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2019 suspension of rebel Conservative MPs

On 3 September 2019, the British Conservative Party withdrew the whip from 21 of its MPs who had supported an emergency motion to allow the House of Commons to undertake proceedings on the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill on 4 September. In the hours after the vote, the Chief Whip Mark Spencer informed the rebel MPs that they were no longer entitled to sit as Conservatives. This led to the loss of the Conservative/DUP majority in the Commons.

The suspended MPs included two former Chancellors of the Exchequer (Philip Hammond and the Father of the House, Kenneth Clarke), seven other former Cabinet members (Greg Clark, David Gauke, Justine Greening, Dominic Grieve, Oliver Letwin, Caroline Nokes and Rory Stewart), and 12 others including Nicholas Soames, grandson of Winston Churchill.

On 29 October 2019, 10 of the suspended MPs had the whip restored; of these, six stood down at the December 2019 election, while four contested it as Conservative candidates, all retaining their seats. Of the 11 who remained suspended, six declined to stand at the election, while five stood as independents or Liberal Democrats; all five lost their seats.

The suspension of these MPs bore resemblance to the Maastricht Rebels who had the Conservative whip removed by the governing Conservative Party during the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in the early 1990s.

Background
In April 2019, Speaker of the House of Commons John Bercow allowed Sir Oliver Letwin to table a motion that would allow MPs to undertake proceedings on the second reading, committee, and third reading of the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 5) Bill (also known as the Cooper–Letwin Bill) in one day. The motion was passed by one vote. Subsequently, the bill was passed as the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019.

Several of the MPs had voted for Theresa May's ultimately unsuccessful Withdrawal Agreement, and subsequently continued to oppose a "no deal" Brexit scenario. They became known in the media as the "Gaukeward Squad" after their informal leader David Gauke.

In September 2019, Bercow again permitted Letwin to introduce a motion under Standing Order No. 24 (SO No. 24) to take control of parliamentary business away from the government, this time to allow for the passage of the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill, to be introduced by Hilary Benn on the following day. In anticipation of the vote, the government whips' office announced that voting in favour of Letwin's motion would effectively be "destroying the government's negotiating position and handing control of parliament to Jeremy Corbyn." On that basis, those Conservative MPs supporting the motion would have the whip withdrawn.

Rebel MPs
A total of 21 Conservative MPs voted for the motion:

Aftermath
On 5 September, the Universities Minister Jo Johnson, who is also the Prime Minister Boris Johnson's younger brother, resigned from the Cabinet and stood down as an MP at the subsequent general election. The Daily Telegraph reported that Johnson's decision had been triggered by the suspension of Conservative MPs two days prior.

Two days later, the Work and Pensions Secretary Amber Rudd resigned from the Cabinet and surrendered the Conservative whip in Parliament in protest at Boris Johnson's policy on Brexit and the treatment of the 21 rebel MPs.

On 9 September, the bill was passed as the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019.

On 14 September, former Conservative leadership contender Sam Gyimah, who was one of the 21, joined the Liberal Democrats. On 4 October, former Cabinet minister and former Conservative leadership contender Rory Stewart resigned from the Conservative Party, in order to stand as an independent candidate for Mayor of London.

On 29 October, 10 of the MPs suspended from the party in September had the whip restored after meeting Boris Johnson. They were Alistair Burt, Caroline Nokes, Greg Clark, Sir Nicholas Soames, Ed Vaizey, Margot James, Richard Benyon, Stephen Hammond, Steve Brine and Richard Harrington.

On 31 October, Antoinette Sandbach joined the Liberal Democrats. On 5 November, Philip Hammond stood down as an MP at the forthcoming general election.


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Käthe Heidersbach

Käthe Heidersbach (30 October 1897 – 26 February 1979) was a German operatic soprano.

Life and career
Born in Breslau, Heidersbach first wanted to become a pianist and studied piano at the conservatory of her home town. She then took singing lessons with Juan Luria (who was later interned by the Nazi regime and murdered at the Sobibor extermination camp in 1943), Lola Beeth and Fred Husler. The soprano made her debut in 1922 at the Detmold's Stadttheater and was engaged by the Wrocław Opera from 1924 to 1927. From 1927 to 1944, she was engaged at the Staatsoper Unter den Linden in Berlin.

Guest performances led the artist to Dresden, Amsterdam, Vienna, Zurich, Hamburg, Munich and Barcelona. She was engaged at the Bayreuth Festival from 1928 to 1934, where she sang Waldvogel, Freia, Gutrune, Elsa and Eva, and in 1934 a flower girl in the first Bayreuth new production of Parsifal since Richard Wagner's world premiere production.

In 1934 she was appointed a Prussian Kammersängerin at the Staatsoper Unter den Linden. According to Joseph Goebbels, however, she was not satisfied there, as she is said to have complained to him in March 1939 about too little singing time. On 2 June 1939, she sang Eve in a gala performance of Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg in honour of the Regent Prince Paul of Yugoslavia, which was also attended by Adolf Hitler. Herbert von Karajan was the conductor. This performance became legendary because Karajan, who conducted without a score, got out of time and thus incurred the wrath of the Führer. In September 1941, Heidersbach performed in occupied Krakow as "bearer of the German cultural will in the East", among other places at the Theater der SS und der Polizei there. At this occasion she had lunch with the Governor General Hans Frank.

Heidersbach's first marriage was to Johannes Eppinger. She entered her second marriage in 1928 with the Swedish opera singer Nils Källe who was engaged at the opera of Breslau from 1924 to 1927. After 1945, she worked as a concert soprano and teacher in Stockholm, where she had moved to.

Heiersbach died in Kyrkhult, Olofström Municipality, Sweden at the age of 82.

