text:
Dmitry Mendeleev's Memorial Museum Apartment

Dmitry Mendeleev's Memorial Museum Apartment is a museum apartment of the Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleev, who is famous for establishing the Periodic table of arranging chemical elements by their atomic masses, which allowed the prediction of properties of elements (i.e., simple substances) yet to be discovered.

It is located in the Twelve Collegia building, now being the centre of Saint Petersburg State University, and in Mendeleev's time called Head Pedagogical Institute with his archives. The street in front of these is named after him as Mendeleevskaya liniya (Mendeleev Line). For security reasons access into the building in general is allowed mostly to authorized persons, such as students and staff of the University. All entrants are to present to the guards their identification documents.


text:
suffixing

Adjective

 * 1)  Of a language, characterised by heavy use of suffixes to create grammatical forms; as opposed to.

Noun

 * 1) The act by which something is suffixed.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: suffixing


text:
Talk:Dee D. Jackson

"Automatic Lover"
The original text stated that Automatic Lover was a "futuristic song about a robot who falls in love with an intergalactic girl". This couldn't be farther from the song's lyrics and theme. Nobody falls in love with anyone in the song (quite the contrary!) - it is essentially a complaint about the way romance is gone and sex is provided by cold automatons or robots in a hypothetic future world (or universe). The lyrics already start: "Love in space and time / there's no more feeling". And further: "Longing to be touched / longing for a kiss / whisper words of love, tell me that you miss me" - along with the repeated emotionless, metallic voice of a robot saying "I... am... your automatic lover... automatic lover..."

So, I have replaced the above quoted text by "A futuristic song expressing frustration about a time when love and romance do not exist and sex is unsatisfactorily provided by specially programmed robots, ..." which I believe is closer to the actual theme and spirit of the song.

Also, I am Brazilian and old enough to remember Regina Shakti's impersonation and lip-syncing of Dee D. Jackson (or "D. Dee Jackson") on TV. Most Brazilians at the time were unaware that she was not the real singer. I was unable to find any references (other than the Portuguese-language Wikipedia article on Shakti) to corroborate that according to Wikipedia's rules, so the "citation needed" tag remains, but it is all true. Shakti has long retired from show business and now runs a Yoga retreat and ashram in the mountain resort of Campos do Jordão, near São Paulo. --UrsoBR (talk) 23:11, 26 August 2009 (UTC) -Did " the real " Dee D.Jackson and Regina Shakti ever actually meet ? Does anybody know ? --<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 23:10, 3 June 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dee D. Jackson


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/maaven.me

Links

 * maaven.me resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is blacklisted by \bme\b on [//ar.wikisource.org/wiki/Mediawiki:Spam-blacklist ar.wikisource.org]
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is blacklisted by \bme\b on [//ar.wikisource.org/wiki/Mediawiki:Spam-blacklist ar.wikisource.org]

Additions

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text:
Daniel Slattery house

The Daniel Slattery house was the site of the first Catholic mass in Dedham, Massachusetts.

First mass
By the early 1800s, a few Catholics had settled in Dedham. At the time, Dedham and the surrounding area was part of the missionary territory of St. Mary's in Waltham. Though a large area, stretching as far west as Concord and as far south as Walpole, it is estimated there were fewer than 300 Catholics. It was difficult for many to travel to Waltham, and so Father James Strain offered to travel halfway to meet the Catholics in the outlying areas.

Slattery offered his home and to provide Strain with transportation. The first Mass in Dedham was celebrated in Sunday, May 15, 1843, with eight Catholics present. An altar was set up by the window. For the next three years Slattery's 17-year-old brother-in-law, John Doggett, would bring Strain from Waltham and back to minister to the needs of the small congregation.

Location of the home
While the Slattery home is still standing, at the corner of Washington and Worthington Streets, at the time of the first mass it was on the corner of Washington and High, where the Police Station sits in 2019. During the Revolution, the Worthington Street land was the site of an encampment for French troops under the command of Count Rochambeau.

The home's original location was first owned by Daniel Morse and then became the homestead of John Hunting, the first ruling elder of the First Church and Parish in Dedham in 1638. Slattery purchased it from Martin Marsh.

Daniel Slattery
Slattery was born in Ireland in 1805 and moved to Dedham while still young. He married Catherine Doggett of Dedham on April 14, 1837, at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross. Together they had five sons. When Catherine died in 1849, the hands of the clock were stopped at the hour of her death. The unusual occurrence of a Catholic funeral mass elicited much interest around the town. He married again to Margaret Coleman of Dedham, and together they had one son and two daughters.

His oldest son, Patrick, who was 23 at the outbreak of the American Civil War, enlisted for 99 days with the Minutemen and then with the 14th Massachusetts Artillery for the duration of the war. Another son, Charles, who was 17, also enlisted and died in Virginia. Patrick returned home unharmed and died in the early 1900s. As of 1923, he had two sons, Edward and Thomas, living in Canton, Massachusetts and a daughter in Dedham.

Slattery was well regarded among his fellow Dedhamites. He was well educated, had a practical knowledge of agriculture and arbor culture, and set out many of the trees in Dedham. He also held "considerable property." Slattery moved to Needham in 1854 and died on May 2, 1856.

title: Daniel Slattery house


text:
User:Ryanrostami/sandbox

Josephine Park. "Alien Enemies in Julie Otsuka’s When the Emperor Was Divine." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 59.1 (2013): 135-155. Project MUSE. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. .

title: User:Ryanrostami/sandbox


text:
User:Lar/ToDo/The white lady

The White Lady is a ghost story. There are many settings and variants for it.

In another version the couple are on their way to prom and their limo crashes. There are also allegations that (as with other ghost stories) there has been some blurring or borrowing, and in particular that Annie's Road is a rehosting of this legend.
 * The White Lady of Branch Brook Park' - Local legend about Branch Brook Park in Newark, New Jersey.  There are actually two different and conflicting stories that have been recounted. In one version the lady is a ghost of a newlywed who was killed. along with her husband, on her wedding night, when her car, skidding out of control, impacted a tree in the park.

 * The Ghostly Sphinx of Metedeconk by: Stephen Crane recounts a tale of a white lady spirit whose lover was drowned in 1815.

 * White Lady of Durand Eastman Park is a ghost story in the Rochester, New York area, supposedly the spirit of a mother who believes her daughter was kidnapped and raped.

title: User:Lar/ToDo/The white lady


text:
Talk:Dennis Priestley

Untitled
I've tried to tidy up this article - its full of good info, but a bit long-winded and needed to be wikified. A couple of opinions have been removed (eg "future hall of famer" and "best match ever") as these comments needed to be less opinion-formed. I also reckon the continued references to WDC/PDC should be removed. If its explained clearly at the top the difference between BDO/PDC and WDC then it doesn't need re-iterating throughout the article. What do you think? Seedybob2 14:32, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

Fair enough. I spent a while expanding the article recently and feel that the tidy up you've done was more than necessary.

I know Priestley has won a lot more tournaments than stated but I'm wary of adding them unless we know what year the tournaments were won as well; I'm not too keen to say "Gold Cup, Canadian Open etc and lots more" as it does on his website. Its a bit disappointing that none of the main darts sites have pulled all the tournament rolls of honour together (Alan Warriner's is probably the best). If anyone has a link/info to more of Priestley's wins then please post it up.

Dar2020 00:09, 9 November 2006 (UTC)

It says that Priestley has been playing darts since 1989. I know for a fact that this is not true, although I couldn't give you an exact year. In 1987 Priestley was asked (and paid) to come to Leeds University to play an exhibition match against the University darts team (I know because I was the captain at the time). He had already played for Yorkshire by that time. At the exhibition he only allowed himself to score with Bulls-eyes and outer-bulls, i.e. 50s and 25s, until he got to a double. He played the whole team, each game being best of 3 legs, he beat all of us with only Jon Avery even taking a leg from him. My point is that saying he started playing darts in 1989 is simply incorrect. —Preceding comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:01, 16 December 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dennis Priestley


text:
Eiji Wentz

Eiji Wentz (ウエンツ瑛士) is a Japanese singer, entertainer, actor, and a member of the singer-songwriter duo WaT.

Early career
Born in Mitaka, Tokyo to a Japanese mother and a German American father, Wentz became involved in the entertainment industry at a very young age. Wentz initially started as a model at the age of four and made his acting debut as the role of Chip in the Four Seasons Musical Troupe production of Beauty and the Beast. He became famous as a child actor as a regular on the NHK television show, Tensai Terebi-kun (天才テレビくん), where he played bass guitar and piano at the age of ten. During live performances, he played the acoustic bass as well as the keyboard. He started learning the guitar from the age of 17. He is featured in the popular rock band Luna Sea's music video for their 1996 single "In Silence".

He originally wanted to be a fashion model, but was too short to become one. When he terminated his contract with Tensai Terebi-kun, he decided to get away from show-business, but after the recommendation of Hiromi Go, he entered Burning Productions and became a tarento.

He began his acting career at the age of 18, when he played a minor role in the NHK television series Toshiie To Matsu.

In 2007, he started to appear in several of Cocorico's comedy shows as Shorty Tanaka (ちっこい田中, Little Tanaka) and since Tensai Terebi Kun, he is a deshi (student) of Yoshimoto comedian Hōsei Tsukitei.

Musical career
After Tensai Terebi-kun ended, Wentz continued to play music and started the band WaT with Teppei Koike. They started in 2002 with street performances. In February 2004, they released an indie-label CD. In August 2005, they signed with Universal Music Group and had their major debut in November 2005.

