to encourage name calling or to dismiss Horne and Huppenthal as eccentric monsters. Rather, they represent a strong political point of view that is popular with millions of Americans. Seeing the film is an important step toward understanding the broader cost of these “get tough” campaigns. In this case, a generation of teenagers are barred from an experience that seems to have been very healthy for many kids in recent years.'"The Arizona Daily Star said:"'If there is one dominant, indisputable quality about ethnic studies, as shown in the documentary, is that the program empowers students and motivates them to learn.'"

Awards
The film received the following recognitions:
 * 1) Audience Favorite and Special Jury Award, San Diego Latino Film Festival (2011)
 * 2) Honorable Mention in the Best Documentary Category, Los Angeles Latino International Film Festival (2011)
 * 3) Premio Mesquite for Best Documentary, Cine Festival at the Guadalupe Cultural Art Center in San Antonio, Texas (2012)

title: User:Selenaj03/sandbox


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National Route 27 (Costa Rica)

National Primary Route 27, or just Route 27 (Ruta Nacional Primaria 27, or Ruta 27) is a National Road Route of Costa Rica, is a route which connects the Greater Metropolitan Area to Caldera Port and the Pacific coast of the country.

There are two named segments, from San José to Santa Ana the name is Carretera Nacional Próspero Fernández, and from Santa Ana to Caldera the name is Carretera Nacional José María Castro Madriz (José María Castro Madriz National Road), also known as Autopista San José-Caldera (San José-Caldera Highway),

Description
The design of the route dates from 1978, due to financial, political and bad management, it was opened thirty-two years later, in several segments since 2005.

The route begins next to the National Gymnasium in Mata Redonda district of San José canton, and continues west with four lanes, two in each direction, then from the loop road Route 39 to the toll booths in Escazú there are six lanes, three in each direction. Afterward, until Ciudad Colón there are four lanes, two in each direction, then only two lanes, one in each direction until the junction with Route 23 at Caldera Port in Puntarenas.

In San José province the route covers San José canton (Hospital, Mata Redonda districts), Escazú canton (San Rafael district), Santa Ana canton (Pozos, Uruca, Piedades, Brasil districts).

In Alajuela province the route covers Alajuela canton (San Antonio, Guácima, San Rafael, Turrúcares districts), Atenas canton (Jesús, Concepción, Escobal districts), Orotina canton (Orotina, El Mastate, Hacienda Vieja, Coyolar, La Ceiba districts).

In Puntarenas province the route covers Esparza canton (Caldera district).

In the holidays, the route becomes mostly a single direction highway eastwards from Caldera to San José in advantage of the returning beach goers coming back to the Greater Metropolitan Area.

Toll booths
There are four toll booths at San Rafael de Escazú, San Rafael de Alajuela, Atenas and Orotina.

History
In 1973, the José Figueres Ferrer administration decided to relocate the main Pacific port from Puntarenas to Caldera bay, making it evident that with a new highway connecting Ciudad Colón with Orotina, the new port would be only 80 km from San José, just an hour away.

In the mid-1970s, a preliminary design was drafted along the left (south) margin of the Virilla River (crossing towns such as El Rodeo, Piedras Negras and San Pablo de Turrubares) that seemed the most economical, passing through low-cost uncultivated lands. But over time the elected design was along the right (north) margin of the river (La Guácima, Turrúcares, Concepción), which had more expensive lands for expropriation.

The financial crisis in the early 1980s prevented further progress. However, in 1986 in the first government of Óscar Arias (1986–1990), US$40 million was obtained from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) to build the new road, although that administration finished without the loan being used. The same happened during the four-year period of Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier (1990-1994). The country didn't take advantage of the resources that had been made available, and the IDB withdrew the offered money upon expiration of the loan period of use. The country uselessly paid US$3 million in interest during this time.

At the end of the 1990s, without available financing, a private concession was considered, but it was necessary for the government to acquire more than half of the required lands, an opportunity that the owners took to their advantage to inflate the prices. Although they were reported to the Public Prosecutor's Office in 1997, it was considered that such abuse is not criminalized in the Criminal Code. In total, it took about twenty years to acquire the land for this work of public interest. Several major bridges were constructed in 1997 with US$25 million borrowed from Venezuela. They were completed and inaugurated in the administration of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez (1998–2002), and the road, which did not yet exist, was also inaugurated and named.

The administration of Abel Pacheco (2002–2006) tendered the project by concession in 2004, and only one bid was received, from the Argentine company José Cartellone, which soon went bankrupt. The company tried to give the contract to SNC-Lavalin of Canada, but a year later withdrew on the basis that the right of way was not yet available. When the second administration of Óscar Arias (2006–2010) arrived, the concession was negotiated directly with the Spanish company Autopistas del Valle, a winner of the San José-San Ramón highway since 2005, but it did not obtain immediate financing.

Finally, a sister consortium of Autopistas del Valle, called Autopistas del Sol, was hired to build the Ciudad Colón-Orotina section and also to improve the La Sabana-Ciudad Colón and Orotina-Caldera sections, which were already built. This raised the cost to US$120 million. The company claimed that the road would cost 3 times more (US$370 million) than budgeted. The road infrastructure was mostly completed five years after initially expected, but this delay was not penalized. The road designs that were used were more than 30 years old, and were already obsolete by the time that they were being built, but they were used nonetheless because changing them would have involved a larger budget and more expropriations.

The toll collection charged to the concessionaire began while the route was still unfinished. Users were very critical of the amount to be paid and the location of the collection booths. In addition, the concessionaire managed to get the contract to include a guarantee of a "minimum annual income", so that if the toll collected does not reach the expected amount, the government will have to pay the remainder.

With such controversies and without having been completed in its entirety, the road officially opened on January 27, 2010, with an intense and continuous period of construction from January 9, 2008.

Since then, the highway was delivered and managed by Autopistas del Sol with a public works concession contract (Law 7762 of Costa Rica) for its maintenance, for an extended period of 25 years. Together with the Constructora San José-Caldera, the concessionaire worked overtime to finish as soon as possible.

In March 2014 Autopistas del Sol sold most of its shares to the Spanish company Globalvia Infraestructuras, with which the latter assumed control of the concession.

To carry out the work, technologies such as hydro-demolition, rubblizing, the use of carbon fiber and the manufacture and extension of asphalts were implemented. On average, the trip to Caldera can be done in just over an hour, when it would take up to two hours by using Route 1.

Future widening
As the 1970s design proved to be obsolete upon opening due to having only one lane in each direction for most of the route, there have been plans to widen the road. For example, in 2017 Costa Rica’s National Concessions Council (CNC) noted that the road had reached a saturation point of 70 percent, which qualified for expansion. In 2020, the Costa Rican government and the current concessionaire Globalvia signed a letter of understanding to negotiate a process for conducing studies on the expansion of the road from San Jose to Caldera. It is estimated that this road expansion work would cost about $600 million. This would likely be paid for by extending the concession contract to Globalvia for a further 15 years beyond the expiration of the current concession. The anticipated first phase of widening is set to involve the area between the National Gymnasium and the Siquiares exchange and will include the construction of a new overpass to unload traffic at the highway’s terminus. The Costan Rican National Development and Public Investment Plan 2023-2026 calls for this widening work to be 75% complete by 2026.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: National Route 27 (Costa Rica)


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Portal:Education/Learn/Learning Projects

 * Educational Wikis
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 * How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school
 * Introduction to Learning Objects
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User:Historybuff/overview

Just a spot for scribbling really.

Map of CS Space

My Learning list: Hitler%27s Germany

Learning the Basics of French/Lesson:Introducing Yourself/1

Stuff I'm involved with: School:Computer Science Topic:Operating Systems Category:Computer Science Topic:Internet Audio and Video Topic:Computer Programming Topic:Databases

Stuff that I've started: Extreme Programming Preschool Project Fundraising

Should try to make some friends at Portal:Engineering and Technology, since we are under their wing.