Recordings

 * Schlesische Sänger von Weltruf, with Rose Ader-Trigona, Susanne Dessoir, Irene Eisinger, Käthe Heidersbach, George Henschel. [Munich]: Koch Internat., 1991.
 * Lebendige Vergangenheit - Four German Sopranos Of The Past (CD). Margarete Bäumer, Emmy Bettendorf, Käthe Heidersbach, Else Gentner-Fischer, Preiser/Naxos, Wien 1998 [Heidersbach interpretiert Szenen aus Le nozze di Figaro, The Magic Flute, Der Freischütz and Tannhäuser]
 * Max Lorenz (tenor): Max Lorenz – The complete Electrola recordings 1927–42, Choir and orchestra of the Staatsoper Berlin, with Käthe Heidersbach, including O Fürstin! (Second scene of the 2nd act of the opera Tannhäuser)
 * Extract from Giordano's Andrea Chénier, choir and orchestra of the Staatsoper Berlin, conductor: Robert Heger, with Helge Rosvaenge, Käthe Heidersbach, Willi Domgraf-Fassbaender among others (Highlights in German language - historical recording from 1942) [Vinyl LP]
 * Extract from Arabella by Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Richard Strauss, with Käthe Heidersbach, Lotte Lehmann (soprano) and the orcheqstra of the Staatsoper Berlin, conductor: Richard Jäger, both in 1933 (DRA 50-07580): Er ist der Richtige nicht für mich... Aber der Richtige, wenn's einen gibt für mich. and Mein Elemer!
 * Extract from Weber's Der Freischütz, "Wie? Was? Entsetzen", with Irene Eisinger, Käthe Heidersbach and Erik Wirl. Historische Aufnahme auf: Abc Der Gesangskunst Teil 2, CD2, 2000

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Käthe Heidersbach


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Northwestern Miners

The Northwestern Miners was an Australian rules football club based in St Helens, Merseyside, England.

History
The St Helens Miners formed for the 2002 British Australian Rules Football League season. They were the first aussie rules club to be based in the north of England for some time, the Liverpool Blues having been the most recent in the area around 10 years earlier. The Miners struggled onfield against the strong London-based clubs initially, but their situation improved after joining the new BARFL Regional series in 2003. In 2004, the club renamed itself the Northwestern Miners to better attract players from across the region, avoiding old rivalries between St Helens and other towns such as Wigan and Warrington. They formed an alliance with the Southport Sharks, a powerful club playing in the AFL Queensland and began wearing the Sharks' jumper rather than the Footscray Bulldogs jumpers they had previously used.

The Miners folded mid-2004, although some ex-Miners went on the play for the Manchester Mosquitos when this club formed in 2006 and the Liverpool Eagles who formed in 2008.

title: Northwestern Miners


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The Problem of Evil

Part of Philosophy>Philosophy of Religion

''Either God wants to abolish evil, and cannot; or he can, but does not want to. ... If he wants to, but cannot, he is impotent. If he can, but does not want to, he is wicked. ... If, as they say, God can abolish evil, and God really wants to do it, why is there evil in the world?"'' (Epicurus, as quoted in 2000 Years of Disbelief)

Looking at this problem another way. What exactly does Evil mean? Evil is an evaluation of some event or person by comparison to some ideal or standard. If a God exists and claims the right to decide what ideal or standard everyone SHOULD follow, then he creates both good and evil at once by setting this ideal in place. The tree of Knowledge of good and evil in the bible story for example would represent such a line in the moral sand so to speak...and its prohibition to mankind was the claim that ONLY God had the RIGHT to draw that line. If we assume an all knowing being, there may be some severe problems, such as how such a godlike entity can call anything REAL, evil, compared to what? this being would KNOW anything he used as a standard of comparison would be a false standard and thus a lie. An all knowing being would see that every moment is just real, not good nor evil. Assuming a real being could only KNOW what is real, then knowledge of what has yet to occur would not be required and this being could, with far greater understanding of the true potential of all beings, set standards that he knows they could live up to. The only problem then is if this being claims to be God and yet does nothing to prevent what he can prevent, why would anyone consider this being other than evil for not doing so? Jiohdi 19:56, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Suggested Reading

 * Dostoevsky, Fyodor "Rebellion" From The Brothers Karamazov.

 * Johnson, B. C. "God and the Problem of Evil."

 * Swinburne, Richard. "God and the Problem of Evil."

Encyclopedia Entries

 * The Problem of Evil from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 * Problem of evil from Wikipedia

Lecture Notes

 * Problem of Evil I by Sally Haslanger. Part of 24.00 Problems of Philosophy, Fall 2005

MSC Philosophy
Back to my page

Back to Arguments for God

Reading questions.
1. How do concepts change over time? 2. What was the Ancient concept of Evil, and what is its modern counterpart? 3. Why does the existence of Evil deny the existence of God?

Terms.
Hellenes is a term for either ancient or modern Greeks (used in this fashion to note that at the time the nation/national identity of Greece did not exist) B.C.E Before Common Era - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.C.E.

Introduction.
The problem of evil is not a simple topic, nor is it free from the fetters of religious interpretation and influence. For our purpose we shall begin with the simple aspect of a definition, and look at how it’s concept has evolved, but before we do that we must note that all aspects of ancient philosophy that we have access to today has been translated and interpreted in some cases many times before it reaches us. All philosophical thought is based on the search for reasons why and how the world works. These reasons for things are based on observation and reason filtered through the observers experiences, thus these reasons and ideas develop or evolve based upon the experience or knowledge of those interpreting them. For example concepts such as Metaphysics and Epistomology existed in ancient times but they were not termed as such because there were no terms for them as we know them today. So if we were to talk to an ancient philosopher about their work on "metaphysics," for example, they would have no idea or frame of reference for what we're talking about because that term doesn't exist to them.

Evil and Good.
We must first ask the question, “What is evil?” Most modern dictionaries define Evil as morally bad or wrong, wicked, depraved, causing pain harm or trouble. As such it is heavily bound in ethics, to the ancient Hellenes, however, Evil was disorder/chaos, anything that disrupted the structure of their lives. One extreme example of this is that in Sparta it was illegal to get sick. The Hellenes equated order and structure with goodness, as it helped their lives function and protected them, on the same token disorder, chaos and anything that disrupted that was bad and thus Evil. With the conception of Socratic Ethics and Platonic Forms (around 400 B.C.E.) these concepts gained a more moralistic tinge to them that has stuck with them ever since, as can be seen in the difference between Hellenistic and Modern definition of the word, simple disorder versus a lack of morality. I reference these ancient philosophers because they had a profound influence on the formation of church doctrines at and around the formation of the Christian church for whom "The Problem of Evil" is an issue. The Christian philosopher Augustine worked much of Plato's works into church doctrine, about 1000 years later Thomas Aquinas brought the works of Aristotle into Christian doctrine. These works vastly influenced the formation and early life of the Christian church.

