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Wikipedia:Today's featured article/requests/Peru national football team

Peru national football team

 * This is the archived discussion of the TFAR nomination for the article below. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as Wikipedia talk:Today's featured article/requests). Please do not modify this page.

The result was: scheduled for Today's featured article/March 15, 2015 by Brianboulton (talk) 23:56, 24 February 2015 (UTC)

The Peru national football team has represented Peru in international football since 1927. Organised by the Peruvian Football Federation, it is one of the ten members of FIFA's South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL), playing most home matches at the Estadio Nacional in Lima. The team's most successful periods were in the 1930s and the 1970s. Peru took part in the inaugural FIFA World Cup in 1930 and the 1936 Olympic football competition. It won the 1938 Bolivarian Games and the 1939 Copa América, with goalkeeper Juan Valdivieso and forwards Teodoro Fernández and Alejandro Villanueva playing important roles. In the 1970s, the team included Hugo Sotil, defender Héctor Chumpitaz, and Teófilo Cubillas, the player often regarded as Peru's greatest. This team qualified for three World Cups and won the Copa América in 1975. Peru last qualified for the World Cup in 1982 (team pictured). Players wear white shirts adorned with a red diagonal stripe (Peru's national colours)—this basic design has been used continuously since 1936, and gives rise to the team's common Spanish nickname, la Blanquirroja ("the white-and-red").
 * Most recent similar article(s): 29 Jan sports, but not a team
 * update: 4 March Bradford City A.F.C. --Gerda Arendt (talk) 21:55, 13 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Main editors: MarshalN20
 * Promoted: 2014
 * Reasons for nomination: why not?
 * Support as nominator. Gerda Arendt (talk) 23:33, 7 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I made some tweaks. Could you add maybe a sentence? For instance, I'm not sure what "The team's performance has been inconsistent" means; some explanation would help. - Dank (push to talk) 03:49, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Support - interesting article. seems ready for TFA. --BabbaQ (talk) 09:42, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note to nominator: Please add this nomination to the summary table.
 * When I nominated, I saw an empty position. When I entered here I found that two noms were not listed in the summary. I did it for one of the two, - but as long as the space is limited to four entries I will wait until some are promoted. I believe that we could easily have a variable number to let's say ten. - As for a slight expansion of the blurb, I hope for the help of an author, --Gerda Arendt (talk) 22:45, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Changed my mind and added when I saw a fifth position added, --Gerda Arendt (talk) 22:49, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Oppose The article switches between talking about the team as a plural or a single entity e.g. The Peru national team has won the Copa América twice and qualified for FIFA World Cup finals four times; they also participated in the 1936 Olympic football competition. and they have since failed to qualify, and has not won any major tournament. - two lurches betwen single and plural (or vice versa) in two sentences. Even though this was only promoted in 2014, it has suffered at the hands of editors since. So a good copy-edit is needed before this is allowed on the main page. Another example: the promoted version had the words "South American Football Confederation" which has been changed, without good reason to "South American Futball Confederation". I suggest, Gerda, that you leave a message for MarshalN20 on his talk page (as you should have done already) notifying him of this nomination and hopefully he can rectify the problems that have been introduced since the last FAC. BencherliteTalk 04:10, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I understand the requrst for copy-editing, but defend the use of singular and plural in the same article, in general. If I write about an orchestra I use singular when I mean the organization, but plural when they (a group of individuals) play. - --Gerda Arendt (talk) 07:30, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * That's not what I'm talking about. British and American usage varies on whether a team is singular or plural.  The article passed FAC with one version of the usage.  Since then someone has come and made a botched job of changing to the other version.  That's not acceptable per WP:ENGVAR, particularly when it introduces grammatical errors.  The best way is to go back to the grammar version that passed FAC, which I will now do. In the meantime, how about alerting the principal author to this nomination, as you should have done at the start, and as I've reminded you once?  Some other issues about the article will need his assistance.  For example - the lead says that the coach is Pablo Bengoechea but the infobox says the position is vacant (without changing the source that says it was Pablo Bengoechea) - is that vandalism or someone imperfectly updating the article? BencherliteTalk 09:47, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I agree. Don't you think (in case the ping from this template doesn't work, - it does from DYK templates, and I relied on the same here) the notification of this nomination on the article's talk page should alert anybody interested hopefully including principal authors? --Gerda Arendt (talk) 09:56, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I don't think you can rely on pings. They seem to fail easily and are also easily missed/forgotten. I have now switched back to the singular/plural usage that passed FAC, and corrected "Futball" to "Football" in the article (, there's no point in copyediting the blurb for errors if you don't make the same corrections to the article). BencherliteTalk 10:12, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I've got another big project over at WP:VPR that's going to take me a week or two. I'll respond to this when I'm done over there. - Dank (push to talk) 14:05, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Okay, thought that over. That's a pretty significant extension of my job (because I'd then have to watchlist all the articles, engage a much wider set of editors, and figure out which changes are necessary at TFA but not in articles). Also, it's not a job anyone else has asked me to do so far. I suggested in January to Brian and Crisco that we solicit volunteers to help with various jobs; they suggested we wait until we've been in the job a bit longer. Transferring some TFA edits to the article text, and engaging editors on the article talk page about other TFA edits, might be a good job for volunteers. - Dank (push to talk) 22:32, 13 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Taken. There was a discussion on the talk about US/UK, last year, prior to the promotion. --Gerda Arendt (talk) 11:33, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I know there was - I spotted it before leaving my first comment here. It was why I was concerned that the article had been changed since promotion, rather than being something that was discussed after promotion. BencherliteTalk 11:43, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I confess that I missed it this time, sorry. Author notified, --Gerda Arendt (talk) 10:01, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Dear colleagues, thank you very much for the notification and nomination. This article is very close to my heart. It is not my most notable work, but it is one of my first projects in Wikipedia. Gerda, you are amazing, and I am very grateful that you so kindly nominated this article for TFA. Bencherlite, it is an honor, and I truly value your suggestions. Dank, amigo, thank you for the help. To clarify on some of the comments made above:
 * I agree that the change from British English (it) to American English (they) was an act of vandalism. Thank you for addressing that issue.
 * I edited parts of the article a few months ago to update the information. This was roughly at the same time when Bengoechea was inaugurated as coach. I edited the history section (the last couple of paragraphs), and moved a few pictures to improve the format.
 * IP editors regularly contribute to the article, but they generally only do so to update the list of called-up players. This has been a standard help prior to the FA nomination and after the FA nomination. This is not a problem, and I regularly make sure that the sources used are of good quality.
 * Bengoechea is no longer Peru's coach. The new coach is likely going to be Ricardo Gareca, but the news are still in development. More will probably be known for certain by the end of the week. I do not plan to update the article until the news are confirmed.
 * Thank you again for the notification and nomination. Please let me know if I can address any further questions or concerns.-- MarshalN20 T al k 23:38, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Support now that the principal author is on board and issues have been, or will be, addressed. Blurb rejigged and now 1,145 characters. BencherliteTalk 12:25, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Looks good. I usually write them longer but I have no objections. I restored two one of my edits (I'm avoiding any unused acronym unless the acronym is better known than the long form, and avoiding scare quotes ... does stripe work for everyone? image of a sash would also work for me.) - Dank (push to talk) 16:00, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Yes, I accidentally left in "FPF" - I tried it with a final sentence about Peru being temporarily suspended by FIFA a few years ago, which required the FPF acronym to be explained earlier, then realised it made the blurb too long, so took the sentence out but forgot the now-unnecessary FPF! Stripe is best - "image of a sash" is cumbersome. BencherliteTalk 08:21, 12 February 2015 (UTC)


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Niskai

Niskai is a term used to refer to any of the water spirits and goddesses in Celtic mythology. Niskai are also considered goddesses in Neo-Paganism.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Niskai


text:
Trinchesia akibai

Trinchesia akibai is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Trinchesiidae.

Distribution
This species was described from Sagami Bay, Japan.

Description
The typical adult size of this species is 8 mm.

title: Trinchesia akibai


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Wardington

Wardington is a village and civil parish in Oxfordshire, about 4 mi northeast of Banbury. The village consists of two parts: Wardington and Upper Wardington. The village is on a stream that rises in Upper Wardington and flows north to join the River Cherwell.

The parish includes the hamlet of Williamscot, about 1 mi southwest of Wardington. The parish is bounded to the west and north by the River Cherwell, to the south by a stream that joins the Cherwell, and to the northeast by field boundaries. Its northeastern and southern boundaries also form part of the county boundary with Northamptonshire. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 602.

Toponym
A hundred roll from AD 1279 records the toponym as Wardinton. Its etymology is Old English but its meaning is uncertain. "Ward" may be derived from a person called Wearda, or it may be from the Old English wearde or wearda meaning a beacon or cairn. The suffix -ingtūn is very common in Old and Middle English but its meaning is disputed.

Manor
The Domesday Book of 1086 records Wardington as part of the Cropredy manor of Remigius de Fécamp, Bishop of Lincoln.

Between Wardington and Upper Wardington is Wardington Manor house, which dates from the middle of the 16th century or possibly earlier. The house was remodelled in 1665 and twice early in the 20th century. From 1917 Wardington Manor was the seat of Baron Wardington. In 2004 the house was severely damaged by fire but it has since been restored. It is a Grade II* listed building.

Church of England
The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary Magdalene has a 12th-century chancel and 13th-century nave. In the 14th century new Decorated Gothic windows were added to the chancel. In the 15th century a Perpendicular Gothic clerestory was added to the nave and a west tower was built.