Also, the guys on the German edition seem like smart cookies -- setting up some communications with them might be smart.

Staff at the University Student area Teaching advice

Tool to see what are the most viewed pages General WV report - comprehensive

Quote  IRC is very popularr within Wikimedia Foundation projects...but it is very "last century"  lol @ last century  NOW I'm OLD. :)  Sheesh WikizineHB: why? were you around when people chatted by exchanging punchcards?

I learned my first practical thing at Wikiversity 2007-01-22 @ 3:06 - question on a motor - CQ gave me some help and a link A dash of Lectra Clean[tm] might help -> RadioShack has some good stuff too that cleans and lubricates can think of the name off hand Do NOT use WD40! Neat stuff: Find out what version of MediaWiki we are on: Special:Version Info on Canadian non profit status

List of dangerous people (because inspiring can be dangerous :P) on wikiversity:
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title: User:Historybuff/overview


text:
Vlad Voroninski

Vlad Y. Voroninski (born 21 March 1985) is a Russian-American mathematician and entrepreneur.

Academic biography
Voroninski received his B.S. and M.A degrees in Applied Mathematics from UCLA in 2008, summa cum laude. He earned his Ph.D. in mathematics from UC Berkeley in 2013, under the supervision of Emmanuel Candes and John Strain. He was on the faculty at the MIT Mathematics Department from 2013 to 2016.

Research
Voroninski's PhD thesis kicked off the study of phase retrieval in the applied mathematics community, by providing the PhaseLift algorithm along with the first mathematical recovery guarantees for phase retrieval. His research has also led to solutions to open problems in computer vision, quantum operator theory, optimization and the theory of deep learning and compressive sensing. More recently, Voroninski's research connected the fields of deep learning and inverse problems, resolving the sample complexity bottleneck for compressive phase retrieval.

Awards and honors
Voroninski was awarded the 2014 SIAM Outstanding Paper Prize, given to works that "exhibit originality, for example, papers that bring a fresh look at an existing field or that open up new areas of applied mathematics". His PhD thesis was awarded the university-wide Bernhard Friedman Memorial Prize from UC Berkeley. In addition he has received the SIAM Student Paper Prize and SIGEST Review Awards from SIAM.

He received the George E.G. Sherwood Prize from the UCLA Mathematics Department in 2008, which is awarded to the top graduating senior, as well as the Computing Research Association Outstanding Undergraduate Award in 2007.

Entrepreneurship
From 2014 to 2016, Voroninski was the founding Chief Scientist at Sift Security, a cybersecurity machine learning startup which was acquired by Netskope in 2018. As of 2016, Voroninski is the CEO and co-founder of Helm.ai, a stealth mode AI software startup focusing on autonomous driving.

title: Vlad Voroninski


text:
Calm Like a Bomb

"Calm Like a Bomb" is a song by American rock band Rage Against the Machine from their third album The Battle of Los Angeles. Like their song "Tire Me" from the 1996 album Evil Empire, “Calm Like a Bomb” never had a music video or was released on any media formats. It did, however, receive enough radio airplay to become an album favorite.

The artwork most commonly associated with the song is from a competition the band held for the then upcoming album The Battle of Los Angeles. Competing artists were given titles to put on their covers including "Agunzagun", "Battle Hymns", and "The Battle of Los Angeles". One of the titles was even a verse from “Calm Like a Bomb” - "The Riot Be the Rhyme of the Unheard". Tom Morello eventually used the name "Battle Hymns" for a track on his debut album, One Man Revolution in 2007.

"Calm Like a Bomb" is notable as a display of guitarist Tom Morello's creative use of a whammy pedal. Like many of RATM's songs, the song's lyrics take a radical and violent approach to the topic of social inequalities. The song also features a reference to Emiliano Zapata. Tim Commerford uses a combination of a home-made overdrive pedal and the Jim Dunlop 105Q Bass Wah pedal on his bass throughout the song. In Rolling Stone magazine's feature article on the new "Guitar Heroes," a section was printed about Tom Morello, and “Calm Like a Bomb” was cited as the prime example of his skill and fame on the guitar. He has occasionally referred to the extremely high whammy-pedal effects used in songs such as this as "pterodactyl sounds."

"Calm Like a Bomb" made its live debut on June 11, 1999, at the K-Rock Dysfunctional Family Picnic in Wantagh, New York at Jones Beach Amphitheater.

It was prominently featured in the ending credits of The Matrix Reloaded and was also included in the film's soundtrack.

title: Calm Like a Bomb


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Getting started with sound recording

This page is for material on sound recording - what you need to record sound, and how to get started. Please add ideas or information if you have any knowledge or interest in the area.

What is Sound Recording?

Sound Recording essentially means capturing a piece of sound onto a storage media, so as to archive it and review it afterwards. It is not just storing sounds but also maintaining its quality, i.e., the playback of the recorded sound must be an exact imitation of the original sound that was recorded. To do this we need the proper equipment, and some essential skills and knowledge.

What do you record sound with and what do you record into?

Steps in Digital Recording
Digital recording is accomplished using a DAW - Digital Audio Workstation. A DAW can be a stand-alone unit or the combination of a computer and software.

 * Step 1: Sound (vibration of air molecules) is captured by the diaphragm of a microphone and is converted into an electrical signal. This is the analog step.

 * Step 2: As the electrical signal is very low (mic-level), it must be amplified by a pre-amplifier to line level.

 * Step 3: The amplified electrical signal is converted to a digital sample containing binary digits (bits) by the A/D Converter (analogue to digital converter). Higher voltages are assigned larger numbers, and the maximum/range is dependent on the bit depth (CD-quality is 16-bit, DVD-audio is 24-bit). The number of samples every second is based on the sample rate (CD-quality is 44.1 kHz, maximum DVD-audio is 192 kHz).

 * Step 4: The digital information is stored on a medium such as a hard drive.

 * Latency Correction: Step 1 to 4 requires time and if you are recording track by track (first track guitar, second track voice), then you play back the first track and you record the second track. That is not a problem, if you just record one track. The latency can be measured by recording one track with short clicks and you play back the clicks with the speakers and then you record the clicks from the speakers with a microphone. Zoom in and mark the shift of the first click in track 1 and the first click in track 2. At the bottom of audacity you can see the length of the marked section in milliseconds, that is the latency of your recording device (125 milliseconds). Set the latency settings of your device as e.g. -125 milliseconds. After this latency correction all recorded tracks are in sync.

For listening to your recordings a similar, but reversed, process of step 1 to 4 is used to play back the recorded audio.

The Wikipedia has more information on DAWs.

Digital vs Analog
The sound wave in the air isn't 'sound' until it is captured by a transducer. The human ear is a transducer. It takes the variations in the air pressure caused by something, such as the vibration of a guitar string, and converts it (transduces it) into something that the brain interprets as sound. A microphone is a transducer that converts the variations in air pressure into electrical signals which are then an 'analog' of the sound. This audio can be recorded to tape and stay analog or it can be converted to digital information and stored in a file on a computer hard drive.

Equipment
At first, you will want convenience, ease of use, and low cost. But you will rapidly come to the limits of this path as you gain more knowledge and experience. You may still want convenience and ease of use, but more features and more flexibility will become more important to you as time goes by.

For the modern person, a DAW (Digital Audio Workstation) is the mainstay of recording. Basically, a DAW is your computer. The sound is captured by a transducer, such as a mic, or the pick up of an electric guitar, sent to an audio interface or sound card where it is converted to digital and processed through the software and stored on disk.

For a decent set up one will need a good computer (modern laptops will do), audio software, a USB or Firewire hardware audio interface and a transducer (mic, guitar, etc.) connected to the interface with a cable.