The Problem of Evil.
The problem of evil is that an omnipotent, omnipresent, benevolent God (these features are commonly associated with “God” in monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Judaism and their derivatives) can not exist in the same world with “real evil.” For example one common argument is that “…God knew about the Holocaust and could have prevented it, but didn’t…” The logical solution to this problem is to weaken one of the premises, such as saying that the murder of thousands isn’t evil or that God doesn’t care about humans. However this is an example of Moral Evil, evil that is caused by man's Free Will and not by God. A better example would be a Natural Disaster (Natural Evil) like a Tsunami, Hurricane etc. Either way it causes a weakening of one of the premises negatively effects the stability of monotheistic religions and that in a nut shell is the problem of evil.

Conclusion.
What conclusions can we draw from this? Are our beliefs about God incorrect or do we just not have all the pieces of the puzzle? It is my opinion that given time and experience we shall come up with information or a new perspective on this issue and it’s concept will once again change, such is the evolution of the human experience, human intellect and human spirituality.

Test Yourself. Choose the best option.
1. To the ancient Hellenes what was evil? a) Something Wicked b) Disorder c) The French d) None of the above 2. What is the Problem of Evil? a) A lack of concern for ones fellows. b) Moral depravity in society. c) An omnipotent, omnipresent, benevolent God can not exist in the same world with “real evil.” d) Bad Cheese 3. To the ancient Hellenes what was good? a) Order b) Faith c) Both a and d d) Structure 4. Why is the problem of evil important? a) Because it calls into question long standing beliefs about the nature of God. b) It is the supreme conflict of the spiritual universe. c) All of the above. d) It isn't. 5. Put Aristotle Socrates and Plato into the correct order chronologically. a) Who are these Guys b) Plato, Socrates, Aristotle c) Aristotle, Socrates Plato d) Socrates, Plato, Aristotle 6. Why is it important to look at things in the terms and environment in which they were created? a) Because we may have a different frame of reference for things today than was present at their inception. b) It is unimportant because concepts do not change over time. c) So we do not get confused with poorly translated texts. d) None of the Above. 7. Which ancient Philosopher listed below most influenced Augustine? a) Aristotle b) Plato c) Socrates d) Thomas Aquinas 8. Which ancient Philosopher listed below most influenced Aquinas? a) Aristotle b) Augustine c) Plato d) Socrates 9. About how long after Augustine was it before Aquinas? a) 18 hours b) 7 light years c) 1000 years d) 6 months 10. Who were the Hellenes? a) The French b) Christians c) Philosophers d) Ancient Greeks [Answer Key]

Important(?) People.
Socrates - Athens 469-399 B.C.E Plato - Athens 427-347 B.C.E  Aristotle - Athens 384-322 B.C.E  Augustine - Tagaste 354-430 C.E  Thomas Aquinas - Italy 1225-1274 C.E

For Additional Information check out.
The Wikipedia entries for Evil, God and the aforementioned philosophers. Also take a look at the section on [/Presocratics+and+Socrates Presocratics and Socratics] if you haven't already.

My Works Cited can be found [here].
The entirety of the Mesa State College Intorduction to Philosophy page including the origional of this Document (From MSC Philosophy down) may be viewed here.

Back to Arguments for God

title: The Problem of Evil


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Apostles' Creed

The Apostles' Creed is the second most widespread Christian statement of faith after the Nicene Creed.

It is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical Churches of Western tradition, including the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheranism, the Anglican Communion, and Western Orthodoxy. It is also used by evangelical Protestant denominations such as Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists and many Baptists. It is not used by Southern Baptists, who consider themselves a "non-creedal" church.

Note that the Apostles' Creed is not the same as the Nicene Creed.

History
The origins of the Creed are lost. The earliest appearance in its current form was in Latin, in the De singulis libris canonicis scarapsus ("Concerning the Single Canonical Book Scarapsus") of St. Priminius (Migne, Patrologia Latina 89, 1029 ff.), written between 710-724. This puts it 400 years after the Nicene Creed was created, so the possibility of this influencing it cannot be ruled out. In the Catholic church the apostles' creed was superseded by the Nicene Creed as a statement of core belief.

Text
The apostles' creed, using the translation in the Official Catechisms of the Catholic Church.

I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord. He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. He descended into hell. On the third day he rose again. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.

title: Apostles' Creed


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Gears

Gears are toothed wheels which are used to transmit force to other gears or toothed parts by meshing with minimal slip.

When two gears are meshed together, the smaller gear is called a pinion. The gear transmitting force is referred to as a drive gear, and the receiving gear is called the driven gear.

When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed decreases and the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it results in step up drive in which the output speed increases and the torque decreases.

Types
Plastic gears

Gear tooth system
A gear tooth system is defined by its unique tooth proportions,pressure angles etc.

Law of gearing
Before we take a look at the actual gearing systems let us see what is the fundamental law that governs the gearing system. The law of gearing states that

the angular velocity ratio of all gears of a meshed gear system must remain constant also the common normal at the point of contact must pass through the pitch point.

Example: if $$\omega\ _1$$ and $$\omega\ _2$$ are the angular velocities and $$D_1$$ and $$D_2$$ are the diameters of two gears meshed together then $${\omega _1\over \omega _2}={D_2\over D_1}$$

Gear profiles
Gear profiles should satisfy the law of gearing.

The profiles best suited for this law are:

 * 1) /Involute/
 * 2) /Cyloidal/
 * 3) Circular arc or /Novikov/

Gear Nomenclature
Various nomenclatures related to a gear are shown in the figure

 * Let us consider a spur gear and define the following terms-
 * Pitch circle:Can roughly be defined as the circle having radius as the mean of the maximum radius(to the tip of the gear teeth) to the radius of the base of a gear tooth. However tooth proportions can vary considerably, with both root and tip adjusted to suit running conditions and manufacturing processes, making this definition somewhat unreliable.
 * Addendum:The tooth portion above the pitch circle (towards the tooth tip).
 * Dedendum:The tooth portion below the pitch circle (towards the tooth root).
 * Flank:The face of a gear tooth which comes in contact with the teeth of another gear. So,a flank is an important part of a gear.
 * Fillet:Fillets in the root region are of less importance since they don't come into contact with other gear teeth. However root fillets are of great importance with regard to tooth bending strength, and therefore power ratings. Gears with little or no fillet in the root are prone to tooth breakage, as the sharp corner acts as a /stress raiser/.
 * Circular pitch:The sum of the width of a tooth and a space between the tooth of a gear. Circular pitch is an important parameter as it indicates the size of the tooth of a gear.If $$P_c$$is the circular pitch,Z is the number of teeth on a gear and D is the pitch diameter then,$$P_c={\pi D\over Z}$$