Popularity
His popularity may be derived from his self-mocking "comedian" character, as he often talks about his "foolishness", short height, and difficulty in speaking English.

Personal life
Wentz is a follower of the baseball team Saitama Seibu Lions. He was once invited to the Lions' victory ceremony in 2008, and has a large collection of baseball cards. He also has over 800 volumes of manga.

Television

 * Wagaya no Rekishi (2010) as Maruyama Akihiro
 * Japan Sinks: People of Hope (2021) as Taira Ishizuka

Film

 * Yudo: The Way of the Bath (2023)

Dubbing

 * Arthur Christmas, Arthur Claus
 * Jack the Giant Slayer, Jack
 * Trolls World Tour, Branch

title: Eiji Wentz


text:
Egeda

Egeda (Эгеда; Эгъеда) is a rural locality (a selo) in Tlogobsky Selsoviet, Gunibsky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. The population was 60 as of 2010.

Geography
Egeda is located 45 km northwest of Gunib (the district's administrative centre) by road, on the Kudiyabor River. Amuarib and Shagalazda are the nearest rural localities.

Nationalities
Avars live there.

title: Egeda


text:
Talk:Everybody's Acting

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title: Talk:Everybody's Acting


text:
User:Rougelemon/sandbox

Hungry hippos
Dascoli took criticism for his late-season ejection of Roy Campanella during a game in the 1951 pennant race. Campanella had thrown down his mitt in protest of a call involving what would be the winning run. If not for the ejection, Campanella would have come back up to bat late in the game with two runners on base. However, the young Dascoli later received support from veteran umpire Larry Goetz.

On September 26, 1959, Dascoli halted play due to rain (and then ended the game) after Toothpick Sam Jones pitched seven innings of no-hit baseball against St. Louis.

Poptarts
Dascoli was terminated by league president Warren Giles in the middle of the 1961 season. The action came after media reports alleged that Dascoli had criticized the president's lack of support for umpires. The same reporter also said that Dascoli was making plans to retire after the season.

title: User:Rougelemon/sandbox


text:
Mike Jensen (internet pioneer)

Mike Jensen (born 1958) is a South African ICT expert who was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame as a "Global Connector" in 2017. He is particularly known for his work to build networks connecting the non-profit sector and for assisting developing countries to establish network connectivity.

Education
Jensen grew up in Johannesburg in South Africa, the son of Anton Jensen and Berrell Jensen (née Jay), a contemporary sculptor. He studied biology at Queen's University Belfast from 1976 –80 and, as a post-graduate at the University of Guelph in Canada, specialized in acid-rain pollution research. However, he began to question the value of writing scientific papers that seemed to have little impact on policy making. At that time the Reagan administration in the USA was denying the linkage between pollution and acid rain and Jensen started to write about pollution for student newspapers. After receiving his MSc he returned to South Africa and was, for a time, a technology journalist on the anti-apartheid Rand Daily Mail.

Early innovations
When the Rand Daily Mail closed down in 1985 due to its inability to attract advertisers as a paper that targeted both black and white readers, Jensen decided to emigrate to Canada. In 1982, while studying for his MSc, he had been introduced to the CoSy online messaging system. CoSy was being developed by the University of Guelph and was subsequently selected in 1985 by Byte magazine for that magazine's BYTE Information eXchange, a networked bulletin board. While he waited in Toronto for his Canadian immigration clearance in 1986, Jensen opened a computer account at the University of Toronto that was using Usenet newsgroups for online discussions and information sharing. He had started volunteering with the Ontario Environmental Network (OEN) and wondered whether something similar to Usenet could be put together for environmental groups.

Jensen set up a multi-user network for the OEN, using a cheap personal computer and a PC-based version of the Unix operating system, thereby offering the potential for cheaper internet access than that provided by commercial mainframe systems. Together with Kirk Roberts, he founded an Internet service provider for the non-profit sector, known as "The Web". Subsequently called Web Networks, “The Web” predated the World Wide Web by three years and provided cheaper internet access for NGOs than any commercial systems available at the time. The emergence of similar movements elsewhere, such as the Institute for Global Communications (IGC Internet) in California and GreenNet in London, led to the formation of an International NGO computer network. Web Networks was a founding member of the Association for Progressive Communications (APC), established in 1992, which provides ICT policy advice and support for non-profits and similar groups and with which Jensen continues to maintain close contact.

In the early days of internet, technicians had to travel to install software and to programme code to allow different systems to communicate with each other. Jensen was one of several who travelled extensively to install software and work with local technicians to link NGO networks to APC, using a "mother system" based on that in use at IGC Internet. He worked with Pegasus Networks in Australia, and with Micro-computing for Non-Governmental Organizations (MANGO) in southern Africa, where he started to use the Fidonet bulletin-board system, which proved effective to use with the poor phone lines available in much of Africa. This innovation then took him to GreenNet in London in order to upgrade the APC system to enable the smaller NGOs using Fidonet to gateway with the APC hosts, allowing them to use directly email services and information newsgroups offered by APC members. He then returned to South Africa to install a gateway at WorkNet, the South Africa APC partner that had been set up in 1987. By the end of 1991, Jensen and others had helped join seven African countries to the APC network.

Subsequent career
Jensen then worked in other African countries to provide advice to development agencies, such as NGOs, governments, and the private sector in the development of ICT projects. His activities, which have taken him to over 45 countries in Africa and elsewhere, have ranged from ICT policy development at the national level to international fibre and rural wireless telecommunication feasibility studies. His clients have included the World Bank, the African Development Bank, the UK Department for International Development, the World Food Programme, and the Global Libraries initiative of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. He has also worked with the Internet Society and with the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) as Access Specialist, responsible for coordinating policy, research, advocacy, capacity building, and communications on access. He was a member of the African Conference of Ministers' High-Level Working Group, which developed the African Information Society Initiative (AISI). He has provided advice on cross-border fibre provision in Africa and, more recently, has carried out studies of national broadband deployment in Brazil and a study of the benefits of promoting infrastructure-sharing to lower the cost of access. He has also developed national analog-to-digital TV migration strategies.

Internet Hall of Fame
In 2017 Jensen, was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame as a "Global Connector". In 2012 he had served as a member of the Advisory Board to choose the first inductees to the Hall of Fame, who included Al Gore, Tim Berners-Lee, Linus Torvalds and Jimmy Wales.

Publications
Jensen's publications include:
 * The community telecentre cookbook for Africa: Recipes for self-sustainability. 2001.
 * Promoting the Use of Internet Exchange Points: A Guide to Policy, Management, and Technical Issues. 2012.
 * Towards financial sustainability in community-based networks. 2018.

title: Mike Jensen (internet pioneer)


text:
Winki Lai

Winki Lai (born 8 July 1986 ) is a Hong Kong actress and television host. She has been a TVB artiste since 2014.

Early life
Winki Lai was born in Hong Kong. She studied at ELCHK Ma On Shan Lutheran Primary School and Chinese YMCA College. Lai joined the drama club in secondary school. Although she was admitted to the acting department of the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts in Form 5, she gave up the opportunity to advance to university. It was not until two years later that one of her A-level scores failed and she could not enter her desired degree, Lai officially enrolled in the Bachelor of Arts with Honours in the Performing Department of The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts. She won the Hong Kong Bank Foundation Hong Kong-Mainland Exchange Scholarship and the Lai Cho-tin Memorial Scholarship during her schooling.

Career
After graduating in 2011, Lai became a stage actress and radio host. In 2013, she was recommended by her teacher Lo Koon-lan from The Academy of Performing Arts to participate in the audition for the TVB drama Never Dance Alone and set foot in the entertainment industry. During the audition, she played the seven characters alone and was finally selected for the role of the teen version of Hui Chun Nei in the drama. During the filming of the play, producer Eric Tsang asked her to help Rachel Lee, who had been unable to enter the play after she had quit the entertainment industry for many years, to analyze the script. After the drama was broadcast, her performance began to impress viewers.

In 2014, when Lai participated in the drama Lord Of Shanghai, well-known veteran actor Anthony Wong highly praised her, naming her Little Ling (Little Carol Cheng). In 2016, she played the role of Yau Ling-mui in the drama Blue Veins, in which her performance was once again praised by netizens. In 2017, she starred in the drama Destination Nowhere, collaborating with Kevin Cheng for the second time.

On 27 July 2018, Lai switched from the TVB basic artiste contract to the manager contract.

In 2020, Lai was highly praised for her performance and couple collaboration with Owen Cheung, in the comedy drama Al Cappuccino, which earned her first nominations for both Best Supporting Actress and Most Popular Female Character at the TVB Anniversary Awards 2020. She eventually won the former award.

As a stage actress, Lai has performed in a number of troupe works and served as the master of ceremonies for the "23rd Hong Kong Drama Awards". In addition, she has hosted Taoist TV programs broadcast by Now TV, such as Dao Tong Tian Di, Road Express, Life Sweet Silk and Healthy Cooking.

Personal life
Lai is good friends with Kandy Wong, Annice Ng, Cheronna Ng, Jeannie Chan, Anjaylia Chan and Venus Wong, whom of all had starred in the drama Never Dance Alone. In 2020, Lai, along with Sisley Choi, Jeannie Chan, Stephanie Ho, Anjaylia Chan and Cheronna Ng, formed the friendship group “SÏXTERS”.

In July 2017, Lai announced her pregnancy via Instagram. In August 2017, she married her stage actor boyfriend of 5 years, Benny Leung. On 3 December 2017, she gave birth to their son, Marat.