Monuments in the church include two 14th-century tomb recesses and a 14th-century slab with a foliated cross. There is a 15th-century monumental brass to Henry Freebody, who died in 1444. In the south chapel is an 18th-century monument to George Denton, who died in 1757.

The church was restored in 1887 and 1889 under the direction of the Gothic Revival architect Ewan Christian, and again in 1912–14 under the direction of WT Loveday. St Margaret's is a Grade I listed building.

The tower has a ring of six bells. Henry I Bagley of Chacombe cast the oldest in 1669, Henry II Bagley cast the tenor bell in 1682 and Henry II and Matthew I Bagley cast the treble bell in 1685. John Briant of Hertford cast two more of the bells in 1791 and 1795. John Taylor cast the youngest bell in 1841, presumably at his then foundry in Oxford.

St Mary Magdalene parish is now part of the Benefice of Shires' Edge along with those of Claydon, Cropredy, Great Bourton and Mollington.

Methodist
A congregation of Wesleyans was established in the village by 1815 and had built a chapel by 1827. In 1895 a larger chapel was built in a Gothic Revival style next to the old one, which was sold to the owner of the manor house. The chapel was part of the Methodist Union of 1932, and was still open as part of Banbury Methodist Circuit in 1964. It has since closed and been converted into private homes.

Social and economic history
In 1469 in the Wars of the Roses the Battle of Edgecote Moor was fought near Wardington. In 1644 in the English Civil War the Battle of Cropredy Bridge was fought across the parishes of Bourton, Cropredy, Prescote and Wardington. The site is now on the Register of Historic Battlefields.

Williamscot House is Elizabethan, built for Walter Calcott in about 1568. A Queene Anne style wing was added in 1704 and extended in Georgian style in 1777. The Elizabethan part of the house is now Grade II* listed.

From 1574 Wardington was served by the Free School northeast of Williamscot House. The Free School was closed in 1857 but the building survives. By 1833 a school had been established at Wardington itself. This became a National School and acquired its own purpose-built premises in 1845. After 1947 it became a primary school, with children older than 11 being schooled in Banbury. The school was closed in 1991 and is now a private house.

In 1753 Wardington had three public houses: the Green Man, the Hare and Hounds and the Wheatsheaf, also called the White Swan and the White Lion. The Green Man seems to have ceased trading by 1787. In 1966 Upper Wardington had two public houses: the Plough and the Red Lion. Today only the Hare and Hounds remains in business, as the others have been converted into private homes.

In 1900 the Great Central Railway's branch line between Culworth and Banbury was built through the southern edge of Wardington parish. In 1911 the railway opened Chalcombe Road Halt more than a mile south of the village on Wardington Road. British Railways closed the halt in 1956 and the line in 1966.

Wardington Memorial Hall was built in 1920 as a monument to members of the village who were killed serving in the First World War.

Amenities
Wardington has only one public house, The Hare and Hounds, controlled by Hook Norton Brewery.

Wardington Cricket Club plays in South Northants Cricket League Division four.

Transport
The A361 road runs through Wardington, with some sharp bends where there has been a number of crashes. Northamptonshire County Council's Transport Prioritisation Framework includes plans for an A361 bypass of Wardington, Chipping Warden and Byfield.

Since 2011 Stagecoach in Oxfordshire has operated bus route 200 between Banbury and Daventry via Wardington, running hourly from Mondays to Saturdays. There is no Sunday or bank holiday service.

Until 2011 Geoff Amos Coaches of Eydon had run a Monday to Saturday bus service between Rugby and Banbury via Daventry and Wardington. In April 2011 Northamptonshire County Council reduced its English National Concessionary Travel Scheme payment to bus operators from 53 pence to 38 pence per passenger and Geoff Amos Coaches warned that this would threaten the viability of its bus services. On 4 August 2011 Geoff Amos Coaches announced the withdrawal of its scheduled bus services with effect from 5 August until further notice.

title: Wardington


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Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids MiddlePaleolithic

The second phase of human migration
The time period between 250,000 and 50,000 years ago is commonly called the Middle Paleolithic.

At the same time that Neanderthals occupied Europe and Western Asia, other kinds of people lived in the Far East and Africa, and those in Africa were significantly more modern than the Neanderthals.

These Africans are thus more plausible ancestors for living humans, and it appears increasingly likely that Neanderthals were an evolutionary dead end, contributing few if any genes to historic populations.

Topics to be covered in this chapter:
 * Summary of the fossil evidence for both the Neanderthals and some of their contemporaries;
 * Second phase of human migration ("Out-of-Africa 2" Debate)

History of Research
In 1856, a strange skeleton was discovered in Feldhofer Cave in the Neander Valley (in German "Neandertal" but previously it was called "Neanderthal", "thal" = valley) near Dusseldorf, Germany. The skull cap was as large as that of a present-day human but very different in shape. Initially this skeleton was interpreted as that of a congenital idiot.

The Forbes Quarry (Gibraltar) female cranium (now also considered as Neanderthal) was discovered in 1848, eight years before the Feldhofer find, but its distinctive features were not recognized at that time.

Subsequently, numerous Neanderthal remains were found in Belgium, Croatia, France, Spain, Italy, Israel and Central Asia.

Anthropologists have been debating for 150 years whether Neanderthals were a distinct species or an ancestor of Homo sapiens sapiens. In 1997, DNA analysis from the Feldhofer Cave specimen showed decisively that Neanderthals were a distinct lineage.

These data imply that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens were separate lineages with a common ancestor, Homo heidelbergensis, about 600,000 years ago.

Anatomy
Unlike earlier hominids (with some rare exceptions), Neanderthals are represented by many complete or nearly complete skeletons. Neanderthals provide the best hominid fossil record of the Plio-Pleistocene, with about 500 individuals. About half the skeletons were children. Typical cranial and dental features are present in the young individuals, indicating Neanderthal features were inherited, not acquired.

Morphologically the Neanderthals are a remarkably coherent group. Therefore they are easier to characterize than most earlier human types.

Neanderthal skull has a low forehead, prominent brow ridges and occipital bones. It is long and low, but relatively thin walled. The back of the skull has a characteristic rounded bulge, and does not come to a point at the back.

Cranial capacity is relatively large, ranging from 1,245 to 1,740 cc and averaging about 1,520 cc. It overlaps or even exceeds average for Homo sapiens sapiens. The robust face with a broad nasal region projects out from the braincase. By contrast, the face of modern Homo sapiens sapiens is tucked under the brain box, the forehead is high, the occipital region rounded, and the chin prominent.

Neanderthals have small back teeth (molars), but incisors are relatively large and show very heavy wear.

Neanderthal short legs and arms are characteristic of a body type that conserves heat. They were strong, rugged and built for cold weather. Large elbow, hip, knee joints, and robust bones suggest great muscularity. Pelvis had longer and thinner pubic bone than modern humans.

All adult skeletons exhibit some kind of disease or injury. Healed fractures and severe arthritis show that they had a hard life, and individuals rarely lived past 40 years old.

Chronology
Neanderthals lived from about 250,000 to 30,000 years ago in Eurasia.

The earlier ones, like at Atapuerca (Sima de Los Huesos), were more generalized. The later ones are the more specialized, "classic" Neanderthals.

The last Neanderthals lived in Southwest France, Portugal, Spain, Croatia, and the Caucasus as recently as 27,000 years ago.

Geography
The distribution of Neanderthals extended from Uzbekistan in the east to the Iberian peninsula in the west, from the margins of the Ice Age glaciers in the north to the shores of the Mediterranean sea in the south.

South-West France (Dordogne region) is among the richest in Neanderthal cave shelters:
 * La Chapelle-aux-Saints;
 * La Ferrassie;
 * Saint-Césaire (which is one of the younger sites at 36,000).

Other sites include:
 * Krapina in Croatia;
 * Saccopastore in Italy;
 * Shanidar in Iraq;
 * Teshik-Tash (Uzbekistan). The 9-year-old hominid from this site lies at the most easterly known part of their range.

No Neanderthal remains have been discovered in Africa or East Asia.

Chronology and Geography
The time and place of Homo sapiens origin has preoccupied anthropologists for more than a century. For the longest time, many assumed their origin was in South-West Asia. But in 1987, anthropologist Rebecca Cann and colleagues compared DNA of Africans, Asians, Caucasians, Australians, and New Guineans. Their findings were striking in two respects:
 * the variability observed within each population was greatest by far in Africans, which implied the African population was oldest and thus ancestral to the Asians and Caucasians;
 * there was very little variability between populations which indicated that our species originated quite recently.

The human within-species variability was only 1/25th as much as the average difference between human and chimpanzee DNA. The human and chimpanzee lineages diverged about 5 million years ago. 1/25th of 5 million is 200,000. Cann therefore concluded that Homo sapiens originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago. Much additional molecular data and hominid remains further support a recent African origin of Homo sapiens, now estimated to be around 160,000-150,000 years ago.

Earliest Evidence
The Dmanisi evidence suggests early Europeans developed in Asia and migrated to Europe creating modern Europeans with minor interaction with African Homo types. July 5 2002 issue of the journal Science and is the subject of the cover story of the August issue of National Geographic magazine. New Asian finds are significant, they say, especially the 1.75 million-year-old small-brained early-human fossils found in Dmanisi, Georgia, and the 18,000-year-old "hobbit" fossils (Homo floresiensis) discovered on the island of Flores in Indonesia.

Such finds suggest that Asia's earliest human ancestors may be older by hundreds of thousands of years than previously believed, the scientists say. Robin Dennell, of the University of Sheffield in England, and Wil Roebroeks, of Leiden University in the Netherlands, describe their ideas in the December 22, 2005 issue of Nature. The fossil and archaeological finds characteristic of early modern humans are represented at various sites in East and South Africa, which date between 160,000 and 77,000 years ago.