So the size of a tooth is given by $$m={D\over Z}$$ where m is the unit of size called module.And hence for two meshed gears we must have the same size of tooth,then we can have the following relations, $$m={D_1\over Z_1}={D_2\over Z_2}={P_c\over \pi}$$---(1)

In case of a rack the diameter and the number of tooth tend to infinity but still the module remain finite.
 * Circular thickness or tooth thickness: It is the thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle.It should be noted that this thickness is measured as the arc along the pitch circle and should not be taken as the displacement
 * Diametral Pitch: It is defined as the number of tooth per inch of the diameter of the pitch circle of a gear.It is indicated by the letter P.Therefore, $$P={Z\over D}$$---(2)

So using equation (1) and (2), we can have $$P_c P= \pi$$

title: Gears


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Microeconomics/Building the demand curve

The demand curve is a linear graph (can be a curve as well) showing the relationship of price with the quantity. It is sloped with a negative gradient (sloped positively in case of backward bending curves, like the labour curve). The demand curve shows the effect on quantity demanded when there is a given change in price or demand. The demand curve is usually drawn in conjunction with a supply curve, showing the market.

Constructing the Demand Curve
1. Draw a set of x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes. The vertical axis is labelled with the price of a particular good; thus, this axis is often labelled "P". Similarly, the horizontal axis lists quantities of the good under analysis, and consequently is often labelled "q".

2. Plot points from a demand schedule; these should show the quantity demanded at different price levels.

You may find (for instance, on an assignment) that you are given a demand function and are being asked to plot the function. In this case you must construct the demand schedule yourself. All this requires is to choose a range of prices (ex. 0, 5, 10 . . . 100) and then enter these into the function to calculate the associated quantities demanded in the market.

Let's suppose, to illustrate, that the demand function has the following form: q = -5P + 25. You would create the demand schedule by first constructing a table with two columns, one for price and one for quantity demanded.

Then you would choose a range of prices, say, $0, $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, and write these under the 'price' column. For each price you would proceed to calculate the associate quantity demanded. For $1, as an example, the quantity demanded is 20 units (-5*(1) + 25 = -5 + 25 = 20). Write next to each price the appropriate quantity. When you have done this for all of the prices your demand schedule will be complete.

This simple function, by the way, illustrates some an important point about demand curves.

An important point to note in economics is that the independent variable (i.e., the price) is plotted on the Y-axis and the dependent variable (i.e., the quantity demanded) is plotted on the X-axis, though in mathematics the converse is usually true.

Price Elasticity of Demand
Price elasticity of demand is a measure of a change in the quantity demanded of a product due to a change in the price of the product in the market.

A demand curve with a small negative gradient is said to be elastic. Elastic demand indicates that given a price increase, quantity demanded will fall more than proportionately, leading to a fall in total revenue [ie. price times the quantity]. A good with elastic demand should be priced low to maximise total revenue. Elastic demand tends to mean that the commodity is a luxury product, has a large number of substitutes and spending on it makes up a large proportion of consumers' income. An example would be LED televisions.

A demand curve with a high negative gradient is said to be inelastic. Inelastic demand indicates that given a price increase, quantity demanded will fall less than proportionately, leading to a rise in total revenue. A good with inelastic demand should be priced high to maximise total revenue. Inelastic demand tends to mean that the commodity is a necessity, has few substitutes and spending on it makes up a small proportion of comsumers' income. An example would be petrol.

A hyperbolic demand curve is said to be unitary elastic, that a change in price will lead to an equal proportionate fall in quantity demanded; total revenue would remain unchanged. It is uncommon to see commodities with unitary elastic demand, and would be mere coincidence if so.


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Music Theory/Atonal

Definition
Atonal music is a generalizing term used to define music that seems to lack a clear tonal center. Nearly all music in the western classical tradition is considered 'tonal': that is, its harmonic structure is primarily triadic and hierarchically organized around a prominent tonal center. Atonal music works tend to deny or expand this notion by using alternative structural strategies (frequently - but not exlusivelly - mathematical, the most famous being serialism). As a result, many listeners used to traditional tonality may find atonal music very challenging at first, in particular because the lack of a tonal hierarchy means that highly dissonant chords are far more common (and, indeed, early practitioners of the style often deliberately used these chords as to avoid any implied reference to a tonic). That said, others argue that atonality is simply another musical language which, like all other languages (including traditional tonality), cannot be learned or appreciated until one has been immersed in it.

A brief history of atonality
Composer Arnold Schoenberg is generally seen as the first composer to fully embrace 'atonality', although a number of other composers (such as Bartok and Scriabin) had been moving in that direction for some time. In 1925, after experimenting with free atonality, he composed his Suite für Klavier, the first piece of music ever written using the twelve-tone method of composing. His students, Alban Berg and Anton Webern, followed in his footsteps by composing numerous twelve-tone pieces; the method was generalised during the 1950s to include other parameters such as rhythm and volume, the resultant system being known as total serialism.

Contemporary situation
All these influences over the last century have meant that it is now very difficult to draw a clear line between atonal and tonal music: for example, the music of Philip Glass has a clearly defined tonal center (and is generally seen as tonal), but it does not use harmony in the traditional way (as a means of giving the music direction), instead using repetition to create something more static; similarly, the music of composers such as Alfred Schnittke or John Adams combines elements of tonal and atonal music freely and undogmatically; this approach can be seen as far back as Berg's Violin Concerto of 1936, which sounds almost tonal in many places despite its use of the twelve-tone method]].

title: Music Theory/Atonal


text:
chierica

Etymology 1
From, noun use of an ellipsis of. Compare 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) clerical tonsure

Noun

 * : female cleric

title: chierica


text:
Julia Ritter

Julia Ritter (born 13 May 1998) is a German female shot putter who won individual gold medals at the 2015 Youth World Championships and at the 2017 European U20 Championships.

title: Julia Ritter


text:
User:Perl~enwikibooks/Ellen Foster/poem

 The Street by Octavio Paz

A long and silent street.

I walk in blackness and I stumble and fall

and rise, and I walk blind, my feet

stepping on silent stones and dry leaves.

Someone behind me also stepping on stones, leaves:

if I slow down, he slows:

if I run, he runs. I turn: nobody.

Everything dark and doorless.