TV Drama

 * 2014：”Let's Dance” (Never Dance Alone Ending Theme, With Anjaylia Chan, Cheronna Ng, Kandy Wong, Venus Wong & Annice Ng)

title: Winki Lai


text:
War Order No. 154

War Order No. 154 was issued during World War II at the end of November or the beginning of December 1939. It was the first explicit instruction by Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine (navy) to use the tactics of unrestricted submarine warfare.

The order
The order was as follows:
 * [last paragraph] Do not rescue any men; do not take them along; and do not take care of any boats of the ship. Weather conditions and proximity of land are of no consequence. Concern yourself only with the safety of your own boat and with efforts to achieve additional successes as soon as possible. We must be hard in this war. The enemy started the war in order to destroy us, and thus nothing else matters.
 * [last paragraph] Do not rescue any men; do not take them along; and do not take care of any boats of the ship. Weather conditions and proximity of land are of no consequence. Concern yourself only with the safety of your own boat and with efforts to achieve additional successes as soon as possible. We must be hard in this war. The enemy started the war in order to destroy us, and thus nothing else matters.

Article 22
The Kriegsmarine started World War II with Prize Rules which complied with Article 22 of the First London Naval Treaty. The Third Reich was indirectly bound to the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936 by the 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the Second London Naval Treaty affirmed that Article 22 of the 1930 treaty remained in force, and that "all other Powers [were invited] to express their assent to the rules embodied in this Article."

In general, Article 22 stated that merchant vessels which did not demonstrate "persistent refusal to stop" or "active resistance" could not be sunk without the ship's crew and passengers being first delivered to a "place of safety." The ship's lifeboats were not a place of safety, unless other shipping or land was close at hand.

On the very first day of the war, SS Athenia (1922) was sunk by the GS U-30 (1936). Mistaking the Athenia for an "armed merchantman," no opportunity was provided to the ship's crew or passengers to be first delivered to a "place of safety."

However, in the weeks that followed, as was laid out in the transcript of Dönitz's Nuremberg Trial, both the British and the Germans issued orders to their respective fleets which quickly made any initial compliance with Article 22 less and less possible.

Nuremberg trial
War Order No. 154, along with the "Laconia Order" of 1942, were introduced by the prosecution at the post-war Nuremberg Trial of Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz. In the judgment it was found that by issuing these two orders, he caused Germany to be in breach of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. However, as evidence of similar conduct by the Allies was presented at his trial, his sentence was not assessed on the grounds of this breach of international law.

title: War Order No. 154


text:
Hajjiabad, Zeberkhan

Hajjiabad (, also Romanized as Ḩājjīābād) is a village in Zeberkhan Rural District, Central District, Zeberkhan County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population was 1,637, in 509 families.

title: Hajjiabad, Zeberkhan


text:
Alejandro Finisterre

Alejandro Finisterre or Alexandre de Fisterra (born Alejandro Campos Ramírez; 6 May 1919 – 9 February 2007) is known as the inventor of futbolín, a Spanish variant of table football (aka foosball). He was also a poet, publisher and anarchist.

Biography
He was born Alejandro Campos Ramírez in 1919 to the radio-telegraphist at the lighthouse in Fisterra. He was injured when Franco's fascist forces bombed Madrid in November 1936 and had the idea for a football game while in Barcelona recovering. While convalescing in Montserrat, Barcelona he realized that he and his fellow wounded Republicans would never play football again and he had the idea for the table game. He patented his invention in Barcelona in 1937 and he also patented a foot-pedal that lets musicians turn the pages of their scores.

title: Alejandro Finisterre


text:
US History/Friction Between States

Ideas and Questions of the Time
The overriding question throughout the decade preceding the Civil War was, “Should slavery be allowed in the new territories of the United States?” Before 1848, the question had been hypothetical; however, with the new lands acquired during the Mexican War, it was time for America to make a firm decision regarding the expansion of slavery.

The central ideas dominating the debate were:

The Wilmot Proviso
On August 8, 1846, Representative David Wilmot, a Pennsylvania Democrat, presented a proposal expressing that “slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of any territory obtained from Mexico.” The Wilmot Proviso was never accepted as law, but it at long last put the issue forth on the political table.

The Calhoun Resolutions
John C. Calhoun, the South Carolina statesman, responded with the Calhoun Resolutions, which said that Congress had no right to stop any citizen with slaves in their possession from taking those slaves into one of the territories. If they did so, the Fifth Amendment, which states that no person can be “deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law,” would be violated. While this was not made formal legislation either, this belief became the standard in most of the south.

Popular Sovereignty
A third option, which appealed to many moderates, most prominently Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, was the idea of popular sovereignty. This was the idea of letting the settlers of a territory themselves decide whether slavery was to be allowed in it, by voting on state constitutions and other such measures. The primary merit of this initiative was that it took the debate out of Congress, which quickly grew tired of the issue, and put it into the hands of people it truly affected. There was also an unspoken understanding that most of the territories would end up being free, as most settlers that were already in those areas did not bring their slaves with them.

Compromise of 1850
America looked to the Senate for an answer to the question of slavery within the territories. Henry Clay, nicknamed the "Great Compromiser," constructed a compromise: California was admitted as a free state, but all other territories in the Mexican Cession were allowed to choose between becoming a free territory or a slave territory. Also, as part of the Compromise, the slave trade was banned in the District of Columbia, and a Fugitive Slave Act was passed to allow the capture of fugitive slaves.

The Fugitive Slave Act was a very controversial measure. Previously, many in the North felt that slavery merely occurred in the South and that they had nothing to do with it. But under the Fugitive Slave Act, Northerners were required to help return runaway slaves. Thus, the Northerners felt that they were being dragged into aiding the institution of slavery. Several Northern states passed laws prohibiting their officials from aiding the enforcement of the Act.

While the admission of California as a free state gave the free states the majority in Congress, the pro-slavery measures in the Fugitive Slave Act made the Compromise seem more favorable to the South.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, published in 1852, is often called “the book that started the Civil War.” The melodramatic story of the evil overseer Simon Legree and his slaves Eliza and Uncle Tom painted an accurate picture of the horrors of slavery, and gave rise to much abolitionist feeling in the North. However, the effects were not easily visible from the start: because the country was growing tired of the sectional bickering over slavery, it took a while for the story to becoming embedded in the American imagination.

Nat Turner
Nat, commonly called Nat Turner, (October 2, 1800 – November 11, 1831) was an American slave whose slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, was the most remarkable instance of black resistance to enslavement in the antebellum southern United States. His methodical slaughter of white civilians during the uprising makes his legacy controversial, but he is still considered by many to be a heroic figure of black resistance to oppression. At birth he was not given a surname, but was recorded solely by his given name, Nat. In accordance with a common practice, he was often called by the surname of his owner, Samuel Turner.

Election of 1852
In one of the less spectacular elections in American history, Senator Franklin Pierce of the Democratic party defeated General Winfield Scott of the Whig party. The Whigs tried to rely on Scott’s heroics as a general during the Mexican war to get him elected, a strategy that proved unsuccessful. Pierce, of New Hampshire, ended up being largely an ineffective president, trying and failing to please both the North and the South.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and its Effects
Throughout this time, plans were underway for a transcontinental railroad. A question arose as to what Eastern city should be the main terminus. Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois hoped to advance his own state’s interests by making Chicago the railroad hub. To do this, he suggested a piece of legislation known as the “Kansas-Nebraska Act,” requiring recognition of two new territories, Kansas and Nebraska, west of Missouri and Iowa, respectively. These territories would both help his railroad and solve the overdue issue of the territories in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase.

But to get the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, he would have to get the support of Southerners, who wanted a railroad along a more southern route. For this reason, Douglas included in the Act the provision of popular sovereignty in the territories.

This blatantly violated the Missouri Compromise of 1821, which stated that slavery would be prohibited above the 36º30’ line. Douglas therefore opened himself up to the verbal barrage of protests from the North, who denounced the cancellation of the Missouri Compromise as unfair. Yet the Act passed, to the indignation of many Northerners, with the support of President Pierce.

The North
Many in the North figured that if the Missouri Compromise was not an unbreakable law, neither was the Fugitive Slave Act, leading to many demonstrations against it. Boston witnessed the most remarkable of these, leading to many New Englanders turning against Pierce for his support of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Political Parties
The Whig party essentially buckled under the pressure of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, with the North condemning it and the South supporting it. Whigs from the North joined some Democrats and Free Soilers that united under the general principle of the Wilmot Proviso, eventually calling themselves the Republican Party and offering its first presidential candidate, John C. Fremont in 1856.

Rachel v. Walker
Rachel v. Walker was a lawsuit involving a slave who, in 1834, sued for her freedom from John Walker in the Supreme Court of Missouri, and won. This result was cited in 1856 in the famous Dred Scott v. Sandford case before the Supreme Court of the United States.[1]

Dred Scott
The question of the constitutionality of Congressional Compromises was decided by the Supreme Court in 1856. In "Scott v. Sanford", the Court ruled against a slave, Dred Scott, who had sued to become free. The Court ruled 7-2 that Scott remained a slave, and there were nine written opinions. The Chief Justice of the United States, Roger Taney, decided that blacks were so inferior that they could not be citizens of the United States, and that, consequently, they could not sue for his freedom (a state issue)in diversity in federal court, and therefore the court lacked jurisdiction. Nevetheless (the biggest "nevertheless" in American history) in a supererogatory effort to settle the question of slavery once and for all, the Marylander Taney ruled that the Missouri Compromise (which had banned the expansion of slavery into the territories north of Missouri) among other laws, was unconstitutional because it restricted the Constitutional right to own property. Many felt that Taney had committed a legal error in his decision. First, Taney had ruled that Scott had no right to sue. The case should have ended there. Taney had ruled on the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise, which had, under Taney's own ruling that Scott had no right to sue, no bearing upon the case. Thus, the outrage against the Dred Scott decision was increased even more.