Simple setups are effectively the same, though the sound quality will suffer using the soundcard in any modern computer. You've probably seen the mic input jack on your computer. This will work, but it's not that hard to set up an external hardware audio interface. Prices range from below $200 to thousands of dollars.

The hardware audio interface connects to your computer through USB or Firewire. There are interfaces that are cards that fit into the computer in a slot or through PCMCIA and ExpressCard slots, but these are more expensive. The easiest is to stick with a USB or Firewire interface.

Some brands of audio interface are MOTU, M-Audio, Echo Digital Audio and Tascam. A quick search on your favorite search engine for 'hardware audio interface' will give an overwhelming list of options. It comes down to budget. Spend the most that you reasonably can, cutting corners here will lead to problems down the road. This part of the discussion is a whole world in itself, but a two or three evenings researching the topic will lead one to an option that works within a budget and allows for expansion in the future.

Briefly, the major considerations are:

1) How much audio do I need to record at one time? Am I going to have to record a whole band at once or am I going to play everything one thing at a time and layer the recording?  This will help to decide how many audio inputs you will need.  Two inputs, with a stereo output for your stereo (so you can hear all your hard work), limit the cost.

2) Consider the highest quality pre-amp your budget will allow. The pre-amp is part of the hardware audio interface.  The lower the quality of the pre-amp, the lower the quality of the digital conversion which will lead to dissatisfaction as you get deeper into the art of recording.

3) Will I need MIDI functionality? MIDI, or Musical Instrument Digital Interface is a whole topic in itself.  Briefly, MIDI allows one to connect a synthesizer or other sound module up to the DAW.  With the advent of fast CPUs and lots of inexpensive RAM, this is less important for many small studios because of the ability to use plug-ins.  See 'Plug-ins' below.  One can get a cheaper audio interface without MIDI functionality that has a better pre-amp and a separate MIDI interface can be added later if needed that connects via USB.

Microphones
The Wikipedia page offers more information on microphones. Microphone choice and position is an aspect of recording that has one of the biggest impacts on the sound.

Condenser (capacitor) microphones
Condenser microphones require power (typically 48 V, called phantom power) to bias two metallic plates. Vibrations in the air cause the capacitance to change, converting vibrational energy into electrical modulation.

Dynamic microphones
Dynamic microphones can be either moving coil microphones or ribbon microphones. Moving coil microphones such as the popular Shure SM-57 are the most durable type of microphone and can often withstand high sound pressure levels. Ribbon microphones are often much more fragile. Dynamic microphones do not need phantom power to operate. In fact, phantom power will break most ribbon microphones.

Diaphragm size
The size of the microphone's diaphragm has an effect on its frequency response. Generally microphones with smaller diaphragms such as pencil condenser microphones pick up higher frequencies well. Larger diaphragm microphones can pickup lower frequencies better.

Polar pattern
A microphone's polar pattern determines the direction in which the microphone "hears" sound. Popular polar patterns include:

 * Omnidirectional: picks up sound equally in all directions (360 degrees around microphone).
 * Bidirectional/figure eight: picks up sound mostly from front and back, rejecting it from the sides.
 * Cardioid: picks up sound mostly from the front.
 * Hypercardioid
 * Supercardioid

Microphones can either be fixed pattern (only having one), or may allow the polar pattern to be selected. Ribbon microphones are often figure 8. Moving coil microphones are often cardioid.

Microphone use
An overview of which microphones to use when recording (beginner's guide):

 * Guitar or any amplifier - Uni-directional Dynamic mic
 * Drums - Uni-directional dynamic mic
 * Overhead drumset - Omni-directional condenser
 * Vocals - Condenser for recording, uni-directional dynamic for live performance (although this is not a live performance article, the reader should be aware that that there is a large risk in breaking the condenser mic when playing live. They are very fragile. A small drop could destroy it)
 * Acoustic guitars/instruments: Condenser, any directional.
 * Other instruments. Trumpets, etc: Condenser mic, unless the instrument is overly loud. Unless there is too much background noise, omni is much easier to use and set up (you do not have to point the microphone at the instrument and then deal with issues of inconsistency. More later)
 * Non-instruments-Same as "other instruments." Although every item is technically an instrument by definition.

Alternative conversions of sound to electrical signal
Song Torch

Microphones may be bypassed with certain electric instruments. For example, an electric guitar may be plugged directly into a recording device if that device supports instrument-level input. If not, the guitar's signal will have to be amplified to line-level by a pre-amplifier before being recorded. A guitar amplifier with a line out can provide this function.

 * Many amplifiers have 1/4" unbalanced TS (tip-sleeve) output jacks.

 * Keyboards/synthesizers have similar output jacks, but may be balanced TRS (tip-ring-sleeve).

Computer

 * If you use a computer to record and/or edit, you will need two items: a sound card or hardware interface and recording software.

Sound card
A sound card is an audio interface that integrates with a computer through the PCI or PCIe slots on the motherboard. Most sound cards do not provide as high quality audio as an audio interface that was built for professional sound recording, however, for the consumer or hobbyist, a regular sound card will often suffice.

Audio Interface
The role of the audio interface, like a sound card, is to convert electrical signals carrying information about audio into digital information. They also do the reverse by converting digital information into electrical signals. The industry leader in audio interfaces is Digidesign, and their audio editing software Pro Tools.

Cables, Connectors and Adapters

 * XLR/XL3: The connector used by microphones. It is a balanced cable. The same cable/connector is used to carry digital AES/EBU signals.
 * TRS: A balanced 1/4" plug.
 * TS: An unbalanced 1/4" plug.
 * 1/8": a smaller version of the 1/4" used by some sound cards. A small adapter can be used to convert from 1/4" to 1/8" or vice-versa.
 * RCA: a consumer cable used in pairs to transmit stereo audio. Also used for S/PDIF digital information.
 * Optical: a cable used to carry ADAT or TDIF lightpipe.

Entry-level Consumer Software

 * Audacity
 * GarageBand
 * Goldwave
 * Sound Recorder

Prosumer to Professional Grade Software

 * Ableton Live
 * Acoustica Mixcraft
 * Adobe Audition
 * Ardour
 * Cubase
 * FL Studio
 * Logic
 * Nuendo
 * Pro Tools
 * Reason
 * Samplitude
 * Sequoia
 * Sonar

Plug-ins
Plug-ins are pieces of software that integrate into recording software. A plug-in can be a virtual synthesizer, or some kind of sound effect like reverb. (Look down into Audio Signal Processing for more details on different types of effects.)

Plug-ins are the main tool of the composer and audio engineer to shape the recording using a computer or DAW (Digital Audio Workstation). Plug-ins can be virtual synthesizers or sound effects, so a song writer can have access to a full complement of instruments and sounds AND add a reverb that emulates a club, church or even an open air stadium.

Generally, using plug-ins, one could lay down a drum track using a drum machine plug-in, and add a bass line the same way using a synthezer plug-in, then record vocals using a mic with a little reverb from another plug-in and have a complete song all on a laptop!

Plug-ins do require a powerful computer to work well, especially when many plug-ins are used in real-time. A lot of real-time plug-ins need a fast computer with a lot of memory. But that's not hard to find these days, so that's usually not a real limitation.

On slower computers, or for personal, technical or even creative reasons, plug-ins can be used "off-line" to process a recording and then "turned off". For example, one might record a dry vocal with dry drums and bass (dry meaning not processed) so the software can maximize the computer's power to get a good quality audio recording of the vocals. Then the composer or engineer can process the dry audio with a plug-in and store it as the new recording. Then when it is played back, one will get the sound with the effect without using any more of the computer's resources. This is a strategy used all the time by audio engineers to layer and shape the final product.

Dynamics processing
or Insert Effects, because the entire signal is processed before going further.