Turning and turning among these corners

which lead forever to the street

where I pursue a man who stumbles

and rises and says when he sees be: nobody Octavio Paz's poem The Street is thematically similar to the ideas present in Ellen Foster. In this poem, the narrator describes a long and silent street that he is traversing at night. He adds that he stumbles and falls. In these two lines, the theme of being lost and lonely is very prevalent. This is similar to the feeling that Ellen has after her mother dies. In the next line, the narrator says that he gets back up. The idea that this presents can be equated to the theme of perseverance in Ellen Foster. Soon, the reader becomes aware that the narrator is running away from someone. Ellen spent a great deal of time hiding and running away from her father and his cronies.

<< | >>

title: User:Perl~enwikibooks/Ellen Foster/poem


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1870 Braidwood colonial by-election

A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Braidwood on 17 October 1870 because the elections and qualifications committee declared the election of Michael Kelly to be void.

Results
The December 1869 Braidwood election was declared to be void.

title: 1870 Braidwood colonial by-election


text:
User:TINPAINI BAZAR

Tinpaini is a place, located in Morang District. In 2017, Sundar Haraicha Metropolitan City was expanded by incorporating Tinpaini as Ward No. 5,6 (previously 5,6). It encompasses 25 hectares and is bounded by the Suryadaya Tole in the east and south, the Srijana Tola in the west, and share borders with Devithan in the north, Jharna Badha of almost all homes in the ward have access to electricity, but the same cannot be said about drinking water. At the time of the 1996 Nepal census it had a population of 518 and had 485 households in it. The ward contains 485 households. The population in 2018 was 510.

title: User:TINPAINI BAZAR


text:
Black Wings of Destiny

Black Wings of Destiny is the second studio album by the Black metal band Dragonlord.

Almost all of the previous album's thrash roots vanished, replaced with pure black metal. Peterson also began extending creative control to the rest of the band, instead of writing all the music himself for this album. This is also the first album where the band first appeared in photos wearing corpsepaint.

Track listing

 * 1) "The Becoming Of" – 1:18 (Eric Peterson, Derrick Ramirez)
 * 2) "The Curse of Woe" – 5:39 (Peterson, Del James)
 * 3) "Revelations" – 5:52 (Peterson, James, Ramirez, Lyle Livingston)
 * 4) "Sins of Allegiance" – 6:48 (Peterson, James, Ramirez, Steve Smyth)
 * 5) "Until the End" – 4:04 (Peterson, James, Livingston)
 * 6) "Mark of Damnation" – 5:12 (Peterson, James, Livingston)
 * 7) "Blood Voyeur" – 4:33 (Peterson, James, Livingston)
 * 8) "Fallen" – 4:36 (Peterson, James, Smyth)
 * 9) "Black Funeral" – 2:37 (Mercyful Fate cover) (Michael Denner, King Diamond, Hank Sherman)
 * 10) "Emerald" – 3:49 (Thin Lizzy cover) (Brian Downey, Brian Robertson, Scott Gorham, Phil Lynott)

Personnel

 * Eric Peterson - vocals, guitars
 * Steve Smyth - guitars
 * Derrick Ramirez - bass
 * Lyle Livingston - keyboards
 * Jon Allen - drums

title: Black Wings of Destiny


text:
User:Zitaaanna

Zitaaanna lives in Massachusetts. Often goes by the nickname of "Zee". Zee is an amateur Birdwatcher, gardener, musician and mechanic. She went to trade school for the latter back in 1985-1986. She raised a family in the 1990's to just recently. Zee is of Austro-Hungarian and German descent. She enjoys reading books and Wikipedia articles. 22:57, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

title: User:Zitaaanna


text:
Woodstock Academy

Woodstock Academy (WA), founded in 1801, is a high school located in Woodstock, Connecticut, United States. The Academy, which describes itself as an independent school, serves residents from the Connecticut towns of Brooklyn, Canterbury, Eastford, Pomfret, Union, and Woodstock. The respective towns' taxpayers pay student tuition through municipal taxes, and therefore state agencies and the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) categorize Woodstock as a public school. The school also accepts tuition-paying students from surrounding towns and states as day students, and students from around the country and the world as residential students.

History
In 1801 the school was organized by James and John McClellan, sons of Revolutionary War General Samuel McClellan. The Connecticut Legislature officially chartered the school in 1802.

In 1969 the Woodstock School Committee designated Woodstock Academy as the secondary public school of the town.

In 1977 the Connecticut State Freedom of Information Commission ruled that Woodstock Academy must make its records public. In July 1980 the Connecticut Supreme Court ruled that Woodstock Academy is a public agency, because it serves three Connecticut towns in the manner that a public high school would, and therefore it must release all of its financial records under the Connecticut Freedom of Information Act.

In 1990 the school was planning to end Latin classes due to a lack of interest and the idea that students should study modern languages.

In 2012 the school was trying to recruit students from other regions of the United States and international students.

Governance and service area
The school is not within any school district and is not controlled by any municipality; therefore it describes itself as an "independent school." The Connecticut State Department of Education does not list Woodstock in its list of non-public schools and therefore considers Woodstock to be a "public school" because the state of Connecticut oversees the school. In 2006 Shane, Navratil, and Co., a financial auditor, described the school as private. Woodstock Academy is also independently funded by student tuition and a growing endowment. Woodstock is a member of the Connecticut Association of Boards of Education and the Connecticut Association of Independent Schools. The New England Association of Schools & Colleges, Incorporated accredits The Woodstock Academy as an "independent school".

A 1997 Hartford Courant article described the school as "a quasi- private, independent school", and another called it a "private school". A 1990 Worcester Telegram & Gazette article described the school as "a privately endowed secondary school incorporated by the state to act as the town's public high". The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) categorizes Woodstock as public.

The school serves the towns of Woodstock, Eastford, Pomfret, Canterbury, Union, and Brooklyn. As of 1980 it is the only secondary school that serves the town of Woodstock. In 1980 the Associated Press stated that the school serves the three towns in a manner that a public high school would. The school is funded by student tuition, whether the tuition is paid by sending towns or individual families. In 1980 the Associated Press said that The Academy is "incorporated like a private school but functions like a public school." A board of thirty individuals from the region operates the school. The Connecticut Supreme Court in 1980 supported a decision from a lower court that the school has an obligation to release records to the public due to its function as a public school.