John Brown’s Raid
John Brown, an extreme abolitionist known for fighting in Bloody Kanasas, came to the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia for his last fight. He planned to take over the arsenal, give weapons to the slaves that would support him, and make a center of black power in the Appalachian Mountains that would support slave uprisings in the south.

The raid did not go as planned. Brown did take over the arsenal and took a couple of hostages, but ended up being assaulted by Virginia militia and U.S. Marines under the command of Col. Robert E. Lee of the US 2nd Cavalry. He was tried, convicted, and hanged for treason to the State of Virginia.

However, his raid left a profound impact. John Brown became a martyr for the abolitionist cause during the Civil War. In the South, his actions gave cause to rumors of Northern conspiracy supporting slave insurrections, engendering further suspicion of outsiders in the South. A later Northern marching song sang “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the grave, but his soul is marching on.”

Lincoln
 Lincoln campaign poster In 1860, four major candidates ran for President. The Whigs, adopting the name "Constitutional Union", nominated Tennessean Senator John Bell. The Northern Democrats nominated Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois and the Southern Democrats nominated the Vice President John Breckenridge of Kentucky. The more united Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, who spoke out against expansion of slavery. Though he assumed that, under the constitution, Congress could not outlaw slavery in the South, he assured all that he would work to admit only free states to the US. Due to divisions between the parties, Lincoln won the election by carrying every Northern State. Douglas won Missouri, Bell the Upper South, and Breckenridge the Deep South. The South was outraged. The North had a far larger population than the South, and thus had more electoral votes. The South had been out voted.

title: US History/Friction Between States


text:
halda áfram

Etymology
From halda (meaning "to hold") + áfram (meaning "forth"). Literally meaning "to hold forth".

Verb

 * 1) to go on

title: halda áfram


text:
Amy Snider

Marion Amy Snider (born 26 May 1942) is a Canadian hurdler. She competed in the women's 80 metres hurdles at the 1964 Summer Olympics.

title: Amy Snider


text:
Pavel Koltygin

Pavel Gennadevich Koltygin (Павел Геннадьевич Колтыгин; born February 17, 1999) is a Russian professional ice hockey centre currently playing for HC Lada Togliatti of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL).

Playing career
Koltygin played as a youth in his native Russian within the Dynamo Moscow junior program. With NHL aspirations he was selected 9th overall in the 2016 CHL Import Draft by the Drummondville Voltigeurs of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL).

He spent three seasons in the QMJHL for the Drummondville Voltigeurs and was drafted in the sixth round, 176th overall, in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft by the Nashville Predators

On 2 June 2019, Koltygin returned to Russia to begin his professional career in the Kontinental Hockey League, agreeing to a two-year contract with HC Vityaz. In his first full professional campaign in 2019–20, Koltygin made his debut in the KHL, going pointless through 28 regular season games. On 8 May 2020, Koltygin was traded by Vityaz to powerhouse club, SKA Saint Petersburg, in exchange for Nail Yakupov.

After three seasons within SKA, Koltygin was traded to Lada Togliatti in exchange for financial compensation on 6 July 2023.

title: Pavel Koltygin


text:
simpatia

Etymology
From, from.

Noun

 * 1) pleasantness, likeability

Etymology
From.

Adjective

 * 1) nice, likable

Etymology
From, from.

Noun

 * 1) pleasantness
 * 2) liking

Etymology
From, from.

Noun

 * 1)  likeableness quality of being likeable
 * 2)  ritual; rite set of repeated actions, intending to produce a supernatural result

title: simpatia


text:
Charanga

Charanga may refer to:
 * Charanga (Cuba), ballroom music ensemble
 * Charanga (Spain), wind and percussion band playing in festivities

title: Charanga


text:
User:Rainorsun/sandbox

Ruston Mire is a alternative rock band formed in Seattle, Washington in 1999. The band consists of Brian Naubert (vocals, guitar), Hambone (keyboards),

Band name
The band name comes from on old radio and TV jingle for Tacoma, Washington auto dealer Russ Dunmire. Brian had thought they were singing Ruston Mire instead of Russ Dunmire (honk-honk).

Members

 * Brian Naubert – vocals, guitar (1999–2006)
 * Hambone – keyboards, backing vocals (1999–2006)
 * Wesley Nelson – guitar, backing vocals (2002–2006)
 * John Hollis – drums, backing vocals (2002–2006)

 * Former
 * Mike Musburger – drums (1999–2000)
 * Dave Fox – bass (1999–2001)
 * Rob Skinner – bass (2001–2003)
 * Jeremy Wilson –guitar, backing vocals (2002–2006)
 * Mike Katel –guitar, backing vocals (2002–2006)
 * Mike Musburger – drums (1999–2001)
 * Dave Fox – bass (1999–2001)
 * Rob Dent – drums (2001–2001)
 * Dusty Hayes – drums (2000–2001)

Discography

 * Steady Jobs and Flying Cars (1999)
 * Driving Straight Up in Siam (2003)

title: User:Rainorsun/sandbox


text:
File:Ots57.jpg

Summary
Illustration of a possible field of view for an over the shoulder shot for the WikiU Film School created using FrameForge 3D Studio 2 Demo Version.

title: File:Ots57.jpg


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/Data schemas

Introduction
Data schemas are the foundation of all XML pages. They define objects, their relationships, their attributes, and the structure of the data model. Without them, XML documents would not exist. In this chapter, you will come to understand the purpose of XML data schemas, their intricate parts, and how to utilize them. Also, examples will be included for you to copy when creating your own data schema, making your job a lot easier. At the bottom of this Web page a whole Schema has been included, from which parts have been included in the different sections throughout this chapter. Refer to it if you would like to see how the whole Schema works as one.

Overview of Data Schemas
The data schema, all technicalities aside, is the data model with which all the XML information is conveyed. It has a hierarchy structure starting with a root element (to be explained later) and goes all the way down to cover even the most minute detail of the model with detailed steps in between. Data schemas have two main parts, the entities and their relationships. The entities contained in a data schema represent objects from the model. They have unique identifiers, attributes, and names for what kind of object they are. The relationships in the schema represent the relationships between the objects, simple enough. Relationships can be one to one, one to many, many to many, recursive, and any other kind you could find in a data model. Now we will begin to create our own data schema.

Starting your schema the right way
All schemas begin the same way, no matter what type of objects they represent. The first line in every Schema is this declaration: Exhibit 1: XML Declaration

Exhibit 1 simply tells the browser or whatever file/program accessing this schema that it is an XML file and uses the encoding structure "UTF-8". You can copy this to use to start your own XML file. Next comes the Namespace declaration: Exhibit 2: Namespace Declaration

Namespaces are basically dictionaries containing definitions of most of the coding in the schema. For example, when creating a schema, if you declare an object to be of type "String", the definition of the type "String" is contained in the Namespace along with all of its attributes. This is true for most of the code you write. If you have made or seen other schemas, most of the code is prefaced by "xsd:". A good example is something like "xsd:sequence" or "xsd:complexType". sequence and complexType are both objects defined in the Namespace that has been linked to the prefix "xsd". In fact, you could theoretically name the default Namespace anything, as long as you referenced it the same way throughout the Schema. The most common Namespace which contains most of the XML objects is  http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema . Now onto Exhibit 2.

The first part lets any file/program know that this file is a schema. Pretty easy to understand. Like the XML declaration, this is universal to XML schemas and you can use it in yours. The second part is the actual Namespace declaration; xmlns stands for XML NameSpace. This defines the Schema's default Namespace and is usually the one given in the code. Again, I would recommend using this code to start your Schemas. The last part is difficult to understand, but here is a pretty detailed explanation. Using "unqualified" is most applicable until you get to some really complicated code.

Entities in general
Entities are basically the objects a Schema is created to represent. As stated before, they have attributes and relationships. We will now go much further into explaining exactly what they are and how to write code for them.

There are two types of Entities: simpleType and complexType. A simpleType object has one value associated with it. A string is a perfect example of a simpleType object as it only contains the value of the string. Most simpleTypes used will be defined in the default Namespace; however, you can define your own simpleType at the bottom of the Schema (this will be brought up in the restrictions section). Because of this, the only objects you will most often need to include in your Schema are complexTypes. A complexType is an object with more than one attribute associated with it, and it may or may not have a child elements attached to it. Here is an example of a complexType object: Exhibit 3: The complexType Element

This code begins with the declaration of a complexType and its name. When other entities refer to it, such as a parent element, it will refer to this name. The 2nd line begins the sequence of attributes and child elements, which are all declared as an "element". The elements are declared as elements with the 1st part of the line of code, and their name to which other documents will refer is included as the "name" as the 2nd part. After the first two declarations comes the "type" declaration. Note that for the name and description elements their type is "xsd:string" showing that the type string is defined in the Namespace "xsd". For the movie element, the type is "MovieType", and because there is no Namespace before "MovieType", it is assumed that this type is included in this Schema. (it could refer to a type defined in another Schema if the other Schema was included at the top of the Schema. don't worry about that now)  "minOccurs" and "maxOccurs" represents the relationship between Genre's and MovieTypes. "minOccurs" can be either 0 or an arbitrary number, depending only on the data model. "maxOccurs" can be either 1 (a one to one relationship), an arbitrary number (a one to many relationship), or "unbounded" (a one to many relationship).