 * Compression/limiting
 * Expansion/gating

Dynamic Range - To help the understanding, we'll need some terms defined. Audio has a dynamic range. Simply put, this is the difference between the highest and the lowest levels of a recording. For newbies, level is the volume of the sound recorded. Also known as amplitude. An amp or amplifier, amplifies the amplitude, it increases the volume, it raises the level.

That said, Dynamic Processing is the manipulation of the amplitude of the sound signal.

LIMITER - nothing more than a special kind of compressor...a limiter will effectively turn down the volume of the recording when it comes to within a preset amount of the maximum available space for the sound.

Sometimes the dynamic range is too much for all the wires, speakers, digital processors, etc. and it clips. Just like the word implies, the sound level goes too high and it gets clipped like the tops of tree when the pruning shears are applied. Just like the top of the tree is clipped off, the same can happen to the audio signal. When that happens, part of the sound is lost and the resulting audio becomes noise. So, a limiter will effectively turn down the volume of the recording when it comes to within a preset amount of the maximum available space for the sound. That way it doesn't clip and the audio isn't lost.

Limiter's can be external hardware that the audio is passed through as an analog signal or it can be a plug-in where the signal is adjusted digitally. One example of it's use, is to place a limiter between the microphone and the recording medium. As the vocalist pops his p's or sputters, or just plain belts it out, the limiter will work to turn down the volume just as it reaches the "limit" and keep the audio from "punching a hole through the tape". This keeps the recording within limits and makes it easier to get a good recording that could otherwise be ruined even if only one part of it actually clips, (or gets too loud and goes over the top, so to speak).

COMPRESSOR - Brings down the high levels and raises the low levels. Going back to the concept of dynamic range, when a recording is made it has quieter and louder parts. The compressor will basically bring up the quiet bits and turn down the louder bits. It's an art to make a compressor sound good, but it is virtually required in most recordings, especially if they are to have a commercial exposure. All the wires and speakers, stereos, radio broadcast equipment, etc. have a range in which they generally work well. If the dynamic range is too great, the quiet parts get lost in electronic hiss and the loud parts can break equipment. So, compression is a vital tool of the audio engineer.

A compressor can also be placed in the analog part of the signal (where the sound is in the wires and cables) as a piece of outboard gear. Or it can be inserted as a plug-in on the computer and process the sound digitally.

EXPANDER An expander effectively does the opposite or a compressor. It will take the lowest levels and make them lower and the highest levels and make them higher. This is a simplified explanation, but it it in essence what happens. Generally expanders are used for more technical reasons, but with an expander plug-in, anyone can experiment on their DAW and see what they come up with.

GATE A sound processor that will let through or block off the sound signal at a preset level. For example, one might have a recording of drums, but in the parts between the hits, one could possibly hear the guitar coming through, though a lot quieter. Since the guitar has it's own track in the example, it's not needed in the drum recording. Besides, later when the engineer wants to compress the drums and make them punchier and generally louder, that guitar bleed through could become quite distracting. So, on can set the gate to cut off all the sound that's quieter than the drum hits that comes through between the drum hits thereby cleaning up the drum tracks so further processing can take place.

Creatively, a gate that opens and closes slowly can be used to make an electric bass sound a lot like a cello, or a vocalist to sound like an alien with a speech impediment. (Not that you might want a vocalist with a speech impediment, but imagine you were making a sci-fi video track and the creature that has come to take over the earth has to sound really weird. :) ed.) In these situations, one could make the gate slowly open as the bass is played so instead of sounding plucked, it sounds more like it was bowed, just like a cello.

Effects
or "send effects" because part of the signal is sent to them to get processed.
 * Reverb
 * Delay (Phasing, Chorusing, Flangering)
 * Distortion/overdrive
 * EQ

These kinds of effects are called send effects because a portion of the dry signal is sent to the processor. To understand this in real world reality, if you go to a concert you will hear a part of the sound directly from the performers and a part of the sound that is reflected around the venue. A reverb is a send effect that will take part of a dry signal and emulate a club, or hall, or whatever the engineer chooses and that will be mixed with the dry signal to come up with the same basic feel as being in a live situation.

REVERB

Reverb is everywhere, the whole world is full of reverb. Everywhere you go, your ears are picking up reflections of the sounds around you. In fact, reverb is part of how the brain processes the direction of the sound. As the sound reflects back to your ears, it is in a different phase of it's vibration and the brain processes these differences to decide what direction it's coming from.

Of course, the brain being what it is, it can be tricked. Judicious reverb can make the brain think it's in a stadium when actually it's in some guy's living room between stereo head phones. Too much reverb can make the sound muddy and messy with everything washed together.

Reverb can even be set so that the reflections it creates reinforces the rhythm of the music. Or if not applied very well, it can actually screw up the rhythm of the recording because the sound reflections are out of sync with the beat.

DELAY

Delay is a repeating of the sound and is often referred to as an echo in popular speak. However it is used very specifically in audio. The rock and roll sound of the fifties uses a short delay, sometimes called a slap delay, that is so short you wouldn't even know it was there until it is removed. But that is a classic use of delay that fattens up the sound and makes that unique fifties rock and roll feel.

More involved delay can be shown by considering The Pink Floyd and their characteristic sound. This involved lots of longer delays that repeat and wash into the sound. Sometimes delays are used to make a repeating loop that an artist can play along with and add to the loop to make an ever expanding texture.

DISTORTION and OVERDRIVE or better yet 'Overdrive Distortion'

Distortion and overdrive are interesting hybrid send effects. Following on the discussion above of dynamic processing, a distortion is what happens when the audio signal gets too big for it's wires and starts to turn into noise. It's a form of compression that, instead of getting too loud, the processor makes the sound go into a clipped state without actually clipping. Rock of the sixties took advantage of the smooth clipping of tube amplifiers when guitarists and keyboardists would push the volume past the limits of the equipment to get that distorted or over-driven rock guitar sound. But the overdriven sound was then recorded at the proper levels onto tape so the tape wasn't distorted, just the sound going onto tape. Done correctly it has it's place. Done incorrectly and the recording is ruined. Overdrive distortion effects make the signal distort but the resulting signal is recordable.

Overdrive distortion is a hybrid send effect in that part of the signal gets distorted and part of it stays dry, depending on the settings of the effect. For instrumentalists, distortion can be an effects pedal in the audio cable from the instrument, or it can be applied digitally in the DAW (Digital Audio Workstation).

EQ
First, a quality pre-amp can vastly improve the EQ of a recording. No amount of EQ adjustment can properly fix an inadequate recording.

EQ or equalization is like the tone controls on your stereo, just more complex. Here you can boost or reduce the audio level at specific frequencies. For example, if the guitar is too "tinny" one might pull out 1 kHz while boosting gently around 2.8 kHz. Or for vocals, one might round out a thin sound by boosting 800 Hz and rolling off 8k.

Sound is measured by its rate of vibration called hertz, or Hz for short. The human ear can hear from about 50 or 60 Hz up to 20,000 Hz, or vibrations per second, under ideal conditions. Effectively the ear hears in a smaller range, but vibrations outside the range of hearing actually can affect the recording. Typically, an audio engineer might roll off all the sound below maybe 40 Hz and above perhaps 16 kHz. (The k is short hand for thousands. So 16k is 16,000 Hertz).

Just like the other effects, EQ can be a piece of outboard gear that affects the analog signal or it can be a plug-in that affects the digital signal inside the DAW.

Recording sounds
These should probably be separate pages
 * How to record vocals
 * How to record ambient noise
 * Issues in recording sounds

External resources

 * Tips on sound recording
 * Guide to the Home and Project Studio - from Tweakheadz
 * Recording live to a two-track - by Bruce Bartlett
 * WebcastAcademy.net The Basic Program
 * LibriVox.org Newbie Guide to Recording
 * WikiAudio.org
 * Audio Engineering online course under Creative Commons Licence

Where can we take this?
Now that you've learned a bit about recording sound, where would you like to go? You may wish to learn, teach, discuss and apply what you can do by going into more depth in Wikiversity's Audio Engineering Department which is developing the technology needed for producing the soundtrack for Wikiversity the Movie. Perhaps you are a musician interested in Jamming Online in a music genre such as Basic Blues & Rock with a GarageBand or the like. Maybe you are a linguist and would like to work on the development of audio resources for the Wikimedia Commons like spoken versions of important texts. The possibilities are endless.