Facilities
Woodstock Academy has boarding facilities. The historic Woodstock Academy Classroom Building was constructed in 1873 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
 * 1) Woodstock Academy – North Campus, 57 Academy Road, Woodstock, CT 06281
 * 2) Woodstock Academy – South Campus, 150 Route 169, Woodstock, CT 06281
 * 3) Woodstock Academy – Bentley Athletic Complex, 423 Route 169, Woodstock, CT 06281

It was announced in October 2016 that Woodstock Academy would purchase the nearby 127 acre Hyde School campus for $15 million. The funds were loaned from the federal government, with the loan from the Rural Development Program of the United States Department of Agriculture. Acquisition of the site, originally the campus of Annhurst College, was completed in 2017.

The school established a bus system between the two campuses and lengthened periods between classes. The South Campus is 2.2 mi from the North Campus. The purchase gave the school the three dormitories: it had plans to increase the number of dormitory students in a gradual manner based upon whether the numbers of zoned students decrease.

Demographics
In 2017 its enrollment was 1,050, with 94 of them categorized as international students.

Notable alumni and faculty

 * Henry Chandler Bowen, businessman, philanthropist, and newspaper publisher in New York City; original owner of Roseland Cottage in Woodstock
 * Augustus Sabin Chase (1828–1896), industrialist in Waterbury
 * Ernest Haskell, artist and illustrator
 * William L. Marcy, U.S. Senator, Governor of New York, U.S. Secretary of War, U.S. Secretary of State; negotiator of the Gadsden Purchase
 * Tre Mitchell, basketball player
 * James W. Patterson, U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator from New Hampshire
 * Ebenezer Stoddard, U.S. Representative from Connecticut
 * Theodore Stowell, president of Bryant University
 * Alexander Warner, Union Army officer, banker, planter, and Republican politician
 * Warren Wheaton, philanthropist, co-founder and namesake of Wheaton College and Wheaton, Illinois

title: Woodstock Academy


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Template:2018 films

Note on the use of this template
This template is intended for use in the film lists ONLY to connect specific year lists by country together. It should NOT be used in any articles on films of this year or related works.

title: Template:2018 films


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Tušanj City Stadium

The Tušanj City Stadium (Gradski stadion Tušanj), commonly known as Tušanj Stadium (Stadion Tušanj) is a multi-purpose stadium in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is used mostly for football matches and is the home ground of FK Sloboda Tuzla and FK Tuzla City. The stadium has a capacity of around 7,200 seated.

International matches
On 4 September 2014, it hosted a friendly match of Bosnia and Herzegovina against Liechtenstein and finished with the result 3–0.

title: Tušanj City Stadium


text:
Conworld/Philosophy

Why make a conworld?
Why do people conworld? Why do people conlang? People go about doing these things for very different reasons, and not surprisingly, the results can also be widely different.

Some people micromanage when they conworld. They draw detailed maps of plate tectonics and then synchronize these with enormous evolutionary trees; they derive meticulously all of their languages from common ancestor languages, tweaking every single irregular verb; their maps are covered with carefully shaded mountainsides and hydrologically plausible drainage systems. For these people, that final satisfaction of everything fitting together perfectly is where the fun lies. But others disagree; their continents are broad strokes of geometrical wonder that utterly defy geological explanation; their flora and fauna are wondrously improbable; their forests are enchanted with magical beings. How did these magical beings originate? Who cares? For what is the fun of conworlding if you can't have some freedom?

Some people willingly and deliberately inject ideas from the real world into their conworld, using their conworld as a kind of test bed for political and philosophical theory (what if an anarchist society existed in ancient times or subjective idealism had practical implications for technology?). People may feel passionately about a real-world culture, or philosophy, and they reflect it into their conworld, when their nations, perhaps, come to resemble greatly those of Medieval Europe, or Arabia, or the Mayans. But others want to create something that is utterly new and completely unlike anything that has ever existed. To them, the real world is boring — and it's what's in your mind that's really unique and interesting!

Some people make their conworlds utopias. Their political beliefs are reflected in their conworlds; all of their citizens are happy, productive, prosperous members of what they think would be a perfect society. Along a similar vein, some people make their conlangs poetic and melodic, their conreligions noble and benevolent. But there are others who take on a more realist, even pessimistic view. These people have conworlds filled with slavery, poverty, lawlessness, and war; their conlangs are quirky, if not downright unpleasant; their conreligions initiate bloody conquests and massacres. And what kind of conworld itself constitutes a utopia is as varied as the religious and political beliefs of the utopians who create these conworlds: a world bordering on the modern and futuristic with beeping electronic technology and commerce and endless entertainment; a medieval world in whose Chain of Being everyone lives beneath a Good King figure; an anarchy; a realization of Christian ideals or Sharia; a peaceful, pastel-colored butterfly-inhabited island where there are no wars; a working model of Communism in which citizens greet their comrades; a theocracy below a God Emperor with tight gender roles into which everyone neatly and dutifully falls to please their ancestors.

Some people conworld for another, different purpose. They are perhaps hosting a role-playing game and need to construct a background with richness and detail; perhaps they are writing a novel and need some place to set it; or perhaps the conworlds exist for the very purpose of expositing their conception of a utopia. And then there are others to whom the conworld itself is the purpose. To them, the creation is the conworld; if they do eventually turn it into the setting of a novel, then the novel is merely an exposition of the great masterpiece behind it — the conworld.

title: Conworld/Philosophy


text:
Template:Did you know nominations/Samantha Reid (synchronized swimmer)

Samantha Reid (synchronized swimmer)

 * ... that 2012 Olympic synchronized swimmer Samantha Reid played hockey and volleyball in high school?
 * Reviewed: List of San Marino international footballers

Created/expanded by LauraHale (talk), Frietjes (talk). Nominated by LauraHale (talk) at 21:32, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Symbol confirmed.svg Meets all the criteria, although I'd like to suggest an Alt which is a little deceptive... Alt1:... that 2012 Olympic synchronized swimmer Samantha Reid is a "Mermaid"? Miyagawa   (talk)  21:43, 13 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Given the contortions necessary to accommodate the large supply of Olympics hooks, I'm feeling the need to look closely at the articles and hooks. Reid is a second-time Olympian, but the article seems "thin" on interesting content. If we take away the repetition of the fact that she's a synchronized swimmer (yes, it's OK for the lead to duplicate content from the article body, but readers may perceive it as repetitive) and trivia like "In 2008 at the Springwood Aquatic Centre, she gave a talk to young swimmers about her Olympic experience" and "In December 2008, she went on holiday to Hong Kong", there isn't a lot left. (Recitation of point totals and ranks in different named competitions doesn't seem like good prose...) --Orlady (talk) 21:03, 1 August 2012 (UTC)

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ


text:
Cardinals created by Pius XI

In sixteen years, Pope Pius XI ((r. 1922 – 1939)) created 76 cardinals in 17 consistories. Though he created 18 cardinals at a consistory in 1935, he typically created very few cardinals at one time, holding small, frequent consistories, some of them less than six months apart. He held a consistory in 1929 to create just one cardinal, and created just two on eight occasions.