For each schema, there must be one root element. This entity contains every other entity underneath it in the hierarchy. For instance, when creating a schema to include a list of movies, the root element would be something like MovieDatabase, or maybe MovieCollection, just something that would logically contain all the other objects (like genre, movie, actor, director, plotline, etc.) It is always started with this line of code:   showing that it is the root element and then goes on as a normal complexType. All other objects will begin with either simpleType or complexType. Here is sample code for a MovieDatabase root element: Exhibit 4: The Root Element

This represents a MovieDatabase where the child element of MovieDatabase is a Genre. From there it goes onto movie, etc. We will continue to use this example help you better understand.

The Parent / Child Relationship
The Parent / Child Relationship is a key topic in Data Schemas. It represents the basic structure of the data model's hierarchy by clearly laying out the top down configuration. Look at this piece of code which shows how movies have actors associated with them: Exhibit 5: The Parent/Child Relationship

Within each MovieType, there is an element named "actor" which is of "ActorType". When the XML document is populated with information, the surrounding tags for actor will be  and not. To keep your Schema flowing smoothly and without error, the type field in the Parent Element will always equal the name field in the declaration of the complexType Child Element.

Attributes and Restrictions
An attribute of an entity is a simpleType object in that it only contains one value. is a good example of an attribute. It is declared as an element, has a name associated with it, and has a type declaration. Located in the appendix of this chapter is a long list of simpleTypes built into the default Namespace. Attributes are incredibly simple to use, until you try and restrict them.

In some cases, certain data must abide by a standard to maintain data integrity. An example of this would be a Social Security number or an email address. If you have a database of email addresses that sends mass emails to, you would need all of them to be valid addresses, or else you'd get tons of error messages each time you send out that mass email. To avoid this problem, you can essentially take a known simpleType and add a restriction to it to better suit your needs. Now you can do this two ways, but one is simpler and better to use in Data Schemas. You could edit the simpleType within its declaration in the Parent Element, but it gets messy, and if another Schema wants to use it, the code must be written again. The better way to do it is to list a new type at the bottom of the Schema that edits a previously known simpleType. Here is an example of this with a Social Security number: Exhibit 6: Restriction on a simpleType

This was included in the Schema below the last Child Element and before the closing. The first line declares the simpleType and gives it a name, "ssnType". You could name yours anything you want, as long as you reference it correctly throughout the Schema. By doing this, you can use this type anywhere in the Schema, or anywhere in another Schema, provided the references are correct. The second line lets the Schema know it is a restricted type and its base is a string defined in the default Namespace. Basically, this type is a string with a restriction on it, and the third line is the actual restriction. It can be one of many types of restrictions, which are listed in the Appendix of this chapter. This one happens to be of type "pattern". A "pattern" means that only a certain sequence of characters will be allowed in the XML document and is defined in the value field. This particular one means three digits, a hyphen, two digits, a hyphen, and four digits. To learn more about how to use restrictions, follow this link to the W3 school's section on restrictions.

Not of little import: Introducing the  tag
The  tag is used to import a schema document and the namespace associated with the data types defined within the schema document. This allows an XML schema document to reference a type library using namespace names (prefixes). Let's take a closer look at a simple XML instance document for a store that uses these multiple namespace names:

 Exhibit 7 XML Instance Document –

Let's look at the schema document and see how the  tag was used to import data types from a type library (external schema document).

 Exhibit 8: XML Schema [http://www.opentourism.org/xmltext/SimpleStore.xsd

Like the include tag and the redefine tag, the import tag is another means of incorporating any data types from an external schema document into another schema document and must occur before any element or attribute declarations. These mechanisms are important when XML schemas are modularized and type libraries are being maintained and used in multiple schema documents.

When the whole is greater than the sum of its parts: Schema Modularization
Now that we have covered all three methods of incorporating external XML schemas, let’s consider the importance of these mechanisms. As is typical with most programming code, redundancy is frowned upon; this is true for custom data type definitions as well. If a custom data type already exists that can be applied to an element in your schema document, does it not make sense to use this data type rather than create it again within your new schema document? Moreover, if you know that a single data type can be reused for several applications, should you not have a method for referencing that data type when you need it?

The idea behind modular schemas is to examine what your schema does, determine what data types are frequently used in one form or another and develop a type library. As your needs for more complex schemas increase you can continue to add to your library, reuse data types in your type library, and redefine those data types as needed. An example of this reuse would be a schema for customer information – different departments would use different schemas as they would need only partial customer information. However most, if not all, departments would need some specific customer information, like name and contact information, which could be incorporated in the individual departmental schema documents.

Schema modularization is a “best practice”. By maintaining a type library and reusing and redefining types in the type library, you can help ensure that your XML schema documents don't become overwhelming and difficult to read. Readability is important, because you may not be the only one using these schemas, and it is important that others can easily understand your schema documents.

“Choose, but choose wisely…”: Schema alternatives
Thus far in this book we have only discussed XML schemas as defined by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Yet there are other methods of defining the data contained within an XML instanced document, but we will only mention the two most popular and well known alternatives: Document Type Definition (DTD) and Relax NG Schema.

We will cover DTDs in the next chapter. Relax NG schema is a newer and has many of the same features that W3C XML schema have; Relax NG also claims to be simpler, and easier to learn, but this is very subjective. For more about Relax NG, visit: http://www.relaxng.org/

Appendix
First is the full Schema used in the examples throughout this chapter:

It’s time to go back to the beginning…and review all of the schema data types, elements, and attributes that we have covered thus far (and maybe a few that we have not). The following tables will detail the XML data types, elements and attributes that can be used in an XML Schema.

Primitive Types

This is a table with all the primitive types the attributes in your schema can be.

Schema Elements ( from http://www.w3schools.com/schema/schema_elements_ref.asp )

Here is a list of all the elements which can be included in your schemas.

Schema Restrictions and Facets for data types ( from http://www.w3schools.com/schema/schema_elements_ref.asp )

Here is a list of all the types of restrictions which can be included in your schema.

Regex Special regular expression (regex) language can be used to construct a pattern. The regex language in XML Schema is based on Perl's regular expression language. The following are some common notations:

Instance Document Attributes These attributes do NOT need to be declared within the schemas

For more information on XML Schema structures, data types, and tools you can visit http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema.

Programmation XML/XML Schema XML Schema


text:
Lloyd H. Donnell

Lloyd Hamilton Donnell (May 25, 1895 – November 7, 1997) was an American mechanical engineer, and Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Illinois Institute of Technology. He is considered internationally renowned expert in engineering mechanics, specifically known for his work on shell analysis and thin-shell structure. He was recipient of the 1969 ASME Medal.

Youth, education and early career
Donnell was born Kents Hill, Maine in 1895, son of Albert Webb Donnell and Annie Morrell Hamilton Donnell. His father was a teacher and his mother an author. After regular education he obtained his BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Michigan in 1915. In 1930 he also obtained his PhD at the University of Michigan under Stephen Timoshenko.

After his graduation in 1915, Donnell had started teaching at University of Michigan. From 1930 to 1933 he was research assistant at the Aeronautical Laboratory of Caltech at Theodore von Kármán. From 1933 to 1939 he was engineer at Goodyear Zeppelin Company, where he worked on the design of airships.

Further career and acknowledgment
In 1939 Donnell joined the Illinois Institute of Technology faculty, where he served as Professor of Mechanical Engineering until his retirement in 1962. Afterwards he was Professor at Stanford University, and in 1974 guest professor at the University of Houston.

Donnell was founding editor of the engineering journal Applied Mechanics Reviews. He was awarded the honorary doctor degree by the Illinois Institute of Technology. In 1960 he received the Worcester Reed Warner Medal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Theodore von Karman Medal in 1968 and the ASME Medal in 1969.

Work
Donnell is known for his "stress-analysis research into cylindrical shells, which advanced development of monocoque (wherein the external frame helps supports structural load) bodies for automobiles and planes. He also studied dynamics, elasticity, instability, and wave propagation."

Selected publications

 * Donnell, Lloyd Hamilton. Longitudinal wave transmission and impact. University of Michigan, 1930.
 * Donnell, Lloyd Hamilton. Stability of thin-walled tubes under torsion. NACA Report No. 479, 1935.
 * Donnell, Lloyd Hamilton. Beams, plates and shells. McGraw-Hill Companies, 1976.
 * Donnell, Lloyd Hamilton. Symposium on the Theory of Shells (1966 : University of Houston). Proceedings, 1967

title: Lloyd H. Donnell


text:
Python Programming/Input and Output

Input
Python 3.x has one function for input from user,. By contrast, legacy Python 2.x has two functions for input from user:  and.

There are also very simple ways of reading a file and, for stricter control over input, reading from stdin if necessary.

input in Python 3.x
In Python 3.x, input asks the user for a string of data (ended with a newline), and simply returns the string. It can also take an argument, which is displayed as a prompt before the user enters the data. E.g. prints out What is your name?

Example: to assign the user's name, i.e. string data, to a variable "x" you would type

In legacy Python 2.x, the above applies to what was  function, and there was also   function that behaved differently, automatically evaluating what the user entered; in Python 3, the same would be achieved via.

Links:
 * input in Built-in Functions in Library Reference for Python 3, docs.python.org
 * raw_input in Built-in Functions in Library Reference for Python 2, docs.python.org

input in Python 2.x
In legacy Python 2.x, input takes the input from the user as a string and evaluates it.