Herto (Middle Awash, Ethiopia)
In June 2003, publication of hominid remains of a new subspecies: Homo sapiens idaltu. Three skulls (two adults, one juvenile) are interpreted as the earliest near-modern humans: 160,000-154,000 BP. They exhibit some modern traits (very large cranium; high, round skull; flat face without browridge), but also retain archaic features (heavy browridge; widely spaced eyes). Their anatomy and antiquity link earlier archaic African forms to later fully modern ones, providing strong evidence that East Africa was the birthplace of Homo sapiens.

Omo-Kibish (Ethiopia)
In 1967, Richard Leakey and his team uncovered a partial hominid skeleton (Omo I), which had the features of Homo sapiens. Another partial fragment of a skull (Omo II) revealed a cranial capacity over 1,400 cc. Dating of shells from the same level gave a date of 130,000 years.

Ngaloba, Laetoli area (Tanzania)
A nearly complete skull (LH 18) was found in Upper Ngaloba Beds. Its morphology is largely modern, yet it retains some archaic features such as prominent brow ridges and a receding forehead. Dated at about 120,000 years ago.

Border Cave (South Africa)
Remains of four individuals (a partial cranium, 2 lower jaws, and a tiny buried infant) were found in a layer dated to at least 90,000 years ago. Although fragmentary, these fossils appeared modern.

Klasies River (South Africa)
Site occupied from 120,000 to 60,000 years ago. Most human fossils come from a layer dated to around 90,000 years ago. They are fragmentary: cranial, mandibular, and postcranial pieces. They appear modern, especially a fragmentary frontal bone that lacks a brow ridge. Chin and tooth size also have a modern aspect.

Blombos Cave (South Africa)
A layer dated to 77,000 BCE yielded 9 human teeth or dental fragments, representing five to seven individuals, of modern appearance.

Anatomy
African skulls have reduced browridges and small faces. They tend to be higher, more rounded than classic Neanderthal skulls, and some approach or equal modern skulls in basic vault shape. Where cranial capacity can be estimated, the African skulls range between 1,370 and 1,510 cc, comfortably within the range of both the Neanderthals and anatomically modern people.

Mandibles tend to have significantly shorter and flatter faces than did the Neanderthals.

Postcranial parts indicate people who were robust, particularly in their legs, but who were fully modern in form.

Out-of-Africa 2: The debate
Most anthropologists agree that a dramatic shift in hominid morphology occurred during the last glacial epoch. About 150,000 years ago the world was inhabited by a morphologically heterogeneous collection of hominids: Neanderthals in Europe; less robust archaic Homo sapiens in East Asia; and somewhat more modern humans in East Africa (Ethiopia) and also SW Asia. By 30,000 years ago, much of this diversity had disappeared. Anatomically modern humans occupied all of the Old World.

In order to understand how this transition occurred, we need to answer two questions:
 * 1) Did the genes that give rise to modern human morphology arise in one region, or in many different parts of the globe?
 * 2) Did the genes spread from one part of the world to another by gene flow, or through the movement and replacement of one group of people by another?

Unfortunately, genes don't fossilize, and we cannot study the genetic composition of ancient hominid populations directly. However, there is a considerable amount of evidence that we can bring to bear on these questions through the anatomical study of the fossil record and the molecular biology of living populations. The shapes of teeth from a number of hominid species suggest that arrivals from Asia played a greater role in colonizing Europe than hominids direct from Africa, a new analysis of more than 5,000 ancient teeth suggests. (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2007)

Two opposing hypotheses for the transition to modern humans have been promulgated over the last decades:
 * the "multi-regional model" sees the process as a localized speciation event;
 * the "out-of-Africa model" sees the process as the result of widespread phyletic transformation.

The "Multi-regional" model
This model proposes that ancestral Homo erectus populations throughout the world gradually and independently evolved first through archaic Homo sapiens, then to fully modern humans. In this case, the Neanderthals are seen as European versions of archaic sapiens.

Recent advocates of the model have emphasized the importance of gene flow among different geographic populations, making their move toward modernity not independent but tied together as a genetic network over large geographical regions and over long periods of time. Since these populations were separated by great distances and experienced different kinds of environmental conditions, there was considerable regional variation in morphology among them.

One consequence of this widespread phyletic transformation would be that modern geographic populations would have very deep genetic roots, having begun to separate from each other a very long time ago, perhaps as much as a million years.

This model essentially sees multiple origins of Homo sapiens, and no necessary migrations.

The "Out-of-Africa"/"Replacement" model
This second hypothesis considers a geographically discrete origin, followed by migration throughout the rest of the Old World. By contrast with the first hypothesis, here we have a single origin and extensive migration.

Modern geographic populations would have shallow genetic roots, having derived from a speciation event in relatively recent times. Hominid populations were genetically isolated from each other during the Middle Pleistocene. As a result, different populations of Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens evolved independently, perhaps forming several hominid species. Then, between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans arose someplace in Africa and spread out, replacing other archaic sapiens including Neanderthals. The replacement model does not specify how anatomically modern humans usurped local populations. However, the model posits that there was little or no gene flow between hominid groups.

Hypothesis testing
If the "Multi-regional Model" were correct, then it should be possible to see in modern populations echoes of anatomical features that stretch way back into prehistory: this is known as regional continuity. In addition, the appearance in the fossil record of advanced humans might be expected to occur more or less simultaneously throughout the Old World. By contrast, the "Out-of-Africa Model" predicts little regional continuity and the appearance of modern humans in one locality before they spread into others.

Out-of-Africa 2: The evidence
Until relatively recently, there was a strong sentiment among anthropologists in favor of extensive regional continuity. In addition, Western Europe tended to dominate the discussions. Evidence has expanded considerably in recent years, and now includes molecular biology data as well as fossils. Now there is a distinct shift in favor of some version of the "Out-of-Africa Model".

Discussion based on detailed examination of fossil record and mitochondrial DNA needs to address criteria for identifying:
 * regional continuity;
 * earliest geographical evidence (center of origin);
 * chronology of appearance of modern humans.

Regional Continuity
The fossil evidence most immediately relevant to the origin of modern humans is to be found throughout Europe, Asia, Australasia, and Africa, and goes back in time as far as 300,000 years ago.

Most fossils are crania of varying degrees of incompleteness. They look like a mosaic of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, and are generally termed archaic sapiens. It is among such fossils that signs of regional continuity are sought, being traced through to modern populations.

For example, some scholars (Alan Thorne) argue for such regional anatomical continuities among Australasian populations and among Chinese populations. In the same way, some others believe a good case can be made for regional continuity in Central Europe and perhaps North Africa.

Replacement
By contrast, proponents of a replacement model argue that, for most of the fossil record, the anatomical characters being cited as indicating regional continuity are primitive, and therefore cannot be used uniquely to link specific geographic populations through time.

The equatorial anatomy of the first modern humans in Europe presumably is a clue to their origin: Africa. There are sites from the north, east and south of the African continent with specimens of anatomical modernity. One of the most accepted is Klasies River in South Africa. The recent discovery of remains of H. sapiens idaltu at Herto (Ethiopia) confirms this evidence. Does this mean that modern Homo sapiens arose as a speciation event in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia), populations migrating north, eventually to enter Eurasia? This is a clear possibility.

The earlier appearance of anatomically modern humans in Africa than in Europe and in Asia too supports the "Out-of-Africa Model".

Molecular biology
Just as molecular evidence had played a major role in understanding the beginnings of the hominid family, so too could it be applied to the later history, in principle.

However, because that later history inevitably covers a shorter period of time - no more than the past 1 million years - conventional genetic data would be less useful than they had been for pinpointing the time of divergence between hominids and apes, at least 5 million years ago. Genes in cell nuclei accumulate mutations rather slowly. Therefore trying to infer the recent history of populations based on such mutations is difficult, because of the relative paucity of information. DNA that accumulates mutations at a much higher rate would, however, provide adequate information for reading recent population history. That is precisely what mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) offers.

MtDNA is a relatively new technique to reconstruct family trees. Unlike the DNA in the cell nucleus, mtDNA is located elsewhere in the cell, in compartments that produce the energy needed to keep cells alive. Unlike an individual's nuclear genes, which are a combination of genes from both parents, the mitochondrial genome comes only from the mother. Because of this maternal mode of inheritance, there is no recombination of maternal and paternal genes, which sometimes blurs the history of the genome as read by geneticists. Potentially, therefore, mtDNA offers a powerful way of inferring population history.

MtDNA can yield two major conclusions relevant for our topic: the first addresses the depth of our genetic routes, the second the possible location of the origin of anatomically modern humans.

Multiregional model:

 * extensive genetic variation, implying an ancient origin, going back at least a million years (certainly around 1.8 million years ago);
 * no population would have significantly more variation than any other. Any extra variation the African population might have had as the home of Homo erectus would have been swamped by the subsequent million years of further mutation.

Replacement model:

 * limited variation in modern mtDNA, implying a recent origin;
 * African population would display most variation.

Results

 * 1) If modern populations derive from a process of long regional continuity, then mtDNA should reflect the establishment of those local populations, after 1.8 million years ago, when populations of Homo erectus first left Africa and moved into the rest of the Old World. Yet the absence of ancient mtDNA in any modern living population gives a different picture. The amount of genetic variation throughout all modern human populations is surprisingly small, and implies therefore a recent origin for the common ancestor of us all.
 * 2) Although genetic variation among the world's population is small overall, it is greatest in African populations, implying they are the longest established.
 * 3) If modern humans really did evolve recently in Africa, and then move into the rest of the Old World where they mated with established archaic sapiens, the resulting population would contain a mixture of old and new mtDNA, with a bias toward the old because of the relative numbers of newcomers to archaic sapiens. Yet the evidence does not seem to support this view.