You may have a completely novel application for advanced sound recording. Wouldn't it be great to be on the ground floor of Wikiversity's sonic potential? Hmmm. Just a thought.

WebcastAcademy.net Advanced User Modules

title: Getting started with sound recording


text:
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Oerlikon GAI-BO1

The Oerlikon GAI-BO1 is a Swiss designed and built light anti-aircraft gun which is mounted on a two-wheeled carriage with three folding outriggers. Due to its light weight and ability to be broken down into small loads it can also be mounted on ships and vehicles.

Description
The GAI-BO1 consists of a KAB 20 × 128 mm auto-cannon mounted on a folding platform. The gun has no power assistance with elevation of the counter-balanced barrel controlled by a hand-wheel and traverse is by foot. Due to its lack of power assistance it is unable to engage fast moving aerial targets, although it is still useful for engaging light observation aircraft and helicopters. Three different sized magazines 8-round, 20-round and 50-rounds are available. There is a simple mechanical computing sight with 1x magnification for aerial targets and a 3.5x scope for engaging ground targets. In its ground role it can fire armor-piercing rounds capable of piercing 15 mm of rolled homogeneous armor at 600 m.

title: Oerlikon GAI-BO1


text:
Peace studies/Peace in the Baha'i Faith

''This learning project is brought to you by the Division of Peace Studies. When contributing to this learning project, please adhere to the Peace Studies learning project guidlines and the Peace Studies learning project template.''

Introduction to the Topic
History of Baha'i Faith

Learning Materials

 * Including links to learning materials in wikiversity, wikipedia, and on the internet.

Baha'i Publications - A great source of information on the connections between this religion based in Iran and it's ties to the world today.

Reading List
Ideally, readings should be available on the internet, and the links made available. Give a brief summary of each reading, and possibly some questions with which to address the text. Readings that are unavailable on the internet should be referenced in the following way:

 * Author, A., Title of Book (Location: Publisher, Year of Publication).

Assignments

 * Edit and improve this learning project.

title: Peace studies/Peace in the Baha'i Faith


text:
Harry Darby

Harry Darby (January 23, 1895 – January 17, 1987) was an American politician from Kansas.

Life and career
Born in Kansas City, Kansas, Darby graduated from the University of Illinois, and served in the United States Army during the World War I, rising to the rank of captain. After the war he became successful in business ventures in several different fields including insurance, steel, railroads, utilities and banking. He served on the Kansas State Highway Commission from 1933 to 1937.

In 1938 Darby, the owner of Darby Steel Company, purchased Kaw Steel Construction Company, in the West Bottoms at Kansas City, Kansas and formed The Darby Corporation from the two companies. The plant built most of the landing craft tanks (LCTs) that were used in various amphibious invasions. The plant built one craft a day and floated them more than 1,000 miles down the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans, Louisiana, prompting their "Prairie Ships" nickname. Darby's plant at the mouth of Kansas River could hold 8 135í LCTs and 16 Landing Craft Mechanizeds (LCMs) in various stages of construction.

Darby served as the Republican National Committeeman for Kansas from the 1940 National Convention to early 1964, when he resigned the position. Gertrude Laughlin McSorley was his personal secretary during his career.

On December 2, 1949, he was appointed to fill a United States Senate seat to replace Clyde M. Reed (who had died on November 8) by Governor Frank Carlson, despite the fact that his only prior government experience was four years on the state highway commission. As a senator, Darby was a friend of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a fellow Kansan. He kept his seat until November 28, 1950, when he was succeeded by Frank Carlson, the very man who had appointed him to the seat.

Darby returned to Kansas City and lived there until his death. He was buried in Highland Park Cemetery in Kansas City.

Legacy
Interstate 635 (Kansas–Missouri) is named the Harry Darby Memorial Highway for him in both Kansas and Missouri.

The bronze statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower, by Robert L. Dean, Jr., on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum in Abilene, Kansas is a gift of the Harry and Edith Darby Foundation.

title: Harry Darby


text:
Portal:University of Oxford/On this day/September 5

Births
 * 1802 – Frederick Oakeley (Christ Church), priest and translator into English of "O come all ye faithful"
 * 1829 – William Odling (Worcester), chemist who helped to develop the periodic table
 * 1834 – Robinson Ellis (Balliol and Trinity), classical scholar
 * 1845 – George Kennion (Oriel), Bishop of Adelaide 1882–94 and of Bath and Wells 1894–1921
 * 1861 – Sir Walter Raleigh (Merton), Merton Professor of English Literature 1904–22
 * 1861 – Henry Tristram, rugby union international and cricketer
 * 1862 – Herbert Edward Douglas Blakiston (Trinity), President of Trinity 1907–38
 * 1881 – John Parker (Brasenose), politician and barrister
 * 1885 – Jenkin Alban Davies (Jesus), Welsh rugby union international
 * 1888 – Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (All Souls), Spalding Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics 1936–52 and President of India 1962–67
 * 1887 – Charles Fairburn (Brasenose), railway engineer
 * 1912 – Fredrick de Saram (Keble), Sri Lankan cricketer, lawyer and military coup plotter
 * 1922 – Sir Denys Wilkinson, nuclear physicist
 * 1934 – Russell Harty (Exeter), television presenter
 * 1936 – Jonathan Kozol (Magdalen), American writer on education issues
 * 1943 – David Atkinson (Corpus Christi), Bishop of Thetford 2001–09
 * 1944 – Gareth Evans (Magdalen), Australian Labor politician
 * 1954 – Christopher Prentice, diplomat
 * 1962 – Peter Wingfield (Brasenose), Welsh actor

Deaths
 * 1569 – Edmund Bonner (Broadgates Hall), twice Bishop of London in the 16th century
 * 1929 – James Hozier, 2nd Baron Newlands (Balliol), Scottish civil servant and politician
 * 1951 – Alexander McCulloch (University), Olympic rower
 * 1952 – Roy Robinson, 1st Baron Robinson (Magdalen), forester and public servant
 * 1999 – Alan Clark (Christ Church), Conservative politician and diarist


title: Wikipedia:Map data/Wikipedia KML/Illinois Route 135


text:
List of towns and cities in Australia by year of settlement

This is primarily a  list of towns and cities in Australia by year of settlement. The article also contains information on permanent settlements established in Australia before British settlement commenced in 1788.

Australia proper
For 40,000–70,000 years, the Australian mainland and Tasmania have been inhabited by the Australian Aboriginal people, and the Torres Strait Islands (now part of Queensland) by Torres Strait Islanders. Aboriginal people were hunter-gatherers and fire stick farmers who travelled between seasonal settlements inside country boundaries. Many groups had more permanent camps that they lived in for much of the year. Torres Strait Islanders engaged in some agriculture and had permanent villages. In 1788, the British Empire began colonising Australia, constructing permanent towns and farms. Aboriginal people began living in permanent settlements, some by choice while others were forced.

External territories
The Cocos-Keeling Islands and Christmas Island have only been inhabited since the 1880s. Information for them can be found in the table below. Norfolk Island was first settled by Polynesians in the 13th or 14th century. In 1788 the British colonised the island, by that time the Polynesians had been gone for hundreds of years. Jervis Bay Territory is located on the Australian mainland and has two small villages. Prior to British settlement, the area was inhabited by Yuin aboriginal people. The Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory have never had permanent inhabitants, but do have weather and research stations where people temporarily live and work. The Ashmore and Cartier Islands have never been inhabited, but are regularly visited by traditional Indonesian fishers.