Of his appointments to the College of Cardinals, 43 were Italians. He appeared to strive to maintain an equilibrium between Italians and non-Italians and two of his consistories produced an equal division between the two groups, in March 1924 and December 1927. Non-Italians formed a majority of the college for several months in 1925 and again from 1928 to 1933. This balance reflected concerns about the independence of the Holy See and Italy during Benedict's papacy, and their new relationship established with the Lateran Treaty in 1929.

At its largest during his papacy, in December 1935, the college had 68 members, two short of the maximum size of 70 set by Pope Sixtus V in 1586. In 1927, he accepted a cardinal's resignation, the only one to occur in the 20th century. The cardinals he created included one future pope, Pope Pius XII.

11 December 1922
Pius created eight cardinals at his first consistory, which six of them attended. Reig, Archbishop of Toledo, received his red hat from the King of Spain, and Locatelli, Papal Nuncio to Portugal, from the President of the Portuguese Republic. In the case of Reig y Casanova, a widower, Pius ignored the rule established in 1585 by Pope Sixtus V that no one who had been married could be made a cardinal. Father Ehrle, a Jesuit who had served as Vatican Archivist for several years, initially declined the honor, but relented after a private meeting with Pius.

23 May 1923
Pius added two Italian cardinals on 23 May 1923.

20 December 1923
Pius created two Italian cardinals on 20 December 1923, both longtime officials in the Roman Curia.

24 March 1924
Pius named a pair of American archbishops cardinals on 24 March 1924. This brought the membership of the College of Cardinals to a total of 66, 33 Italians and 33 non-Italians: seven French, seven German, four American, four Spanish, two English, two Polish, and one each of Belgian, Hungarian, Irish, Portuguese, Brazilian, Dutch, and Canadian.

30 March 1925
Pius named a pair of Spanish archbishops cardinals on 30 March 1925. Both received their red birettas in Madrid from King Alfonso in a ceremony that included an address by the King in Latin.

The previous consistory had left the college with 33 Italians and 33 non-Italians. The deaths of the Irish Michael Logue on 19 November and the Italian Oreste Giorgi on 24 December maintained that balance. This consistory gave the non-Italians a majority of 34 to 32.

14 December 1925
Pius named four cardinals on 14 December 1925, three Italians (two diplomats and a curia official), and an Irish archbishop. He made an exception to the 1917 Code of Canon Law that prohibited cardinals from being closely related to one another. The new cardinal Enrico Gasparri was the nephew of Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri.

The previous consistory had left the non-Italians with a 34 to 32 majority that had fallen by one with the death of Canadian Louis-Nazaire Bégin on 18 July 1925. This consistory restored the Italian majority once again.

21 June 1926
Pius named two new cardinals on 21 June 1926, both Italian curia officials.

20 December 1926
On 6 December 1926, Pius announced he would create two cardinals at a consistory on 20 December. Both were Italians, one the Bishop of Turin and the other a papal nuncio.

20 June 1927
On 2 May 1927, Pius announced he would create two cardinals at a consistory on 20 June. Both were Archbishops, one Belgian and one Polish.

19 December 1927
At this consistory Pius announced that he had accepted the resignation of French Jesuit theologian Louis Billot from the College of Cardinals, as reported in September. It was the only resignation from the college in the 20th century. Pius X had named him a cardinal in 1911.

With the creation of five non-Italian cardinals at this consistory, the college again reached a numerical balance with 33 Italians and 33 non-Italians.

15 July 1929
The deaths of several Italians altered the balance in the college by 31 March 1929 to 26 Italians and 33 non-Italians. It was rumored that Pius would appoint more non-Italians once the Holy See reached an agreement with the government of Italy about the legal status of the Vatican City State. Pius named Alfredo Schuster, an Italian of German-Swiss heritage, Archbishop of Milan and made him a cardinal on 15 July 1929.

16 December 1929
In advance of this consistory, New York Times correspondent Arnaldo Coresi speculated whether Pius would restore an Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in deference to Italian sensibilities following the ratification of the Lateran Treaty between Italy and the Holy See earlier in the year which the election of a non-Italian pope might disturb. The contrary argument was that creating a non-Italian majority in the college would demonstrate papal independence and allay fears that the Treaty gave Italy undue influence in Church affairs. Pius divided his appointments evenly: three from Italy, and one each from France, Ireland, and Portugal. The consistory left the Italians in the minority, with 30 out of 63 members.

30 June 1930
At this consistory Pius made three Italian officials of the Roman Curia, a Brazilian archbishop, and a French bishop cardinals. It left the college balanced between 31 Italians and 32 non-Italians.

13 March 1933
After creating cardinals at thirteen consistories in less than eight years, Pius waited longer than ever before to hold his next consistory in March 1933, more than two years and eight months. He nevertheless brought the membership of the college from 52 to just 58 by naming six cardinals: four Italians, an Austrian, and a Canadian. This gave the Italians a majority in College for the first time in several years. Pius announced he was making two additional prelates cardinals but withheld their names, which the press speculated meant they were too important in their present posts to be transferred from positions not normally held by a cardinal.

16 December 1935
On 21 November 1935, Pope Pius named 18 prelates he planned to make cardinals at a consistory on 16 December. Thirteen were Italians and five came from other countries. One of them was the first Eastern Rite patriarch to enter the college since 1895. It was the first consistory to create as many as 18 cardinals since Pius X did so in 1911. Pius also revealed the names of two he added secretly in 1933. Four of the new cardinals, papal nuncios unable to attend the ceremony, participated in the next reception of new cardinals in June 1936. As was traditional for the Apostolic Nuncio to Spain, Tedeschini, created in pectore at the previous consistory, received his red biretta from Spanish President Alcalá Zaomora, head of "one of the most officially anti-clerical nations in the world". With this consistory the college grew to 68 members, 37 of them Italians.