The argument that genetic variation among widely separated populations has been homogenized by gene flow (interbreeding) is not tenable any more, according to population geneticists.

Intermediate Model
Although these two hypotheses dominate the debate over the origins of modern humans, they represent extremes; and there is also room for several intermediate models.
 * One hypothesis holds that there might have been a single geographic origin as predicted by replacement model, but followed by migrations in which newcomers interbred with locally established groups of archaic sapiens. Thus, some of genes of Neanderthals and archaic H. sapiens may still exist in modern populations;
 * Another hypothesis suggests that there could have been more extensive gene flow between different geographic populations than is allowed for in the multi-regional model, producing closer genetic continuity between populations. Anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa, and then their genes diffused to the rest of the world by gene flow, not by migration of anatomically modern humans and replacement of local peoples.

In any case the result would be a much less clearcut signal in the fossil record.

Southwest Asia
Neanderthal fossils have been found in Israel at several sites: Kebara, Tabun, and Amud. For many years there were no reliable absolute dates. Recently, these sites were securely dated. The Neanderthals occupied Tabun around 110,000 years ago. However, the Neanderthals at Kebara and Amud lived 55,000 to 60,000 years ago. By contrast, at Qafzeh Cave, located nearby, remains currently interpreted as of anatomically modern humans have been found in a layer dated to 90,000 years ago.

These new dates lead to the surprising conclusion that Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans overlapped - if not directly coexisted - in this part of the world for a very long time (at least 30,000 years). Yet the anatomical evidence of the Qafzeh hominid skeletons reveals features reminiscent of Neanderthals. Although their faces and bodies are large and heavily built by today's standards, they are nonetheless claimed to be within the range of living peoples. Yet, a recent statistical study comparing a number of measurements among Qafzeh, Upper Paleolithic and Neanderthal skulls found those from Qafzeh to fall in between the Upper Paleolithic and Neanderthal norms, though slightly closer to the Neanderthals.

Portugal
The Lagar Velho 1 remains, found in a rockshelter in Portugal dated to 24,500 years ago, correspond to the complete skeleton of a four-year-old child.

This skeleton has anatomical features characteristic of early modern Europeans:
 * prominent chin and certain other details of the mandible;
 * small front teeth;
 * characteristic proportions and muscle markings on the thumb;
 * narrowness of the front of pelvis;
 * several aspects of shoulder and forearm bones.

Yet, intriguingly, a number of features also suggest Neanderthal affinities:
 * the front of the mandible which slopes backward despite the chin;
 * details of the incisor teeth;
 * pectoral muscle markings;
 * knee proportions and short, strong lower-leg bones.

Thus, the Lagar Velho child appears to exhibit a complex mosaic of Neanderthal and early modern human features. This combination can only have resulted from a mixed ancestry; something that had not been previously documented for Western Europe. The Lagar Velho child is interpreted as the result of interbreeding between indigenous Iberian Neanderthals and early modern humans dispersing throughout Iberia sometime after 30,000 years ago. Because the child lived several millennia after Neanderthals were thought to have disappeared, its anatomy probably reflects a true mixing of these populations during the period when they coexisted and not a rare chance mating between a Neanderthal and an early modern human.

Population dispersal into Australia/Oceania
Based on current data (and conventional view), the evidence for the earliest colonization of Australia would be as follows:
 * archaeologists have generally agreed that modern humans arrived on Australia and its continental islands, New Guinea and Tasmania, about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, a time range that is consistent with evidence of their appearance elsewhere in the Old World well outside Africa;
 * all hominids known from Greater Australia are anatomically modern Homo sapiens;
 * the emerging picture begins to suggest purposeful voyaging by groups possessed of surprisingly sophisticated boat-building and navigation skills;
 * the only major feature of early Greater Australia archaeology that does NOT fit comfortably with a consensus model of modern human population expansion in the mid-Upper Pleistocene is the lithic technology, which has a pronounced Middle, rather than Upper, Paleolithic cast.

Over the past decade, however, this consensus has been eroded by the discovery and dating of several sites:
 * Malakunanja II and Nauwalabila I, located in Arnhem Land, would be 50,000 to 60,000 years old;
 * Jinmium yielded dates of 116,000 to 176,000 years ago.

Yet these early dates reveal numerous problems related to stratigraphic considerations and dating methods. Therefore, many scholars are skeptical of their value.

If accurate, these dates require significant changes in current ideas, not just about the initial colonization of Australia, but about the entire chronology of human evolution in the early Upper Pleistocene. Either fully modern humans were present well outside Africa at a surprisingly early date or the behavioral capabilities long thought to be uniquely theirs were also associated, at least to some degree, with other hominids.

As a major challenge, the journey from Southeast Asia and Indonesia to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea would have required sea voyages, even with sea levels at their lowest during glacial maxima. So far, there is no archaeological evidence from Australian sites of vessels that could have made such a journey. However, what were coastal sites during the Ice Age are mostly now submerged beneath the sea.

Summary
Overall the evidence suggested by mitochondrial DNA is the following:
 * the amount of genetic variation in human mitochondrial DNA is small and implies a recent origin for modern humans;
 * the African population displays the greatest amount of variation; this too is most reasonably interpreted as suggesting an African origin.


text:
Alfon

Alfon is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Dov Alfon (born 1961), Israeli journalist and editor
 * Estrella Alfon (1917–1983), Filipino writer
 * Fernando Alfón de Ovando, Spanish military and nobleman
 * Juan Alfon, Spanish painter

title: Alfon


text:
Film learning project

Welcome to the film learning project!

Introduction
A 10 minute film was produced a year or few ago called Elephant dreams. What makes this film unique is that it was created using entirely open source software and it was licensed under the Creative Commons.

This learning project will attempt to harness the power of collaboration in order create a film in the spirit of Elephant Dreams.

There is already a well developed course on film making at Wikiversity. Using the information and collaboration available at Wikiversity a film will be produced for the sake of learning and knowledge. Please collaborate on the project and be bold.

Specifications
Please add/change specifications or discuss them on the talk page.
 * Use open source software.
 * Use computer animation
 * Do it in a fairly realistic fashion
 * Collaborate on the script and on the production
 * Have the film be about 30 minutes long
 * Be ambitious
 * Enter the film in competitions (or not)
 * Distribute the end production in Bitorrent and sell DVD's to benefit the coffers of Wikiversity (maybe for Wikiversity research grants (or not)
 * Discuss these specifications in the talk page
 * Collaborate with other departments such as the graphic design, computer science, performing arts, and marketing department

Ideas
(Please add and expand on these ideas)
 * An action 80's movie with some fighting and romance.
 * A gangster movie with gangsters, action and romance.
 * A comedy with action and romance.
 * A romance with action and comedy.
 * A drama with romance about a troubled (mentally) teen
 * Versions distributed on YouTube, and in multiple formations in cluding HD 1080p over Bittorrent in a format that can be burnt directly to DVD.
 * With a slick DVD menu.
 * All materials are to be licensed under the GFDL or Creative Commons.
 * Any thoughts on which? Why?
 * PG equivalent rating? PG13? R? Multiple?

Concept art
Please design concept art and include it here for the moment. Once there is enough models/scans/drawings/etc. we can create another page for them.

Characters
(Please feel free to edit the characters)
 * Hader Arnold - Our buff, sensitive, and dashing action hero with red hair and a slick MUSTACHE. He is a farmer and bouncer.
 * Palmer Saepaul - The goofy but handsome pizza delivery man who has kind feelings for Angel Brooks.
 * Gela Brooks - The beautiful, charming, and intelligent medical student who has a thing for guys with MUSTACHES and scars.
 * Killgore von Bravenbrooks - The gangster who means BUSINESS and doesn't screw around. He shreds it up on a guitar! (like no one's business)

Things to do

 * Finish and finalize the screen play.
 * Create a story board.
 * Create a list of logistical tasks to actually produce the models, sounds, dialogue, music, and anything else that is needed.
 * Break those tasks into sub tasks that a person could easily complete if they felt like it.
 * Put everything together.
 * Market and enjoy the movie.
 * More completely create a list of things to do.

Screen play
Please be bold and edit the screen play to your liking, or discuss it on the talk page. Be drastic, make a plot twist. Just - add!

Music starts.

Black screen fades in slowly to the eyes of the main character. He is wearing sun glasses.

The camera zooms out through the windshield slowly. You see the red convertible the main character is driving.

In the opening scene the main character is cruising down a desert highway looking cool. It is apparent he doesn't care about anything, just by looking at him. There is no peyote in his trunk. He is sober as a new born cat. Soft music is playing in the background in an unusual style that is a mix of country, smooth jazz, new age and techno.

He is going to the store. He needs to purchase gasoline for his tractor.

He is a farmer and needs to dig an irrigation trench.

He screeches to a halt in front of the car. The store is a wooden shack. There is nothing around it. It takes him 1 hour to drive to this store and it is the nearest store in 100 miles. It has an old 50's gas station out in front. There are beautiful painted hills in the back ground. And it is HOT.

It zooms in to the main characters forehead. A bead of sweat drips down the side of his brow. It touches his mustache and falls to the ground, making a small splash. The camera zooms and follows the bead of sweat.