Former territories
From 1947 to 1966, Australia administered the island of Nauru, which has been inhabited for at least three thousand years. The Nauruan people traditionally lived in permanent villages. Nauru is now an independent sovereign country formally called the Republic of Nauru. Australia governed the Territory of New Guinea (1920–1941), Territory of Papua (1902–1945) and then the Territory of Papua and New Guinea (1945–1979), which were all located on the island of New Guinea. Many of the native Papuan people traditionally lived in permanent settlements. In 1979 these territories became the independent sovereign country of Papua New Guinea.


text:
Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests

The Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion in southern Mexico and southern Guatemala, extending into the northwestern corner of El Salvador.

Geography
The moist forests ecoregion lies on the southern slope of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, between the Central American pine–oak forests which cover the mountains' higher elevations to the north, and the Central American dry forests in the Pacific coastal lowlands to the south.

Climate
The climate of the ecoregion is tropical and humid. The mountains intercept prevailing winds from the Pacific, creating clouds, fog, and orographic precipitation. The forests have a cooler and wetter climate than the adjacent lowlands. Average annual temperatures decrease with elevation.

Flora
The main plant communities are montane tropical broadleaf evergreen forest. The forests are of two types, lower montane rain forests and montane rain forests.

Lower montane rain forest is found in a narrow band along the southern slope of the Sierra. In mature forests, trees form a closed canopy 25 to 45 meters high. Typical canopy trees include Alseis yucatanensis, Aspidosperma megalocarpon, Brosimum alicastrum, Calophyllum brasiliense, Dialium guianense, Erblichia odorata, Ficus spp., Guatteria anomala, Licania platypus, Magnolia mexicana, Manilkara zapota, Ocotea rubriflora, Ocotea sinuata, Pleradenophora tuerckheimiana, Poulsenia armata, Protium copal, Quercus oleoides, Quercus skinneri, Swietenia macrophylla, Terminalia amazonia, Trichospermum mexicanum, Ulmus mexicana, Vatairea lundellii, and Vochysia guatemalensis.

The lower montane rain forest has an understory of low trees 10 to 20 meters high. Typical understory tree species include Alchornea latifolia, Alibertia edulis, Blepharidium guatemalense, Bursera simaruba, Casearia laetioides, Cassia grandis, Chrysophyllum mexicanum, Cleidion castaneifolium, Cojoba arborea, Cymbopetalum penduliflorum, Dracaena ghiesbreghtii, Faramea occidentalis, Forchhammeria trifoliata, Guarea glabra subsp. excelsa, Hasseltiopsis dioica, Hirtella racemosa, Lacistema aggregatum, Licaria peckii, Orthion subsessile, Ouratea lucens, Palicourea tomentosa, Piper spp., Pseudolmedia spuria, Quararibea funebris, Crossopetalum parviflorum, Rinorea guatemalensis, Sideroxylon persimile, Simira salvadorensis, Sloanea terniflora, Tabernaemontana donnell-smithii, Trichospermum lessertianum, Trophis racemosa, and Wimmeria bartlettii.

Lianas and epiphytes are abundant, and are found in all the forest layers. The forest floor is dense with low-branched shrubs, spinescent palms, cycads, and lianas.

Montane rain forest is generally found on steep slopes between 900 and 2200 meters elevation. The forest canopy is 25 to 35 meters high, and more open and irregular than that of the lower montane forest. Typical canopy trees include Alfaroa mexicana, Aphananthe monoica, Ardisia verapazensis subsp. verapazensis, Ardisia venosa, Brunellia mexicana, Calatola laevigata, Hedyosmum mexicanum, Hyperbaena mexicana, Lunania mexicana, Matudaea trinervia, Meliosma matudae, Mosquitoxylum jamaicense, Nectandra villosa, Oecopetalum mexicanum, Oreopanax sanderianus, Oreopanax xalapensis, Quercus oocarpa, Quercus peduncularis, Platanus lindeniana, Trichilia erythrocarpa, and Turpinia occidentalis. There is typically an understory layer of trees and shrubs 5 to 15 meters in height. Understory trees and shrubs include Acalypha skutchii, Billia hippocastanum, Centropogon cordifolius, Cephaelis elata, Chamaedorea pinnatifrons, Eugenia ravenii, Hampea longipes, Miconia lauriformis, Mollinedia guatemalensis, Oreopanax liebmanii, Palicourea axillaris, Palicourea elata, Parathesis microcalyx, Psychotria spp, Siparuna thecaphora, Trophis mexicana, and Urera caracasana.

Epiphytes are abundant throughout the montane rain forests, and include mosses, ferns, orchids, bromeliads, and aroids. The forest floor is covered with herbaceous plants.

Fauna
The ecoregion has over 300 species of birds, most notably the resplendent quetzal, horned guan, and the azure-rumped tanager. It is a center of endemism for salamanders and butterflies.

Human impacts
Much of the ecoregion's forest has been cleared for agriculture and grazing. The lower montane forests have mostly been cleared for coffee plantations. Much of the remaining forest area is fragmented or degraded, and what remains is often on steep or inaccessible slopes. The ecoregion has a road density of 645 meters per square kilometers, the highest of Central America's ecoregions.

Protected areas
16.55% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. In 2000 7% of the ecoregion's area was protected. Protected areas in Chiapas include the La Sepultura and El Triunfo biosphere reserves, and the Zona de Protección Forestal en los terrenos que se encuentran en los municipios de La Concordia, Angel Albino Corzo, Villa Flores y Jiquipilas Natural Resources Protection Area. Both the Mexican and Guatemalan sides of Volcán Tacaná are protected. Other protected areas in Guatemala include Volcán Moyuta and Volcán Tecuamburro.

title: Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests


text:
List of parks in Sydney

Sydney is well endowed with open spaces and has many natural areas. Many of these exist even within the compact city centre. These include the Chinese Garden of Friendship and Hyde Park (which is named after London's Hyde Park). The metropolitan area contains several national parks, including the Royal National Park, the second oldest national park in the world (after Yellowstone National Park), which occupies an area of 132 km2. Completing Sydney's wide array of green spaces, the leader is the Royal Botanic Garden, with its large amount of green spaces, lush plants and colourful flowers.

Although Sydney developed organically after the arrival of the First Fleet, the city parks and open spaces were a part of early town planning to provide relief from the bustle and monotony of the city streets. Hyde Park is the oldest park in the city.

Parks and reserves
The following is an incomplete list of parks and reserves in Sydney:

 * Alexandria Park
 * Anderson Park, Neutral Bay
 * Angophora Reserve
 * Arthur McElhone Reserve
 * Auburn Botanic Gardens
 * Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan
 * Badangi Reserve
 * Balfour Street Park
 * Ballast Point
 * Balls Head Reserve
 * Barangaroo Reserve
 * Beare Park
 * Bede Spillane Gardens
 * Belmore Park
 * Ben Buckler Gun Battery
 * Bents Basin State Conservation Area
 * Berowra Valley Regional Park
 * Berry Island Reserve
 * Bicentennial Park
 * Brickpit Ring Walk
 * Louise Sauvage Pathway
 * Bicentennial Square
 * Birchgrove Park
 * Botany Bay National Park
 * Bradley's Head
 * Brenan Park
 * Brightmore Reserve
 * Burwood Park
 * Carss Cottage
 * Centenary Park
 * Centennial Parklands
 * Centennial Park
 * Moore Park
 * Queens Park
 * Central Gardens Nature Reserve
 * Chinese Garden of Friendship
 * Cremorne Point Reserve
 * Robertsons Point
 * Chipping Norton Lake
 * Cooks River/Castlereagh Ironbark ecological community
 * The Domain
 * Fagan Park
 * Fairfield Park Precinct
 * Ferndale Park
 * First Fleet Park,
 * Fred Hollows Reserve
 * Frog Hollow Reserve, Surry Hills
 * Garawarra State Conservation Area
 * Garigal National Park
 * Garrison Point
 * George Kendall Riverside Park
 * Georges River National Park
 * The Goods Line
 * Green Park, Darlinghurst
 * Harmony Park, Surry Hills
 * Heathcote National Park
 * Hyde Park
 * Iloura Reserve
 * Jessie Street Gardens
 * Joseph Banks Native Plants Reserve, Kareela
 * Kellys Bush Park
 * Koala Park Sanctuary
 * Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park
 * Lake Parramatta Reserve
 * Lane Cove Bushland Park
 * Lane Cove National Park
 * Leacock Regional Park
 * Lower Prospect Canal Reserve
 * Macquarie Place Park
 * Magdala Park
 * McKell Park
 * McLeod Reserve
 * Moore Reserve
 * Mortdale Memorial Park
 * Neild Park
 * Nielsen Park
 * Nurragingy Reserve
 * Oatley Park
 * Oatley Pleasure Grounds
 * Oatley Point Reserve
 * Observatory Park, Sydney
 * Oxford Falls Peace Park
 * Paddington Reservoir
 * Parramatta River Regional Park
 * Penrith Lakes Regional Park
 * Prince Alfred Park
 * Prince Alfred Square
 * Prospect Hill
 * Prospect Nature Reserve
 * Pyrmont Point Park
 * Queen Elizabeth Park
 * Redfern Park
 * Rockdale Bicentennial Park
 * Rofe Park
 * Rosford Street Reserve
 * Rouse Hill Regional Park
 * Royal Botanical Garden
 * Rushcutters Bay Park
 * Smoothey Park
 * St Leonards Park
 * St Thomas Rest Park
 * Sydney Cove West Archaeological Precinct
 * Sydney Harbour National Park
 * Sydney Park
 * Sydney Zoo
 * Tania Park
 * Taronga Zoo
 * Terry Lamb Complex
 * Victoria Park, Camperdown
 * Wadim (Bill) Jegorow Reserve
 * Wallumatta Nature Reserve
 * Walter Burley Griffin Incinerator, Willoughby
 * Waverley Cemetery
 * Waverley Park
 * Wentworth Park
 * Western Sydney Parklands
 * Wetherill Park Nature Reserve
 * Wild Life Sydney
 * William Howe Regional Park
 * Wolli Creek Regional Park
 * Wynyard Park, Sydney
 * Yellomundee Regional Park
 * Yurulbin Park

title: List of parks in Sydney


text:
2018 in Bellator MMA

2018 in Bellator MMA was the tenth year in the history of Bellator MMA, a mixed martial arts promotion based in the United States. Bellator held 23 events in 2015.

Background
In addition to airing cards on the newly-rebranded Paramount Network (formally Spike), Bellator would sign a multi-year deal with streaming service DAZN. Their partnership began with Bellator 206, which was broadcast exclusively on DAZN. Bellator would hold its 200th numbered event on May 25, 2018.

Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix Tournament
In 2018, Bellator organised the 2018–2019 Heavyweight Grand Prix that will crown the Bellator Heavyweight champion. This belt was vacated in May 2016 by Vitaly Minakov. Minakov had not defended the title since April 2014.

Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix Tournament
In 2018, Bellator organised the 2018–2019 Welterweight Grand Prix that will crown the Bellator Welterweight champion. All fights will be five rounds. If Rory MacDonald were to lose, the victor will be declared lineal champion until he loses or wins the tournament and becomes undisputed champion.

 * Lorenz Larkin versus Ion Pascu took place to determine an tournament alternate, with Larkin winning to stand as the alternate.
 * Champion Rory MacDonald retained his title in a majority draw. He advanced to fight Neiman Gracie.

Bellator 192
Bellator 192: Rampage vs. Sonnen took place on January 20, 2018 at The Forum in Inglewood, California. The event aired on Paramount Network as the first Bellator event to air on the network since its re-branding from Spike.

Background

This card featured the first bout in the 2018 Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix Tournament.

Results

Bellator 193
Bellator 193: Larkin vs. Gonzalez took place on January 26, 2018 at the Pechanga Resort and Casino in Temecula, California. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

A Lightweight bout between Eugene Correa and Joao Paulo Faria was planned for the undercard of this event, but was canceled for undisclosed reasons.

Despite a 180-pound catchweight limit installed in the main event, headliner Fernando Gonzalez still missed weight. It was his third consecutive weight cut miss.

Results

Bellator 194
Bellator 194: Mitrione vs. Nelson 2 took place on February 16, 2018 at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

This card featured the second bout in the 2018 Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix Tournament. Matt Mitrione and Roy Nelson previously fought under the UFC banner in December 2012 with Nelson winning by TKO in the first round.

Results

Bellator 195
Bellator 195: Caldwell vs. Higo took place on March 2, 2018 at the WinStar World Casino in Thackerville, Oklahoma. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

The event was headlined by Bantamweight champion Darrion Caldwell making the first defense of his title against Pitbull brothers' protege Leandro Higo.

Results

Bellator Monster Energy Fight Series: Atlanta
Bellator Monster Energy Fight Series: Atlanta was the fifth installment of the series held on March 3, 2018 at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Georgia prior to the Monster Energy AMA Supercross.

Results

Bellator 196
Bellator 196: Henderson vs. Huerta took place on April 6, 2018 at BOK Hall in Budapest, Hungary. The event aired on tape delay in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

Bellator 196 featured a lightweight main event between Benson Henderson and Roger Huerta, returning to the promotion after a 7 year absence. The original main event between Ádám Borics and James Gallagher was cancelled after a wrist injury was sustained by Gallagher during training.

Results

Bellator 197
Bellator 197: Chandler vs. Girtz took place on April 13, 2018 at the Family Arena in St. Charles, Missouri. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

Michael Chandler was scheduled to face Brent Primus in a rematch for the Lightweight title. However, on March 21, Primus pulled out of the fight due to a knee injury. As a result, Brandon Girtz stepped in as a replacement.

Results

Bellator 198
Bellator 198: Fedor vs. Mir took place on April 28, 2018 at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

Rafael Lovato Jr. was originally scheduled to face John Salter on this card. However, Salter was pulled by the Illinois Athletic Commission due to an eye issue on April 24 and replaced by Gerald Harris. Due to the lateness of the rebooking, the bout was contested at a catchweight of 188 pounds.

Results

Bellator 199
Bellator 199: Bader vs. King Mo took place on May 12, 2018 at the SAP Center in San Jose, California. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

This card featured the fourth and final bout in the opening round of the 2018 Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix Tournament as Light Heavyweight Champion Ryan Bader moved up to face Muhammed Lawal.

Results

Bellator 200
Bellator 200: Carvalho vs. Mousasi took place on May 25, 2018 at the SSE Arena, Wembley in London, England. The event aired on tape delay in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

This card was expected to be headlined by a rematch between Mirko Cro Cop and Roy Nelson. The pair previously fought in October 2011 at UFC 137 with Nelson winning by TKO. The bout was also expected to serve as an alternate bout for the 2018 Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix Tournament. However, the bout was scrapped during the week leading up to the event as Cro Cop pulled out of the fight citing an injury.

Results

Bellator 201
Bellator 201: Macfarlane vs. Lara took place on June 29, 2018 at the Pechanga Resort and Casino in Temecula, California. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

Results

Bellator 202
Bellator 202: Budd vs. Nogueira took place on July 13, 2018 at the WinStar World Casino in Thackerville, Oklahoma. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

Originally Stephanie Geltmacher was scheduled to face Deborah Kouzmin. However, on the week of the event Kouzmin announced that she was injured. Bellator could not find a replacement for Geltmacher in time for the event.