Therefore, if a script says: it is possible for a user to input:

which yields the correct answer in list form. Note that no inputted statement can span more than one line.

input should not be used for anything but the most trivial program, for security reasons. Turning the strings returned from raw_input into Python types using an idiom such as: is preferable, as input uses eval to turn a literal into a Python type, which allows a malicious person to run arbitrary code from inside your program trivially.

Links:
 * input in Built-in Functions in Library Reference for Python 2, docs.python.org

File Objects
To read from a file, you can iterate over the lines of the file using open: This will print the first character of each line. A newline is attached to the end of each line read this way. The second argument to open can be 'r', 'w', or 'rw', among some others.

The newer and better way to read from a file: The advantage is that the opened file will close itself after finishing the part within the with statement, and will do so even if an exception is thrown.

Because files are automatically closed when the file object goes out of scope, there is no real need to close them explicitly. So, the loop in the previous code can also be written as:

You can read a specific numbers of characters at a time: This will read the characters from f one at a time, and then print them if they're not whitespace.

A file object implicitly contains a marker to represent the current position. If the file marker should be moved back to the beginning, one can either close the file object and reopen it or just move the marker back to the beginning with:

Standard File Objects
There are built-in file objects representing standard input, output, and error. These are in the sys module and are called stdin, stdout, and stderr. There are also immutable copies of these in __stdin__, __stdout__, and __stderr__. This is for IDLE and other tools in which the standard files have been changed.

You must import the sys module to use the special stdin, stdout, stderr I/O handles. For finer control over input, use sys.stdin.read. To implement the UNIX 'cat' program in Python, you could do something like this: Note that sys.stdin.read will read from standard input till EOF. (which is usually Ctrl+D.)

Parsing command line
Command-line arguments passed to a Python program are stored in sys.argv list. The first item in the list is name of the Python program, which may or may not contain the full path depending on the manner of invocation. sys.argv list is modifiable.

Printing all passed arguments except for the program name itself:

Parsing passed arguments for passed minus options: Above, the arguments at which options are found are removed so that sys.argv can be looped for all remaining arguments.

Parsing of command-line arguments is further supported by library modules optparse (deprecated), argparse (since Python 2.7) and getopt (to make life easy for C programmers).

A minimum parsing example for argparse:

Parse with argparse--specify the arg type as int:

Parse with argparse--add optional switch -m to yield multiplication instead of addition:

Parse with argparse--set an argument to consume one or more items: Usage example: python ArgparseTest.py 1 3 5

Parse with argparse--as above but with a help epilog to be output after parameter descriptions upon -h:

Parse with argparse--make second integer argument optional via nargs:

Links:
 * The Python Standard Library - 28.1. sys, docs.python.org
 * The Python Standard Library - 15.4. argparse, docs.python.org
 * The Python Standard Library - 15.5. optparse, docs.python.org
 * The Python Standard Library - 15.6. getopt, docs.python.org
 * Argparse Tutorial, docs.python.org

Output
The basic way to do output is the print statement.

To print multiple things on the same line separated by spaces, use commas between them:

This will print out the following: Hello, World

While neither string contained a space, a space was added by the print statement because of the comma between the two objects. Arbitrary data types can be printed:

This will output the following: 1 2 255 511 (10+5j) -0.999

Objects can be printed on the same line without needing to be on the same line:

This will output the following: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To end the printed line with a newline, add a print statement without any objects.

This will output the following: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

If the bare print statement were not present, the above output would look like: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

You can print to a file instead of to standard output: This will print to any object that implements write, which includes file objects.

Note on legacy Python 2: in Python 2, print is a statement rather than a function and there is no need to put brackets around its arguments. Instead of print(i, end=" "), one would write print i,.

Omitting newlines
In Python 3.x, you can output without a newline by passing end="" to the print function or by using the method write:

In Python 2.x, to avoid adding spaces and newlines between objects' output with subsequent print statements, you can do one of the following:

Concatenation: Concatenate the string representations of each object, then later print the whole thing at once.

This will output the following: 12255511(10+5j)-0.999

Write function: You can make a shorthand for sys.stdout.write and use that for output. This will output the following: 2005

You may need sys.stdout.flush to get that text on the screen quickly.

Examples
Examples of output with Python 3.x:
 * from __future__ import print_function
 * Ensures Python 2.6 and later Python 2.x can use Python 3.x print function.
 * print("Hello", "world")
 * Prints the two words separated with a space. Notice the surrounding brackets, ununsed in Python 2.x.
 * print("Hello world", end="")
 * Prints without the ending newline.
 * print("Hello", "world", sep="-")
 * Prints the two words separated with a dash.
 * print("Hello", 34)
 * Prints elements of various data types, separating them by a space.
 * print("Hello " + 34)
 * Throws an error as a result of trying to concatenate a string and an integer.
 * print("Hello " + str(34))
 * Uses "+" to concatenate strings, after converting a number to a string.
 * sum=2+2; print "The sum: %i" % sum
 * Prints a string that has been formatted with the use of an integer passed as an argument. See also.

 * print ("Error", file=sys.stderr)
 * Outputs to a file handle, in this case standard error stream.

Examples of output with Python 2.x:
 * print "Hello"
 * print "Hello", "world"
 * Separates the two words with a space.
 * print "Hello", 34
 * Prints elements of various data types, separating them by a space.
 * print "Hello " + 34
 * Throws an error as a result of trying to concatenate a string and an integer.
 * print "Hello " + str(34)
 * Uses "+" to concatenate strings, after converting a number to a string.
 * print "Hello",
 * Prints "Hello " without a newline, with a space at the end.
 * sys.stdout.write("Hello")
 * Prints "Hello" without a newline. Doing "import sys" is a prerequisite. Needs a subsequent "sys.stdout.flush" in order to display immediately on the user's screen.
 * sys.stdout.write("Hello\n")
 * Prints "Hello" with a newline.
 * print >> sys.stderr, "An error occurred."
 * Prints to standard error stream.
 * sys.stderr.write("Hello\n")
 * Prints to standard error stream.
 * sum=2+2; print "The sum: %i" % sum
 * Prints a string that has been formatted with the use of an integer passed as an argument.
 * formatted_string = "The sum: %i" % (2+2); print formatted_string
 * Like the previous, just that the formatting happens outside of the print statement.
 * print "Float: %6.3f" % 1.23456
 * Outputs "Float: 1.234". The number 3 after the period specifies the number of decimal digits after the period to be displayed, while 6 before the period specifies the total number of characters the displayed number should take, to be padded with spaces if needed.
 * print "%s is %i years old" % ("John", 23)
 * Passes two arguments to the formatter.

File Output
Printing numbers from 1 to 10 to a file, one per line: With "w", the file is opened for writing. With "file=file1", print sends its output to a file rather than standard output.

Printing numbers from 1 to 10 to a file, separated with a dash:

Opening a file for appending rather than overwriting:

In Python 2.x, a redirect to a file is done like print >>file1, i.

See also ../Files/ chapter.

Formatting
Formatting numbers and other values as strings using the string percent operator:

Formatting numbers and other values as strings using the format string method, since Python 2.6:

Formatting numbers and other values as strings using literal string interpolation, since Python 3.6:

Links:
 * 5.6.2. String Formatting Operations, docs.python.org
 * 2. Built-in Functions # format, docs.python.org
 * 7.1.2. Custom String Formatting, docs.python.org
 * <IP_ADDRESS>. Format Specification Mini-Language, docs.python.org
 * 7.1.4. Template strings, docs.python.org
 * PEP 3101 -- Advanced String Formatting, python.org
 * PEP 498 -- Literal String Interpolation, python.org

title: Python Programming/Input and Output


text:
1982 Nebraska gubernatorial election

The 1982 Nebraska gubernatorial election was held on November 2, 1982, and featured businessman Bob Kerrey, a Democrat, narrowly defeating incumbent Republican Governor Charles Thone.

Candidates

 * George B. Burrows
 * Bob Kerrey, businessman and Vietnam War veteran

Candidates

 * Edward Conradt, political newcomer who was a tower operator and clerk for Burlington Northern Railroad from Lincoln, Nebraska
 * Donald F. McGinley, former United States Representative from 1959 to 1961 and former member of the Nebraska Legislature in what was then District 39 from 1955 to 1959 and 1963 to 1965 from Ogallala, Nebraska.

Candidates

 * Barton E. Chandler
 * Stan Deboer
 * Charles Thone, incumbent Governor

Candidates

 * Howard A. Lamb, member of the Nebraska Legislature in District 43 since 1977 from Anselmo, Nebraska.
 * Roland A. Luedtke, incumbent Nebraska Lieutenant Governor
 * Ken Smith, farmer from Ithaca, Nebraska, and Saunders County supervisor

title: 1982 Nebraska gubernatorial election


text:
World History/The Rise of Dictatorship and Totalitarianism

Quick Quiz

Benito Mussolini and Fascism in Italy (1922-1939)
Benito Mussolini, born into a poor blacksmith's family, was so named by his radically socialist father (his mother was a devout Catholic schoolteacher) after the executioner of a Mexican emperor. Shortly after becoming qualified as a teacher, Mussolini taught in a small school. Mussolini was a far-left socialist and advocated a violent revolution to overthrow the parliamentary monarchy within Italy and denounced nationalism. When World War I broke out in 1914, however, he broke with his party comrades when he celebrated the entry of his nation into the war – even though he had dodged the draft. Throughout the Great War, he fought earnestly to keep Italy involved, and, financed by large arms manufacturers and the British and French governments, operated a small, pro-war newspaper. When the war came to an end in 1919, Mussolini was quick to recognize the dissatisfaction of many of the homebound soldiers and countrymen concerning the Treaty of Versailles. In an effort to persuade Italy to enter the war on their side, the Allied Powers promised Italy significant territorial gains at the expense of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The final settlement, however, was less favorable to Italian interests than that originally promised, and resulted in widespread malcontent regarding the post-war government.