The camera changes angles to be higher above the character. He non-nonchalantly starts filling his gas tank with gas and walks into the store. The camera angle shifts slowly at first back behind the main character as he walks into the store and then in a smooth fashion pans back into where his face can be seen before going to a fly on the wall view.

A look of intensity and heightened awareness floods the face of the main character as he enters the store. It can be seen that the main character knows something bad is about to happen....

The camera zooms to the tiny bell situated on top of the main door, as it dings, signaling somebody's entrance.

We're now focused on the ground showing high heels with a pair of long legs in them. As the camera pans up it reveals a beautiful woman in tiny jean shorts and a white tank top with the faintest bit of sweat on her body.

As she approaches the counter, the man does not seem at all fazed by this striking beauty, he maintains his composure, and continues on with his transaction.

She then leans on the counter facing the man, as to demand attention from him.

He gives her a taste of his attention with an easy glare towards her eyes, as to acknowledge her presence, then returns his eyes to his purchase. The man gathers his cigarettes, puts them in his pocket, and turns to walk away when suddenly...

Useful open source software

 * Blender
 * Audacity
 * Gimp
 * Twisted
 * Python
 * Ubuntu Linux
 * OpenEXR
 * KDE
 * Verse
 * GNOME
 * CinePaint
 * DrQueue
 * Inkscape
 * Subversion

title: Film learning project


text:
Talk:David Moscow

COI
Per the comment on my talkpage - User_talk:Mujinga - it seems @Moscow1974 is the subject of this article and therefore I advised them to suggest edits here rather than editing the article directly. Mujinga (talk) 12:08, 27 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the suggestion. I’d rather not edit my own page😁 but it would be nice if people new about the new stuff I’m up to. Moscow1974 (talk) 12:21, 27 April 2024 (UTC)
 * How long do these changes usually take? <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:22, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * It really depends since everyone is a volunteer - I see nobody has made the change yet so I'll look into now Mujinga (talk) 12:09, 3 July 2024 (UTC)

From scratch TV show
My television show focused on food producers around the world titled From Scratch is now in its 4th season. https://variety.com/2023/tv/news/tastemade-david-moscow-from-scratch-season-3-4-1235722682/amp/ Moscow1974 (talk) 12:17, 27 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks, Variety is a great source Mujinga (talk) 13:45, 3 July 2024 (UTC)

From Scratch: Adventures in Harvesting hunting fishing and foraging on a fragile planet
David co wrote a book with his father community activist, Jon Moscow. It became a national bestseller and won the nautilus award for social and environmental justice.https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/From-Scratch/David-Moscow/9781637584026 Moscow1974 (talk) 12:20, 27 April 2024 (UTC)

 * For this one, we'd need book reviews, I did find one in Kirkus Reviews so I'll add that Mujinga (talk) 13:35, 3 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for adding the book Here is a link to the Nautilus literary award. It’s the environmental and social justice lit award and we won for food/cooking
 * https://www.nautilusbookawards.com/nautiluswinners2023-1-10 Moscow1974 (talk) 09:09, 5 July 2024 (UTC)

National bestseller From scratch
So the FS book a national bestseller as listed by publishers weekly. https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/nielsen/HardcoverNonfiction/20221107.html Moscow1974 (talk) 03:46, 13 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Moscow


text:
Web development tools

When adding tools, please note the cost and the OS for the tool.

Image Manipulation Programs
GIMP (GNU License|Win, Unix) - http://gimp.org, The GNU Image Manipulation Program. This photoshop replacement is totally free, works on multiple platforms, and does just about everything you could dream of to create and modify images.

Easy Thumbnails (Free|Win) - http://www.fookes.com. From the site, "Create accurate thumbnails from popular picture formats with this handy freeware utility. Find and view images easily, preview your thumbnails, and use its tools to rotate images and adjust their contrast, brightness, sharpness and compression."

Windows Sizer
Sizer (Free|Win)- http://www.brianapps.net/sizer.html. From the site, "Sizer is a freeware utility that allows you to resize any window to an exact, predefined size. This is extremely useful when designing web pages, as it allows you to see how the page will look when viewed at a smaller size. The utility is also handy when compiling screen-shots for documentation, using Sizer allows you to easily maintain the same window size across screen grabs."

Color
Kolorgenerator (Free|Win) - http://www.godula.com/?link=kg. With this program you can get the coding of colors in a variety of formats, select colors off any part of your screen and even measure pixel distances in other programs.

Content Management Systems
DotNetNuke (Free|Win) - http://dotnetnuke.com. DotNetNuke is an open-source Web Application Framework ideal for creating and deploying projects such as commercial websites, corporate intranets and extranets, online publishing portals, and custom vertical applications. DotNetNuke is built on a Microsoft ASP.NET (VB.NET) platform, and is easily installed and hosted.

Databases
SQL Express (Free|Win) - http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/express/sql. SQL Server 2005 Express Edition is the next version of MSDE and is a free, easy-to-use, lightweight, and embeddable version of SQL Server 2005.

MySql (Free|Multiple OS) - http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql/5.0.html. From the site, "In contrast to the MySQL Enterprise Server, which receives both monthly rapid updates and quarterly service pack releases, there is no specific schedule for when a new version of the MySQL Community Server is released. While every bug fix that has been applied to the Enterprise Server will also be available in the subsequent Community Server release, there will be source-only releases in between full (source and binary) Community builds. So while the latest published community sources will always be available from the Source Downloads Section, the binaries listed on this page may be from a previous release. In any case, full binaries for all our supported operating systems are and will remain conveniently available from this page."

Programming Environments
Eclipse (Free|Multiple OS) -- Eclipse, (eclipse.org).

Eclipse is an open source community whose projects are focused on building an open development platform comprised of extensible frameworks, tools and run times for building, deploying and managing software across the life cycle. A large and vibrant ecosystem of major technology vendors, innovative start-ups, universities, research institutions and individuals extend, complement and support the Eclipse platform.

title: Web development tools


text:
Talk:Dessie O'Hare

Improvements
Well I've managed to fix what was a WP:BLP disaster. Further improvements I suggest are: Any suggestions/help will be welcome naturally. One Night In Hackney 303 06:10, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * More about his activities pre-1987
 * More about his fight for freedom, including the various temporary releases. I think there's more than enough to warrant a section just for that
 * More about his reputation, including his admission of being involved in a large number of murders
 * More about the December 2006 murders and events leading up to it, I've found some reliable source material
 * More about his less controversial activities since his release - Brothers of Charity, working with the handicapped, trip to Lourdes etc
 * Some sections will be useful, can't really do that until I've added his early activities though. I'm thinking something along the lines of Background, Paramilitary Activity, Kidnapping (definitely enough for its own section), Fight for Freedom, Release.

 * Thanks for referencing this. I started the article and can't believe I forgot to reference it. Must check the others I started. Stu   ’Bout ye!  09:08, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Not sure about a heading of 'Fight for Freedom' what will it contain?Weggie 13:01, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually I wasn't happy with that heading at the time I typed it, Prison would probably be better. However the section would mostly deal with his fight for freedom - judicial review, "my war is over" statement, transfer to Castlerea, brief temporary releases etc etc.  One Night In Hackney 303 18:18, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

I've added some more background to his activities pre 1986, as well as in the immediate run up to kidnapping. Sources for this are an article in todays Irish Independent, and Gene Kerrigans book Hard cases. I also hope to add further information on criticism of the Director of Public Prosectutions at the time for only charging O'Hare with a limited number of offences, this relates to the fact while many goverment, judicial and law enforcement officials are working against his release —Preceding unsigned comment added by Shrubage (talk • contribs) 15:03, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

My edits have been undone twice now first time for being a current news story the second for distorting my source material. While my presentation of the information might be flawed the content itself is based on reliable sources. While I use the Irish independents article as a reference Gene Kerrigans book as far as I remember doesn't differ in its account. The O'Hare case is unusual in Irish criminal cases there was a wealth of evidence against him at the time for various other murders yet the DPP chose to prosecute on only sample charges relating from the kidnapping, the well document evidence of other crimes is one of the publicly stated motivations for various organisations opposing his release Shrubage (talk) 15:27, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Please stop adding your own unsourced commentary to this article and distorting existing sources, and discuss your changes here first. O Fenian (talk) 15:30, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

I've explained the above rather minor edits I made to the article, and supplied a reference for the facts I stated. I stated no opinion on O'Hare in the edit. The majority of contributors seem to have republican political leanings, I don't use the word as a perjorative. I simply mean that the view of Dessie O'Hare that comes across from reading this article is not one thats shared by the vast majority reputable knowledgable sources in Ireland. And by reputable sources I inlcude The DPP, An Garda Siochan, and the major media outlets. I'm relativly inexperienced with wikipedia but I carefully examined its policies before I made the edit which was prompted by the newspaper article providing an available online reference. Shrubage (talk) 15:42, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Would you like to explain why you changed McCaughey's attempt to kill O'Hare to "apprehend"? Did you even read when the article says? McCaughey and associates went into a pub, opened fire, then attempted to detonate a bomb? How is that attempting to "apprehend" anyone? They were not acting as RUC members, they were acting as loyalists. O Fenian (talk) 15:44, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

Apologies I have read the article and you're quite right, While I am somewhat familiar with McCaughey and his activities I didn't realise that Dessie O'Hare had been a target. I was unhappy with the implication that It was the RUC as an organisation and not McCaughey as an individual that attempted to murder O'Hare. I had made a longer edit to that section, which tried to include the various attempts to apprehend O'Hare as well as his targetting by loyalist paramilitaries but lacking any proper online references I thought I had deleted my edit in that section. I can only plead my inexperience with the use of Wikipedia and again offer my apologies.