Results

Bellator 203
Bellator 203: Pitbull vs. Weichel 2 took place on July 14, 2018 at the Foro Italico in Rome, Italy. The event aired via tape delay in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

The main event featured a rematch between Featherweight champion Patricio Freire and challenger Daniel Weichel. The pair previously met at Bellator 138 in June 2015, where Freire won via knockout in the second round.

Results

Bellator 204
Bellator 204: Caldwell vs. Lahat  took place on August 17, 2018 at the Sanford Pentagon in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The event aired live in prime time on Paramount Network.

Background

The event featured Bellator Bantamweight Champion Darrion Caldwell moving up to Featherweight as he fought Noad Lahat in a non-title bout.

James Gallagher competed at Bantamweight for the first time as he fought Bellator newcomer Ricky Bandejas.

Results

Bellator 205
Bellator 205: McKee vs. Macapá took place on September 21, 2018 at the CenturyLink Arena in Boise, Idaho. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event was expected to see a featherweight main event featuring A.J. McKee and former champion Pat Curran, but Curran was pulled due to injury. McKee instead faced John Macapá.

Goiti Yamaguchi was expected to fight Patricky Freire on the card but pulled out before the fight due to injury. Freire instead faced Roger Huerta.

Results

Bellator 206
Bellator 206: Mousasi vs. MacDonald took place on September 29, 2018 at the SAP Center in San Jose, California. The event streamed live on DAZN in the United States and all other regions previously served by the service, including Austria, Canada, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and Japan, as part of a new agreement giving the service rights to seven exclusive cards per-year.

In the United Kingdom, Bellator 206 was televised by Viacom-owned Channel 5, but the telecast ceased transmission at 6:00 a.m. (in favour of preschool programming) before the main event, due to watershed regulations.

Background
The event featured a Bellator Middleweight Champion bout between the champion Gegard Mousasi and current Bellator Welterweight Champion Rory MacDonald. MacDonald was attempting to become the second multi-division champion in Bellator history, after former Bellator bantamweight and featherweight champion Joe Warren.

In addition, former UFC light heavyweight champion Quinton Jackson met rival and former PRIDE FC middleweight champion Wanderlei Silva for the fourth time in their respective careers. Going into this fight, Silva held a 2–1 advantage in the series.

This event featured the start of Bellator's inaugural welterweight grand prix tournament. Fighters expected to participate in the tournament are Rory MacDonald, Jon Fitch, Douglas Lima, Andrey Koreshkov, Paul Daley, Michael Page, Neiman Gracie, Ed Ruth, Lorenz Larkin, and Erick Silva, who replaced Yaroslav Amosov.

Don Mohammed and Salvador Becerra were scheduled to face each other in a Lightweight bout on the undercard. However, the bout was cancelled the week of the fight for undisclosed reasons.

At weight-ins, Ricky Abdelaziz weighed in at 147.3 pounds, 1.3 pounds over the featherweight non-title fight upper limit of 146 pounds. As a result, the bout proceeded catchweight. Abdelaziz was fined 20 percent of his purse which 10% went to his opponent, Laird Anderson, and 10% went to California State Athletic Commission. The bout between DeMarco Villalona and Abraham Vaesau was cancelled after Villalona did not make weight.

Bellator 207
Bellator 207: Mitrione vs. Bader took place on October 12, 2018 at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville, Connecticut. The event was live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event saw a semi-final round bout in the Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix as Matt Mitrione took on current Bellator Light Heavyweight Champion Ryan Bader.

Erick Silva was expected to make his promotional debut at this event facing Lorenz Larkin in a Welterweight World Grand Prix alternate bout, but Silva pulled out due to injury. He was replaced by the Romanian fighter Ion Pascu.

Results

Bellator 208
Bellator 208: Fedor vs. Sonnen took place on October 13, 2018 at Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event saw a semi-final bout in the Bellator Heavyweight World Grand Prix between Fedor Emelianenko and Chael Sonnen.

Robson Gracie Jr. was scheduled to make his professional MMA debut on this card against Jamal Pottinger. However, the bout was cancelled after Pottinger missed weight. A featherweight bout between Frank Buenafuente and James Gonzalez was also cancelled when both fighters came over the weight limit.

Results

Bellator 209
Bellator 209: Pitbull vs. Sanchez took place on November 15, 2018 at the Menora Mivtachim Arena in Tel Aviv, Israel. The event aired on November 16, 2018 via tape delay on Paramount Network.

Background

The event featured a bout for the Bellator Featherweight Championship between champion Patrício Freire and Emmanuel Sanchez.

Haim Gozali fought Ryan Couture at the event. The two met at Bellator 180 where Couture won by a unanimous decision.

On August 20, 2018, it was reported that Olga Rubin is scheduled to meet Cindy Dandois at this event.

The event featured Vadim Nemkov coming off a spectacular win over former Bellator Light Heavyweight Champion Liam McGeary as he returned to face former Bellator Light Heavyweight champion Phil Davis.

Results

Bellator 210
Bellator 210: Njokuani vs. Salter took place on November 30, 2018 at the WinStar World Casino and Resort in Thackerville, Oklahoma. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event was to feature a middleweight bout between Melvin Manhoef and Chidi Njokuani as the main event. However, on November 1, it was announced that Manhoef had withdrawn from the fight due to injury and was replaced by John Salter.

It was announced on October 17, 2018, a featherweight matchup between Jeremy Spoon, who makes his Bellator return, and Juan Archuleta.

On October 26, 2018, it was reported that David Rickels is scheduled to face Bomba Vasconcelos at the welterweight bout at this event.

It was announced on October 29, 2018, a women's flyweight bout is scheduled between Bruna Ellen and Kristina Williams at this event.

On October 30, 2018 it was reported that a middleweight bout between Joe Schilling and Jose Alfredo Leija would take place at this event. Leija was later replaced by Will Morris.

Results

Bellator 211
Bellator 211: Sakara vs. Kauppinen took place on December 1, 2018 at the RDS Stadium in Genoa, Italy. The event aired live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event featured a light heavyweight bout between Alessio Sakara and Kent Kauppinen as the main event.

A title fight between current Bellator Kickboxing featherweight champion Gabriel Varga and Shan Cangelosi also took place on the card.

On October 30, 2018, a welterweight bout between Kiefer Crosbie and Orlando D'Ambrosio was announced for this event.

A lightweight bout between Italy's Luca Vitali and SBG Ireland prospect Luka Jelcic was scheduled for the event. However, Jelcic withdrew and was replaced by Pedro Carvalho.

Results

Bellator 212
Bellator and USO Present: Primus vs. Chandler 2 took place on December 14, 2018 at the Neal S. Blaisdell Arena in Honolulu, Hawaii in conjunction with the USO. The event was live on Paramount Network and DAZN.

Background

The event featured a Bellator Lightweight Championship bout between the champion Brent Primus and former champion Michael Chandler. The rematch was scheduled for Bellator 197, but Primus pulled out due to injury.

A women's flyweight bout between former title contender Alejandra Lara and Juliana Velasquez was also announced for the card.

On November 19, 2018, it was announced Sam Sicilia will face Derek Campos at this event.

Results

Bellator 213
Bellator 213: Macfarlane vs. Létourneau took place on December 15, 2018 at the Neal S. Blaisdell Arena in Honolulu, Hawaii. The event was live on DAZN.

Background

The event featured Honolulu native Ilima-Lei Macfarlane defending the Bellator Women's Flyweight Championship against UFC veteran Valérie Létourneau.

A middleweight bout between former champion Rafael Carvalho and UFC veteran and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Lyoto Machida took place at the event.

A Bellator Welterweight Grand Prix quarterfinal bout between Neiman Gracie and Ed Ruth also took place.

Bellator President Scott Coker announced on Monday, September 17, 2018 that King Mo would face former Bellator light heavyweight champion Liam McGeary at the event.

Results

title: 2018 in Bellator MMA