In March 1919, Mussolini created a radically nationalist and anti-communist party – Fasci Italiani di Combattimento. Mussolini, who loved the splendor and extravagance of Ancient Rome, adopted a Roman symbol of authority, the fascio (an axe wrapped in whipping rods) for his group of devotees. As inflation and economic decline spread throughout Europe and Italy following the war, factory workers began to go on strikes in northern Italy. In 1920, Mussolini’s group’s numbers were bolstered by ex-soldiers willing to break up these strikes. Mussolini marched 50,000 Fascist supporters (known as Blackshirts for their attire) in squads against the strikers and left-wing newspapers. The Blackshirts garnered their support from the financial contributions of industrialists and large landowners, who shared their anti-communist sentiments, but also believed that they could control the excesses of the Fascist party. The police often refused to stop the squads, allowing the Blackshirts freedom to inflict whatever damage they wished.

The widespread destabilization of the previous social orders throughout Europe due to economic uncertainty in the aftermath of the war and the successful establishment of the Soviet Union as a socialist state led many to believe that democracy was weak and ineffectual, while monarchy was discredited as an oppressive and unresponsive system. A command economy was thought to be a progressive and scientific method of social organization. Fascism incorporated the futuristic and populist elements of Communist ideology, but also identified itself strongly with the nationalism that had created the modern European nation-states in the late 19th Century.

Despite growing popularity and the introduction of proportional representation in the Parliament, Mussolini's party fared poorly at the polls, winning no seats in 1920 and only 35 in May 1921 (7% of the vote). The internal political situation however, swung in Mussolini's favor. The birth of the Communist Party of Italy, openly allied with Lenin's Soviet regime in Moscow, polarized Italian politics. Proportional representation caused stagnation in government, until a weak coalition finally came into place in February 1922. In October of that year, as Mussolini was giving one of his soon-to-be characteristic speeches from atop a balcony, he suddenly cried, “To Rome! To Rome!” The crowd of supporters, much to Mussolini’s surprise, echoed his cry. Blackshirts to the number of 40,000 organized to march on the capital. Mussolini, however, went into hiding, afraid of the impending collapse of his movement. When it became clear that the army would not oppose his action, however, Mussolini moved decisively. As Blackshirts began to occupy key posts in Rome on 27-28 October, the king, Victor Emmanuel III, to the chagrin of his elected cabinet, appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister so long as Mussolini halted the advance to Rome. Mussolini agreed. His word was not to be trusted, however, as he soon after marched on the city anyway, creating an incredible propaganda success for the Fascists. Over the next few years, he led a slow-motion coup d'état. By 1926, he had become the undisputed totalitarian dictator (“Il Duce,” or “the leader”) of Italy.

Mussolini's regime embarked on a campaign of militarization and political maneuvering. First, he began to ready Italy for war. One of Mussolini’s driving ambitions was to restore the hegemony of the Roman Empire in a modern Italy. To that end, he encouraged couples to have as many children as possible as he organized large-scale expansions of the agricultural sector to feed them. He extended an olive branch to the Catholic Church by way of the Lateran Accords, which recognized papal authority over the Vatican and declared Catholicism the official religion of all of Italy, ending hundreds of years of estrangement. Mussolini seemed to have been a victim of his own propaganda as, in 1935, he deemed his newly-formed army strong enough to invade Ethiopia. The Italian army invaded from Italian-held Eritrea. The underestimation of the enemy proved fatal for thousands of ill-prepared Italians as the army met face-to-face with the “Lion of the Desert,” Omar Mukhtar (whose death by hanging at the hands of the Italians ended his twenty-year resistance). The poorly-armed Ethiopians were eventually defeated primarily due to terror tactics, such as poison gas and terror bombings. Mussolini’s sense of superiority did not seem hurt by his army's poor preparation, as, over the next few years, he became a close ally of Hitler's. In 1939, Mussolini signed the “Pact of Steel,” creating a formal alliance between Italy and Nazi Germany. Mussolini, while publicly effervescent, did not have the universal power and control enjoyed by Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, a lack of gravitas which would later cost him his life. Nevertheless, Mussolini rode at the helm of the 20th century dictatorship, invented the terms Fascism and Totalitarianism, and pioneered the use of propaganda to control the masses in newspapers, posters, radio, and in movie cinemas.

The Weimar Republic (1918-1933)
Following the complete collapse of Germany's armed forces throughout the waning months of 1918, German generals and politicians desperately sought to surrender. The Allied Powers, however, would not negotiate with the autocratic Kaiser Wilhelm II, and insisted upon Germany to adopt a democratic government. In this disarray, Germany quickly fell along the slippery slope to revolution, appearing as though it might go the same direction as Russia – Marxist. After Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne on November 7, a new republic was declared, and a National Assembly convened at Weimar to circumvent the unrest in Berlin. The hastily-formed republican government took its name from the host city and surrendered. The Allied Powers, in turn, forced upon the defeated nation extremely harsh and punitive terms through the Treaty of Versailles. Clause 231 of the treaty, the so-called "war-guilt" clause, called for Germany to accept total and sole blame for the Great War (while, arguably, they merely joined) and to pay reparations to the “victimized” Allied Powers. Finally, it was established that Germany was to disband its air force permanently, and to have no more than 100,000 men in its armed forces. The Rhineland, along the Franco-German border, was demilitarized and put under French jurisdiction. The extremely valuable Saar region, home to most of Germany’s factories, was made autonomous.

These harsh restrictions gave the fledgling Weimar Republic unwarranted disrespect. Many Germans had opposed the treaty, and it created large amounts of resentment within Germany. (Retrospectively, the Treaty of Versailles is seen as one of the most fundamental causes of the rise of Adolf Hitler and World War II.) The newfound lack of industry compounded the reparations Germany was forced to pay. To assuage its monetary woes, The Weimar Republic began to print paper money at exorbitant rates – rates so high, that, by 1923, the American Dollar was worth 4.2 trillion German Marks. Amidst the chaos of disappearing life savings and a tumultuous economy, Gustav Stresemann came to the forefront of Weimar Politik. Under his leadership, the Weimar Republic managed to regain marked stability in the period of 1923-1929. Peoples discontent about the Weimar government increased day by day. Hyperinflation was corrected, but Stresemann's death in 1929 and the catastrophic worldwide Great Depression the same year brought about the death of the Weimar Republic. This untimely fall led to the empowerment of a man who would vault Germany to an unprecedented world power, who would pursue the elimination of “undesirables” such as Jews and homosexuals, who would begin the second world war of the 20th Century. Hitler, who had been subverting many of his countrymen during the economically tumultuous 1920s, took advantage of the Weimar Republic’s fall.

The Rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany (1914-1939)
In August 1914, as the world took the fatal plunge into World War I, an unknown and unimportant young Austrian national named Adolf Hitler enlisted in the German Army. Born on April 20, 1889 into a troubled and strict Austrian family, Hitler was a failed artist and an ardent German nationalist (Austrians are ethnically German and indistinguishable from their cousins). His anti-semitic views already in place from his early life as a vagrant (he dropped out of high school and was refused admission to a Vienna art school), Hitler was eager to serve his adopted homeland. He had an exemplary record of service and received the prestigious Iron Cross, both First and Second Class, and also achieved the undistinguished rank of Corporal. Shocked and deeply angered by the German defeat in 1918, he personally put the sole blame on the so-called "November politicians" (referring to those who formed the Weimar Republic). He also put blame on the Jews for the downfall of Germany.

After the war, Hitler remained in the army and after receiving intelligence and oratory training, became an intelligence official tasked with infiltrating political parties and reporting to his superiors on their activities. In March 1919, he was instructed to sit in on a meeting of the small nationalist German Worker's Party. He joined the party in September, and upon his discharge from the army in 1920, soon became the leader of the party which changed its name to the German National Socialist Worker's Party (NSDAP or Nazi for short, from its German name Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei). Over the next few years, Hitler's oratorical skills allowed the party to expand. It soon had its own private armed forces, known as the SA led by Ernst Rohm. Another important admirer was Erich Lundendorff, a Field Marshall from the First World War, whose help proved invaluable in setting up the Beer Hall Putsch.

The Beer Hall Putsch and Mein Kampf (1923-1925)
On November 8, 1923, Adolf Hitler and a group of SA raided a beer hall in Munich where the three most powerful politicians in Bavaria were giving speeches. Taking the men hostage, Hitler threatened them with death (and his own suicide) if they did not side with his intention to overturn Bavaria's government and then to march on Berlin. The men agreed (with little other choice). Hitler then made the colossal error of leaving the hall. He left Marshall Lundendorff in command, who upon the assurances of the three politicians that they only wished to return home to their families and would continue to support Hitler, allowed them to leave the hall. The men quickly denounced Hitler and mobilized the government's resistance to his "revolution". Adolf Hitler was enraged. He decided to march his SA the next morning against the Bavarian government. However, army regulars were already at the War Ministry when Hitler arrived and the rebellion was quickly scattered. Hitler was arrested and tried. He spoke so forcefully at his trial however, that the head judge had to harass the other two judges into even convicting him at all. He received a five year sentence. The abortive coup Hitler tried to carry out is referred to as the Beer Hall Putsch.