However I have to state again, that were someone with no knowledge of the subject to read this article they would gain an impression of the man that is not widely held in Ireland outside certain fringe groups. An article on a man that's confessed to 26 murders committed in living memory does I think need careful wording. Shrubage (talk) 16:11, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Apologies, I forget I had other points to address.
 * This was a part of policy of targetting part time security force personal living in isolated locations
 * Who says this? This is unsourced commentary.
 * After his parole from prison he would claim on a visit to Monaghan Garda station that he had become a pacifist after reading the works of Mohandas Gandhi in prison, although it is certain that at this time he was already drawing up plans for the future kidnapping operation.
 * Who says he was certain? I do not even see the value in this sentence, as it seems to be in the article to imply O'Hare was lying.
 * The 26+ murders seem to be covered in the article already in the "Beliefs" section, and also in the section above when the PSNI rule out his arrest on suspicion of involvement in up to 30 unsolved killings. I do not think another mention is really merited. O Fenian (talk) 11:38, 15 December 2008 (UTC)

Joining INLA
Anyone have a source for roughly when (and why) he left the IRA and joined the INLA? Thanks. One Night In Hackney 303 23:48, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Never mind. States he was expelled by the IRA in the late 1970s. One Night In Hackney 303 23:54, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

Revisions
I've added to lead section, which should be a precis of the main article. I've taken out most of the headings, which interrupt the flow of the text. Last paragraph - I think this can be improved with more info from his spokesperson about his activities, and also Ahern's comments. Also needs a proper ref. Congratulations on very impressive-looking referencing throughout. Tyrenius 00:38, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I was planning to sort out the lead once I'd finished everything else, and I'm still got more to add including the 2006 and Ahern comments.  One Night In Hackney 303 00:42, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

Injuring
In my opinion the use of injuring in the lead doesn't go far enough, mutilating would be better in my opinion. It's a strong term but appropriate in my opinion, and it's also a sourced term. Any objections? One Night In Hackney 303 02:40, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed - did you find the article by a former colleague who described some of the murders? Some of the most extreme stuff I've read even by the standard of the troubles Weggie 09:48, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm happy enough with VK's addition of "severely", mutilating makes it sound a bit too much like a tabloid possibly. Don't think I've seen the article, got a link please?  One Night In Hackney 303 18:58, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I've just put in the lead about cutting off two fingers. I think anything abstract leaves too much to the imagination, and makes it sound even worse than it already is. Tyrenius 02:05, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Fine by me, I re-wrote it slightly though. One Night In Hackney 303 02:43, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Refs
Please note the full citation details must appear first in the article, and then any other use with the short version must appear later. Short versions in the article before the full version will not work. I also suggest when naming refs to give a name that is easy to remember from the source referred to, e.g. the name for ref 1 could be "who". I'm actually not aware of any guidelines on naming, but if there are, please point me there. Tyrenius 02:09, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * They worked fine before, although I was planning to do that soon just not while parts were still being moved around and added. One Night In Hackney 303 02:43, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Just FYI I was referring to this edit where the short form appeared before the full cite (I reversed them), but maybe you were aware of that. Tyrenius 03:17, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I know they worked fine for me, perhaps it's a browser thing? One Night In Hackney 303 03:48, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

NPOV tag
I have removed this, as there is no explanation on this page as to why it's been added. It needs to be explained here so it can be discussed if necessary. Tyrenius 02:16, 11 March 2007 (UTC)

Possible additions
I'm thinking about the Tony McKloskey story from this article, and possibly the SPG incident from 1978 from Bandit Country, for the benefit of Tyrenius who probably hasn't got a copy there's information about it here. Any opinions? One Night In Hackney 303 06:53, 13 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Assuming refs are sound, it seems an important part of someone's life to be nearly blown up (by the police). Tyrenius 03:11, 14 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I've added that to the article, I'll have a stab at McKloskey later when I'm feeling more creative. One Night In Hackney 303 04:56, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

i have corrected some of the incorrect details.

 * No, you haven't. You've changed sourced content to unsourced content, please do not do so again. One Night In Hackney 303 22:18, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

i think sourcing information which is incorrect is poor research. On a quick scan of this article i see ~30% of the details are incorrect. Please research your sources as James O'Hare (desmond's grandfather) died in 1920. Its hard to be imprisoned for 6 months 20 years after your death. There are many more incorrect details. I will not attempt to correct these as you are the author for this wiki article. However it is a policy of wiki to remove articles which are incorrect. I will pursue the removal of this article if you continue to publish wrong information.

 * I am not the author of this article. If you attempt to replace sourced information with original research you will be reverted, and if you attempt to continue inserting original research you may be blocked. One Night In Hackney 303 19:36, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

As i stated above, i will not make any changes to the article. I would encourage you to research the content you add. I wish you well on your future wiki contributions.

 * And I would encourage you to take a less condescending tone. Simply because you do not agree with what the source says does not make it incorrect. One Night In Hackney 303 20:09, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

I think i should know my own families history, which is documented within the family circle back to 1649.

 * Not relevant, unless the information has been published by a reliable source. One Night In Hackney 303 20:14, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

i now understand the meaning of reliable source as determined by wiki. Good luck

 * Yup, I did fix the grandfather though, must have been tired when I added that. The article used to look like this though, so it's definitely improved. If you can get any further information on Dessie published (like say on the IRSM website) it can be used. One Night In Hackney 303 20:23, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Billy McCaughey
Just a quick explanation about why I'm about to change "attempted to kill O'Hare" to "attempted to murder O'Hare". As the information before it states he's a member of the RUC, it's important to differentiate between what might have been an officer acting lawfully and what McCaughey did. One Night In Hackney 303 12:03, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

military person box?
Please!

Does no one think this is a tad inappropriate?Jdorney (talk) 14:47, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Alleged links to crime:

In December 2006 drug-dealer Martin 'Marlo' Hyland was shot dead at his Dublin home, along with a plumber called Anthony Campbell who was working there. Irish Taoiseach Bertie Ahern stated in the Dáil Éireann that a "significant former paramilitary" had been in the company of Hyland during the summer, referring to O'Hare.[26] O'Hare's spokesman, Eddie McGarrigle of the Irish Republican Socialist Party, denied O'Hare had any involvement with the killings stating that he was working with handicapped people and a charity, and had also been an assistant to a group of pilgrims on a trip to Lourdes. McGarrigle's statement was supported by the Gardaí, who said there was no evidence to link O'Hare to the shootings.[2]

Just because bertie aherne said "a significant former paramilitary" had been invloved does not mean he was referring to o'hare. I think unless a link can be found to state he was talking about o'hare this should be removed. This alleged is as good as stating aherne meant o'hare which is not the case as there is no proof. Further by adding this to his page it is inferring the old "no smoke without fire" argument. People obviously thought he as speaking about o;hare and thats why McGarrigle denied it. But I think this inself does not warrant it being on his page. It is not significant enought.

Markievicz —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:47, 25 March 2010 (UTC)

 * The source says that O'Hare was the "significant former paramilitary" referred to. 2 lines of K  303  12:55, 19 April 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Dessie O'Hare. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121613/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20021208/ai_n12852162 to http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20021208/ai_n12852162
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070820175035/http://irsm.org/irsp/free_dessie/background.html to http://irsm.org/irsp/free_dessie/background.html

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title: Talk:Dessie O'Hare


text:
Portal:Interdisciplinary Studies/Selected biography

Participants in UFO research explore past research into UFOs and are encouraged to join the the SETI@Home project.


text:
User:Jmckeown~enwikiversity

My name is James, and I'm a student of Economics at the University of Guelph. I am hoping to help develop an economics course outline both for the benefit of the Wikiversity and to aid my own educational progress. I'm new to wikis, so if anyone is working on this task already and would like help, please let me know. --James

Links of personal interest  http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Welcome%2C_newcomers#How_can_I_become_involved.3F  www.uoguelph.ca

title: User:Jmckeown~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Platanthera hookeri

Untitled
Include a section that talks about issues Platanthera hookeri has. Any diseases or reasons for vegetative damage. Vand7543 (talk) 14:04, 23 September 2017 (UTC)]

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Ihategluten.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 15:37, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Platanthera hookeri


text:
R766 road (Ireland)

The R766 road is a regional road in Ireland. The road connects Bray with its eastern suburbs and the seaside.

Route
The route begins at the junction of Bray Main Street and Quinnsborough Road. The route heads east down the Quinnsborough Road, passing the Carlisle Grounds and Bray Daly Station, crossing the level crossing and heading south along the Strand Road. The Strand Road is southbound only so northbound traffic follows the Meath Road instead. The route then heads west up the hill of the Putland Road. The route terminates at its junction with the R761 at The Vevay.

title: R766 road (Ireland)


text:
Portal:Medicine/Selected article/34, 2006

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a collection of symptoms and infections in humans resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The late stage of the condition leaves individuals prone to opportunistic infections and tumors. Although treatments for AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus's progression, there is no known cure. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk. This transmission can come in the form of anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.

Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century; it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 38.6 million people now living with the disease worldwide.

(More...)

Nominations • Archive


text:
Brazilian Soccer Academy

Brazilian Soccer Academy is a football team based in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. The club plays in the Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Puerto Rico, the premier football division of Puerto Rico. The team is sponsored by a youth soccer academy of the same name.

History
The team first joined the Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Puerto Rico in 2014, finishing third in the regular season. In the end-of-season playoffs, they defeated Puerto Rico United in the quarterfinals before falling to eventual champion Yabuco SUAL in the semifinals.

Colors and Name
The team's colors are blue, green, white, and yellow, the same colors used by the Brazil national football team.

title: Brazilian Soccer Academy


text:
Municipal waste (disambiguation)

Municipal solid waste is a waste type that includes predominantly household waste.

Municipal waste may also refer to:

 * Municipal Waste (band), a crossover thrash group
 * Municipal Waste (EP), their 2001 album

title: Municipal waste (disambiguation)


text:
User:GJeffery~enwikibooks

I am Graham Jeffery, from London, UK. My background is a degree in Mathematics followed by several years as a software consultant and a strategy consultant. I currently work in the pharmaceutical industry assisting clients to make better decisions regarding their assets in clinical development.

I started contributing to Wikipedia and Wikibooks in Nov 2004.

title: User:GJeffery~enwikibooks


text:
Lunar Boom Town/Satellite and Computer Wreckers

Some information on satellite salvage at google

Market Needs
Mass is expensive to lift out of the gravity well of Earth and some sophisticated components will not be manufactured on the moon in economical scales initially as the Lunar economy starts small and ramps up. Scrap in orbit is dangerous to other spacecraft and equipment. It acts as a meteor shower or meteor if it impacts another man made object. Salvaging components from satellites can thus fill several needs by delivering cheap recycled components to the Lunar industrial cycle while simultaneously gaining for the owners of the satellites either small salvage fees or cheap scrap removal or both.

It is merely a matter of working out the economics, the business plan, and finding or being the proper entrepreneur to get the job done at a profit.


text:
Mount Margaret (Skamania County, Washington)

Mount Margaret is a 5,850-ft (1,780 m) mountain summit located in Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest, in Skamania County of southwest Washington state. It is situated in the Cascade Range, 2 mi north of Spirit Lake, and 2.4 mi northeast of Coldwater Peak. Its nearest higher neighbor is Mount Whittier, 0.93 mi to the north, and Mount St. Helens rises 8 mi to the south. Precipitation runoff from Mount Margaret drains into Coldwater Creek, a tributary of the North Fork Toutle River. A hiking trail provides access to this mountain. This peak was named some time before 1900 by an admiring prospector for Margaret "Maggie" Shultz Layton (1877-1965), a pioneering resident of Toledo, Washington.

Geology
The history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions of years ago to the late Eocene Epoch. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to various climate differences. During the Pleistocene period dating back over two million years ago, glaciation advancing and retreating repeatedly scoured and shaped the landscape. With the North American Plate overriding the Pacific Plate, episodes of volcanic igneous activity occurred. The lateral blast from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was pointed toward Mount Margaret and stripped the vegetation from its slopes. Due to Mount Saint Helens' proximity to Mount Margaret, volcanic ash is common in the area.

Climate
Coldwater Peak is located in the marine west coast climate zone of western North America. Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Cascade Range (Orographic lift), causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades. As a result, the west side of the Cascades experiences high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. The months July through September offer the most favorable weather for viewing or climbing this peak.


text:
flagello

Etymology 1
From.

Noun

 * 1) scourge
 * 2) bane
 * 3)  flagellum

Etymology
From.

Verb

 * 1) to flog, whip, lash or scourge
 * 2) to thresh or flail (grain)

title: flagello


text:
Eswatini in World War II

Eswatini (known at the time as Swaziland) remained a British protectorate throughout World War II. As such, it fought alongside the Allies against the Axis. While no large scale battles or major military operations took place in or around Eswatini, the colony did supply the Allies with troops during the war. World War II was also responsible for several important domestic developments in Eswatini.

History
Sobhuza II, the King of Eswatini at the time the war broke out, struck a deal with the British government, agreeing to help gather volunteers for the war effort within the country in exchange for the British allowing for greater Swazi autonomy in the future. A few thousand Swazi men ended up volunteering to fight alongside the Allies. Swazis enlisted into the African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps which went on to serve in Egypt and Libya during the Western Desert campaign, part of the larger North Africa campaign, and also participated in the Allied invasion of Italy. One notable Swazi veteran of the war is Mnikwa Dlamini, who later became the Chief of Hhelehhele.

Domestically, World War II led directly to the Swazi government's implementation of new administrative subdivisions in Eswatini called tinkhundla. Those Swazi soldiers who served in the war and had spent time in modern African port cities like Tripoli and Durban relayed their wartime experiences to King Sobhuza II and recommended to their monarch that he establish several community centers across the kingdom. These community centers, called inkhundla, eventually developed into the tinkhundla system found in Eswatini today. Swazi veterans of World War II also influenced their home country in that they eventually came to occupy several important leadership positions within the Swazi military.

The political and economic situation of the post-war world eventually allowed Eswatini to gain independence from the British Empire in 1968, as part of a much larger trend of decolonization across the world.

A memorial to Swazi soldiers who served in World War II was constructed near the mission of Bethany, located just outside of the town of Matsapha. The memorial records the names of 53 Swazi soldiers who died after returning to their home country, as well as those of 24 Swazi soldiers who died in Egypt. All Swazi soldiers not mentioned by name elsewhere are commemorated on the memorial's plaque, written in Siswati.

title: Eswatini in World War II


text:
Talk:What You Should Know About Medicines/Antipyretic

i want to know what is the importance of antipyretic medicines.. or more detail about it.. i hope.. yo will answer this soonn thank you very much!


text:
1992–93 Sheffield Shield season

The 1992–93 Sheffield Shield season was the 91st season of the Sheffield Shield, the domestic first-class cricket competition of Australia. New South Wales won the championship.

title: 1992–93 Sheffield Shield season


text:
Talk:Double Leg (trick)

misty twisty
I heard of "misty twisty". As far as I know it is a doubleleg with bent legs + after the dbleg you spin another 360°. A doubleleg and another 360° spin is called "Doublelegtwist" or "doublelegfull"...but misty twisty... no.

"barrel roll"
it is again me - I think, one of the older forms the host was talking about the "barrel roll" not doubleleg. It make sense.. If you are going to roll over barrel.. you are doing a doubleleg.. what i want to say is... maybe the name should also appear in the text

Kim Do Kick
Isn't this also called a Crowd Awakener? —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 02:19, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

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text:
Talk:D. J. Bonebrake

Untitled
Donald J. "DJ" Bonebrake is not the younger brother of Jim Morrison of The Doors. Snuh (talk) 21:35, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
 * I always thought that he played with the Germs as well. I seem to remember a Germs best of on Cleopatra records that had him listed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 02:29, 1 March 2011 (UTC)
 * He did play on the Germs single "What we Do is Secret", and its pretty freaking obvious as you can hear his parade snare, it is very distinctive sounding. It would be OR though as Don's wife, Diana Bonebrake, and Ty Kindell/Billy Zoom told me this in email correspondence in 2004. Also, I dont get who said that the rest of the band are from IL, John Doe is from Maryland, Exene Cervenkova is from Florida, and Billy Zoom is from Iowa. If I can find citations on imdb from "The Unheard Music" I'll fix that myself. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 02:55, 1 July 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:D. J. Bonebrake


text:
User:MakiyahA/sandbox

The people of Songye inhabit a vast territory between the Sankuru and Labilash rivers west and the Lualaba in the east, a vast group of villages can be found in present-Day East Kasai province, parts of Katanga and Kivu Province pg 96. The people of songye are divided in to thirty- four conglomerate societies, each society is lead by a single chief with Judiciary council of elders and nobles (bilolo). Smaller kingdoms east of the Lomami river refer to themselves as Songye, other kingodoms in the west, refer to themselves as Kalebwe, Eki, Ilande, Bala, Chofwe, Sanga and Tempa. As a society, the people of Songye are mainly known as a farming community, they do however take part in hunting and trading with other neighboring communities.

The Culture of Songye and Ancestral Beliefs (fix)
Their form of art is know for being greatly diverse, the Songye developed two songye carving styles for figure sculpture and their blacksmiths.

The origin of the Songye begin with its founding fathers and ancestors Chimbale and Kongolo. Chimbale and Kongolo originated from and established the kingdom Luba. Chimbale and Kongolo played an important role in establishing the foundation of Luba's political empire. After suffering from political dissention, The ancestors of Songye migrated out of the Luba empire to current day.The Songye honor their ancestors and cultural heroes through a series of different practices and occasions. In Songye culture, it is believed that the chiefs are sacred heirs of their ancestors and of the founding cultural hero. Hunting was an occupation associated with cultural heroes, Chiefs would organize hunting of animals to showcase the power the was embued to his by the cultural hero he was honoring. Blacksmithing was a another craft that was associated with their their heroes.Their smiths were reputed for their production of arms; their axes were used by Luba, and some were found in the ruins of Khami in Rhodesia pg 22.

Influencers:

Nsapo: also patrilinear also has a secret society Bushiki responsible for maintaining social cohesion 169.

make section clear what did they do for luba and who migrated out of it

who did what?

Religion and religious practitioners (add on)
The People of Songye believes that the land of the live and the land of the dead interact with each other. It is believed that natural waters such as spring, lakes and oceans connects both lands together allowing intermingling between the living and dead. Spirits such as ancestors, important chiefs and Devine creator efile mukluk influences their daily lives.

Religious practitioners are oversee the production of professional arts.The Nganga are not seen as sorcerers in Songye society, they are seen as specialists with mystical knowledge and training needed to handle the Mikishi and any malevolent influence against the community. The Nganga and Bwadi bra Kifwebe are religious practitioners that work on the same spectrum, they can work together when dealing with spiritual influence within the community however they are not associated with each other. The Nganga works as a separate entity while the Bwadi bra Kifwebe a secret society within the community. Bwadi bra Kifwebe a secret society that conducts rituals and rites such as initiation rituals, circumcisions and funerals.