In prison, Hitler dictated the book Mein Kampf (My Struggle) to his close friend and confidant, Rudolf Hess. The book was a savage "hymn of hate" denouncing Jews as "parasites" and laying down the foundation for the plan of military conquest Hitler would later attempt. It was all painfully clear: the rearmament of Germany, the invasion of Poland, the invasion of the Soviet Union; Hitler had written down for anyone who wished to read it his plan of action. Unfortunately, few non-Germans read the book, but all too many Germans did. Hitler was released after spending only eight months of his sentence, mostly because the authorities thought he was harmless. He found the Nazi party virtually moribund. In 1925, he formed the Schutzstaffel (SS) to be his personal body guard under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler.

The Nazi Regime (1933-1939)
Through the use of propaganda, Hitler became immensely popular among the German people. To end the depressions, Hitler followed a program of massive public works, including the infamous Autobahn, dams, roads, railroads, and civil improvements. His official announcement of rearmament in 1936 (although it had actually begun much earlier) stimulated the economy further, as it would in the United States during the Second World War. Culture evolved along a strict set of party rules. Men were the heads of work and home; a woman's place was as a cleaner and a mother. The Nazis encouraged large families to literally create men to serve in the army. The Nazis, through their policy of racism, wanted superiority in every sphere of life. When the Olympic Games came to Berlin in 1936, the Germans showed off their athletes in huge stadiums built for the purpose.

Adolf Hitler practiced a policy of racial superiority of the Germans, whom he called Aryans, and people were sorted by the correct ethnic "purity". The ideal was the tall, blond, blue-eyed, muscular, and handsome Nordic youth (ironically, Hitler had brown hair). Hitler's regime followed a totalitarian policy; the SS and the secret police, the Gestapo, ruthlessly enforced loyalty to Hitler and rounded up the Nazi's enemies. In 1934, when the army had demanded as the price of its support the dissolution of the SA, Hitler had Ernst Rohm assassinated. Heinrich Himmler became the chief of secret police activities and the mastermind behind the terror. In 1935, the Nazis enacted the Nuremberg Laws, which placed extreme restrictions of Jews and their freedoms as human beings. The economic lives of the Jews were smashed. At this stage however, Hitler was not actively killing Jews but deporting them. The Nazis operated concentration camps at this time to deal primarily with political prisoners.

The propaganda machine of the Nazis was similar to that of Stalin in the USSR. However, the Nazis, under propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, used their propaganda to acquire not only acquiescence to Hitler's schemes, but also to convince the Germans of their policy of racial purity and antisemitism. Goebbels saw to it that, like in the Soviet Union, a picture of the Führer appeared in every building and home, and in many public places. Posters were one of the favorites of the Nazis. They also used the theater extensively to bring in support for the party's goals.

Joseph Stalin takes power in the Soviet Union (1924-1934)
When Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, he left a power vacuum behind in the wake of his death, centering on the continued use of the New Economic Policy (NEP). The primary contenders for political power were Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. Leon Trotsky was a brilliant politician, and had been Commissar of War during the Civil War. He was a gifted orator and a dedicated Communist, especially to the cause of causing Marxist revolutions internationally, through the use of arms if need be. Ironically, Trotsky had originally been a member of the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social Workers Party, until Lenin, recognizing his genius, had won him over to the Bolshevik camp. Stalin, on the other hand, was a gifted organizer. He was referred to by many of his contemporaries in the party as "Comrade Index-card". However, Trotsky was obviously the more popular choice for the job as the head of the new communist state. Unfortunately for Trotsky, Stalin was also the party's General Secretary. Although primarily a bureaucratic job, the General Secretary actually held the most power in the party because he appointed regional and local party posts in government. Stalin was therefore in a position to appoint those who would support his bid for power.

Stalin initially allied himself with the right and center factions of the Communist Party (if any part of a far-left party may be called "right") which supported the continued existence of the NEP. Allying himself with Lev Kamenev and Grigori Zinoviev, he threw his might against Trotsky, who was removed from his post as People's Commissar of War. Stalin now turned against Kamenev and Zinoviev, allying himself with Nicolai Bukharin. Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party on November 12, 1927, and expelled from the Soviet Union in 1928. He eventually found his way to Mexico, where he was murdered in 1940, probably on Stalin's orders. Now Stalin turned on his allies again, abandoning Bukharin and calling for the abandonment of the NEP. By now, Stalin was the undisputed leading figure of the Communist Party. By the early 1930s, Stalin would truly become the dictator of the Soviet Union.

The First Five-Year Plan and Collectivization (1927-1939)
At the Fifteenth Congress of the Communist Party, Stalin openly advocated the end of the NEP and introduced a plan for rapidly industrializing the largely rural Soviet Union, remarking that the country was "fifty to one hundred years behind the advanced countries". The government then introduced Gosplan (The State General Planning Commission) which came up with basis for the Five-Year Plan, aimed to turn the country into a major industrial power within five years. The plan set ridiculously high quotas for development. Nonetheless, terrific economic growth was achieved, especially in the areas of coal and iron output. As a result, steel production grew exponentially. However, harsh penalties for not making quotas caused large-scale misrepresentation of growth to occur. Harsh totalitarian measures were introduced. Miners were expected to put in 16 and 18 hour work days, unheard of even the strictest parts of the major capitalist countries. Poor and hazardous working conditions caused countless deaths. Most of the massive industrial complexes constructed for the Five-Year Plan were built by slave-laborers, sentenced for trivial and often completely false crimes. Approximately 3.7 million people were sentenced for counter-revolutionary crimes, approximately 0.6 million were put to death, 0.7 million were expatriated, and 2.7 million  were sent to forced labor camps (called the Gulag), often itself a death sentence.

As another part of the Five-Year Plan, the government began to forcibly collectivize agriculture (that is, to create large-scale farms where peasants worked the land collectively). The state sought not only an increase in agricultural output, but also to export grain abroad, in order to gain financial capital to buy important technologies for the industrial parts of the Five-Year Plan. By 1936, 90% of the nation's farms had been collectivized. However, this was not done without cost. Peasants almost universally actively opposed collectivization. In the Ukraine, the peasants killed off livestock rather than give it to the authorities. Stalin was so incensed that he allowed a famine to occur which led to the deaths of millions of innocent Ukrainians. As a result, throughout the period of 1924-1953, agricultural output was generally low, not regaining output levels of the period of the NEP until 1940, and rising only marginally in the following years. In addition, Stalin saw fit to deal with richer peasant farmers (known as Kulaks) by deporting them to forced labor in Siberia. In practice however, any person critical of collectivization was deemed a Kulak and summarily deported. It is estimated that at least 2.5 million peasants (in addition to the above industrial workers) were deported, though the true number is believed to be much greater.

The Great Purges and Politics in the Soviet Union (1930-1939)
Throughout the period of collectivization and the Five-Year Plan, the Soviet government became increasingly tyrannical. Stalin, was extremely paranoid, began to turn on important members of the party he had once called supporters. In 1934, the last person who might have rivaled Stalin, Sergei Kirov, was shot in his office, most likely on Stalin's orders. Using the murder as a pretext, he began to engage in ruthless purges of the party membership. Ironically, most of the purged members were original members of the party and colleagues of Lenin, known as the Old Bolsheviks. Through a series of show trials, the defendants were sentenced to death and to forced labor in the Gulag. Often, after using torture to extract signed confessions and agreeing on lenient sentences for a confession of false charges in the court, Stalin would turn on his word and have the defendants executed. Zinoviev and Kamenev, Stalin's old allies, both met this fate. Through 1936-1937, a period known as the Great Terror, Stalin supposedly personally signed 40,000 death warrants.

Stalin's dictatorship held incredible control over the general populace of the nation. Intense propaganda campaigns tried to indoctrinate the society with Communist thought. Stalin wanted to replace the national identities, such as the Russians, Ukrainians, or Belarussians, with the idea of a purely "Soviet" citizen. He also stipulated that all ethnic groups be treated equally. Under the Tsars, the Russians had been given preference. Now the heavy hand of Stalin was given equally to all nations. However, this did not prevent him from forcing the speakers of every language in the USSR to convert to the Cyrillic alphabet. Religion came under intense pressure as well, as atheism was the official policy of the state. Priests were rounded up and shipped to Gulag or executed. By the end of the terror, less than 1,000 churches remained out of at least 20,000. The NKVD, the Soviet secret police, hunted down citizens suspected of "counter-revolutionary" or "subversive" crimes. During the Great Terror, as many as 1 million people (the NKVD's own records admit 0.681 million) were executed for simply "opposing" Stalin's ideas and plans. False confessions were routinely extracted through torture and intimidation. The penalty for countless others (numbering by the most conservative estimates in the millions) was the Gulag. Fear was the order of the day in the Soviet Union. In addition, the Soviet state cultivated an extreme cult of personality around Stalin. Pictures of the dictator appeared at every street corner and in every building, including people's homes. School children ended the pledge of allegiance at the beginning of each day by saying "...and thank Comrade Stalin for this happy life". To be fair, social conditions did improve under Stalin. Unemployment fell to practically zero, and large bounds in the public health were introduced. However, there was no freedom whatsoever in Soviet society.

Francisco Franco's Fascist Spain and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1945)
Francisco Franco rose to power after the brutal turmoil of the Spanish Civil War. The conflict was between the residing leftist republican parties and the nationalist movement led by Franco. Some view the Spanish Civil War as a "dress rehearsal for World War II". The Struggle of dictatorship and democracy is evident in this conflict.


text:
sedile

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1) seat (in a vehicle)
 * 2) bench

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1) seat, bench, stool, chair

Descendants

 * (from the plural )

title: sedile