Masks
The kifwebe masks symbolized the spirits of the dead, the underworld and the struggle between good and evil (Community vs antisocial practices and witchcraft), each element of the mask symbolized these aspects in a certain way. the intertwining of the rhythmic colors of red, black and white was meant to symbolize the struggle between good (white) and evil (black and red), the combination of these colors embody the positive and dangerous force held with in the mask. The ruggedness of the mask itself symbolizes the underworld and the spirits escape from it 133.

The Songye gained an reputation for their unique stylization of masks. Songye masks or kifwebe, are wooden polychromed masks facial masks used by the Bwadi bra Kifwebe during initiation circumcision and funerals.These masks can be either male or female and the sex of the mask determines how it will be used for certain ceremonies. Once a dancer wears a Kifwebe masks, he takes on the attributes that the mask potrays. when the dance is wearing a male mask his movements are aggressive and unstable, however when a dancer wears a female mask his movements are gentle and controlled. The dances of the kifwebe dancers are meant to encourage social conformity within the community showing its people how one should behave in their society 168.

two different carving styles for masks,

Mankishi and the spirits within
Mankishi are spirits of the dead that can influence the world of men. These spirits can be malevolent spirits causing infertility, bad harvests and sickness or benevolent spirits bringing good health and prosperity in the hunt and field. The songye believe that spirits can be reborn, Benevolent spirits are believed to be reborn by creating a mamkishi power figure, while malevolent spirits (bikudi) are not reborn and are forced to roam the earth for eternity. Not all spirits who are unable to be reborn as a Mankishi are wondering spirits, spirits who are not reborn yet are knowledgeable on their power and knowledge of partilineage founders, heroic leaders, and lineage chiefs and dignitaries becomes guardians of the lineage and provide general protection. Mankishi conforms to a certain magico-social standard within the songye community. Songye figures serves as a protectors of the community, encourages fertility and protects families from evil spirits and practitioners. Nganga or magical practitioners are responsible for commissioning these figures, they decide the dimensions of the figure, sex morphological aspects and type of wood used for the figure.

These Sculptures comes various forms and serves different purposes, Usually Mankishi are depicted as a large stylized sculptures of a standing on a base. In profile, the repetition of strong diagonals in the coiffure, beard forearm and feet are forceful and aesthetically pleasing.the horizontal shoulders arm and legs helps gives the figure a sense of energy and movement 38. The Stance is meant to signify the mankishi's alertness and readiness to carries out is purpose whether is protecting is owner from evil spirits or witches and sorcerers. Its head is usually elongated with sharp facial feature such as the eyes, chin, and rectangular nose. Its torso is also elongated yet the center of abdomen is hallowed along with the top of the head so that the Bijimba, a magical substance created by the Nganga, can house the sculpture and bring spiritual power to it. Female figures exist however they're not as common as male Mankishi. Female Mankishi are smaller and they are usually for personal usage. Like its male counterpart, the female Nkishi has a cavity in the abdomen and head to house the Bijimba. The figure its self usually shows signs of scarification on its face and above its face. The legs of the figure are posed in an unusual way and appears to be unfinished, this may suggests that it was covered by sacred objects and was not meant to be shown. When the Mankishi is being used the nganga places shells, horns, animal skins, nails or studs and other spiritual objects outside of the figure to enhance its power and influence 38. The housing of the Mankishi varies on its size, purpose and importance, larger Mankishi that are created to guard and protect a family or villiage is housed in a family shine,. Smaller more personal Mankishi are usually kept by the owner and are portable.

The Songye people, sometimes written Songe, are a Bantu ethnic group from the central Democratic Republic of the Congo.They inhabit a vast territory between the Sankuru and Labilash rivers west and the Lualaba in the east, a vast group of villages can be found in present-Day East Kasai province, parts of Katanga and Kivu Province pg 96. The people of songye are divided in to thirty- four conglomerate societies, each society is led by a single chief with Judiciary council of elders and nobles (bilolo). Smaller kingdoms east of the Lomami river refer to themselves as Songye, other kingdoms in the west, refer to themselves as Kalebwe, Eki, Ilande, Bala, Chofwe, Sanga and Tempa. As a society, the people of Songye are mainly known as a farming community, they do however take part in hunting and trading with other neighboring communities.

Origins and Ancestors
The origin of the Songye begin with its founding fathers and ancestors Chimbale and Kongolo. Chimbale and Kongolo originated from and established the kingdom Luba. Chimbale and Kongolo played an important role in establishing the foundation of Luba's political empire. After suffering from political dissention, The ancestors of Songye migrated out of the Luba empire to current day.The Songye honor their ancestors and cultural heroes through a series of different practices and occasions. In Songye culture, it is believed that the chiefs are sacred heirs of their ancestors and of the founding cultural hero. Hunting was an occupation associated with cultural heroes, Chiefs would organize hunting of animals to showcase the power the was embued to his by the cultural hero he was honoring. Blacksmithing was a another craft that was associated with their their heroes.Their smiths were reputed for their production of arms; their axes were used by Luba, and some were found in the ruins of Khami in Rhodesia pg 22.

Religion
The People of Songye believes that the land of the live and the land of the dead intermingle with each other. It is believed that natural waters such as spring, lakes and oceans connects both Spirits such as ancestors, important chiefs and Devine creator efile mukluk influences their daily lives.

Secret Society: Bwadi bra Kifwebe
Bwadi bra Kifwebe is a secret society of mask men. In the community, these men were known for their use of magic ( Buki or Buchi) and sorcery (Masende). Buki and Masende magic differs from witchcraft, these types of magic are inherited and or obtained either by will or unconsciously. Witchcraft in contrast can be obtained through initiation and at the appropriate use of magical ingredients. In order to be come a member of the Bwadi bra Kifwebe, all applicants must under an initiation process. During this process, initiates must learn and identify secret esoteric language. They must undergo a radical and violent experience in order to become less fearful of the unknown and learn their roles within the subject to Bwadi bra Kifwebe. Some of the responsible of the Bwadi bra Kifwebe are regulating and maintaining political order and balance between the chief and his communities. The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades,rituals and rites such as initiation rituals, circumcisions and funerals.

Masquerades
The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades, rituals and rites such as initiation rituals, circumcisions and funerals. Once a dancer wears a Kifwebe masks, he takes on the attributes that the mask potrays. when the dance is wearing a male mask his movements are aggressive and unstable, however when a dancer wears a female mask his movements are gentle and controlled. The dances of the kifwebe dancers are meant to encourage social conformity within the community showing its people how one should behave in their society 168.

Mask
The kifwebe masks comes in various designs and reference different aspects of nature, culture and cosmology. Kifwebe masks symbolized the spirits of the dead, the underworld and the struggle between good and evil (Community vs antisocial practices and witchcraft), each element of the mask symbolized these aspects in a certain way. the intertwining of the rhythmic colors of red, black and white was meant to symbolize the struggle between good (white) and evil (black and red), the combination of these colors embody the positive and dangerous force held with in the mask. The ruggedness of the mask itself symbolizes the underworld and the spirits escape from it 133.

Male kifwebe mask
Male Kifwebe masks

Mankishi and the spirits within
Mankishi are spirits of the dead that can influence the world of men. These spirits can be malevolent spirits causing infertility, bad harvests and sickness or benevolent spirits bringing good health and prosperity in the hunt and field. The songye believe that spirits can be reborn, Benevolent spirits are believed to be reborn by creating a mamkishi power figure, while malevolent spirits (bikudi) are not reborn and are forced to roam the earth for eternity. Not all spirits who are unable to be reborn as a Mankishi are wondering spirits, spirits who are not reborn yet are knowledgeable on their power and knowledge of partilineage founders, heroic leaders, and lineage chiefs and dignitaries becomes guardians of the lineage and provide general protection. Mankishi conforms to a certain magico-social standard within the songye community. Songye figures serves as a protectors of the community, encourages fertility and protects families from evil spirits and practitioners. Nganga or magical practitioners are responsible for commissioning these figures, they decide the dimensions of the figure, sex morphological aspects and type of wood used for the figure.

These Sculptures comes various forms and serves different purposes, Usually Mankishi are depicted as a large stylized sculptures of a standing on a base. In profile, the repetition of strong diagonals in the coiffure, beard forearm and feet are forceful and aesthetically pleasing. The horizontal shoulders arm and legs helps gives the figure a sense of energy and movement 38. The Stance is meant to signify the mankishi's alertness and readiness to carries out is purpose whether is protecting is owner from evil spirits or witches and sorcerers. Its head is usually elongated with sharp facial feature such as the eyes, chin, and rectangular nose. Its torso is also elongated yet the center of abdomen is hallowed along with the top of the head so that the Bijimba, a magical substance created by the Nganga, can house the sculpture and bring spiritual power to it. Female figures exist however they're not as common as male Mankishi. Female Mankishi are smaller and they are usually for personal usage. Like its male counterpart, the female Nkishi has a cavity in the abdomen and head to house the Bijimba. The figure its self usually shows signs of scarification on its face and above its face. The legs of the figure are posed in an unusual way and appears to be unfinished, this may suggests that it was covered by sacred objects and was not meant to be shown. When the Mankishi is being used the nganga places shells, horns, animal skins, nails or studs and other spiritual objects outside of the figure to enhance its power and influence 38. The housing of the Mankishi varies on its size, purpose and importance, larger Mankishi that are created to guard and protect a family or villiage is housed in a family shine,. Smaller more personal Mankishi are usually kept by the owner and are portable.

title: User:MakiyahA/sandbox