15 June 1936
Both new cardinals had spent years in various positions at the Vatican Library, where Pius himself had worked early in his career.

13 December 1937
Pius' health had been so poor that on 21 December 1936 the U.S. weekly magazine Life published picture of the 66 cardinals then living with the advice: "Disregard non-Italians and old men: somewhere among the others is the face of the next Pope." A year later, Pius reminded those assembled at a consistory held in December 1937 that it might be his last. With the appointment of 3 Italians and 2 non-Italians at his last consistory, Pius increased the Italians to 39 out of 60 members of the College of Cardinals.

title: Cardinals created by Pius XI


text:
Stanford Cardinal football statistical leaders

The Stanford Cardinal football statistical leaders are individual statistical leaders of the Stanford Cardinal football program in various categories, including passing, rushing, receiving, total offense, all-purpose yardage, defensive stats, and kicking. Within those areas, the lists identify single-game, single-season, and career leaders. As of the upcoming 2024 season, the Cardinal represent Stanford University in the NCAA Division I FBS Atlantic Coast Conference.

Although Stanford began competing in intercollegiate football in 1891, the school's official record book generally does not lists players from before the 1940s, as records from before this year are often incomplete and inconsistent.

These lists are dominated by more recent players for several reasons:
 * Since the 1940s, seasons have increased from 10 games to 11 and then 12 games in length.
 * The NCAA didn't allow freshmen to play varsity football until 1972 (with the exception of the World War II years), allowing players to have four-year careers.
 * Bowl games only began counting toward single-season and career statistics in 2002. Stanford has played in a bowl game 10 times since this decision, allowing players in these years (2009 through 2017) an extra game to accumulate statistics.
 * The Pac-12 Conference, in which Stanford competed from 1919 to 2023, held a championship game from 2011 until that conference's effective demise after the 2023 season. Stanford appeared in that game four times. Similarly, the ACC has held its own championship game since 2015, giving future Stanford teams a chance for another extra game.
 * The top nine seasons in Stanford history in both total offensive yards and points scored have all come since 1999.

These lists are updated through the end of the 2020 season.

Total offense
Total offense is the sum of passing and rushing statistics. It does not include receiving or returns.

All-purpose yardage
All-purpose yardage is the sum of all yards credited to a player who is in possession of the ball. It includes rushing, receiving, and returns, but does not include passing.

Statistics are from the 2018 Stanford football record book, and will be updated if necessary to reflect results from the 2018 season. The record book lists only the top six single-game performers.


text:
шара

Etymology

 * 1) From, compare 🇨🇬 and 🇨🇬. 🇨🇬.
 * 2) Akin to 🇨🇬, compare 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Adjective

 * 1) yellow
 * 2) heartburn

Noun

 * 1) big bowl
 * 2)  orbit

Etymology 2
From.

Noun

 * 1) measure, means

Noun

 * 1) pattern, design

Verb

 * 1)  to color, make colorful, give a pattern

Etymology
.

Noun

 * 1) pattern
 * 2) design
 * 3) color

title: шара


text:
Talk:Altar cloth

An altar cloth is not a concept unique to Wiccans or neopagans. The article should be renamed, expanded to include all common uses, or deleted. Fuzzypeg 01:38, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

I did my best to update it, but I do admit a lack of working knowledge about Judaism and Islam, so this article is still very one-sided. I did expand it quite a bit and tried to correct some of the biased text. Farasha 01:56, 26 March 2006 (CST)

This article seems to be more in need of cleanup (AKA expansion), than copyediting. The grammar itself isn't that bad.Fisheromen 01:22, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

I added a POV tag because the article still seems to lean heavily toward neo-pagan religions. (The colors, for example, are presented primarily in the context of Wicca.) Isn't there a Wikipedia rule that majority positions (religions like Christianity and Islam) should come before minority positions (like Wicca and possibly Judaism)?Grushenkaman 13:12, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

The majority of the article seems devoted to colour symbolism (particularly from a magical perspective). Colour sympolism is not primarily (or even mainly) the domain of the altar-cloth. There are coloured candles, robes, cords, other tools, flowers, meditations, in fact, anything the heart could conceive of or the brain devise. So I suggest all the discussion of colour go somewhere else. I don't know where... Fuzzypeg 09:41, 20 April 2006 (UTC)

I've just added in some references and some new material, specifically, Buddism, Judaism, other Christian denominations. Please feel free to change things you don't like. Baudoin 01:31, 19 July 2006 (UTC) 18 July 2006

Merge with Altar linens?
Any reason this page and Altar Linens shouldn't be merged? The Editrix 15:03, 13 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I see no reason whatsoever. I would suggest that "Altar cloth" is the more common term, just from reading through the Altar Linens article where the term "cloth" is used several times. When doing the merge I would preferably do away with most of the "colour symbolism" section, which I find to be virtually without value. See my previous comments on this page for more info about this. Fuzzypeg ☻ 04:14, 15 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't see any reason not to merge unless Altar Linens is a sacred term within the context of the Catholic church. Otherwise both usages can be taken care of here, and the non-capitalized term should be favored. -- nae'blis (talk) 16:03, 5 July 2006 (UTC)
 * The articles have now been merged. It had been almost a month, with no objections at either article. We do need sources, however, badly. -- nae'blis (talk) 21:04, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Wicca/neopaganism

 * I've just removed the section on colour symbolism, which happened to be the last remaining section relating to Wicca or neopaganism. While colour symbolism is employed by many, there is no common tradition that mandates this. Basically, people have whatever colour, pattern, and material they feel looks nice or sets the right mood. Or else they just choose some nice piece of cloth that will look OK and prevent getting wax stains on the mahogany. Choices in terms of colour, material and form are made for any ritual tool or furnishing, just as they are in any other religion. I would suspect in fact that Wicca prescribes much less along these lines than most of the more organised religions.
 * What has probably happened here is that some (non-representative) author has published their own prescription of colours for altar-cloths, which has been repeated here. Many books purporting to be about Wicca present the author's own innovations more than any widespread or traditional Wiccan practice.
 * Now I'm not convinced that the altar-cloth is such an important item in Wicca or neopaganism that these religions need their own section. There are no widespread traditions surrounding it - it is not mentioned in any traditional writings. It is decorative and functional, and anything beyond that will come down to the ideosynchrasies of different working covens. Other tools have particular symbolic importance; the altar-cloth does not. Fuzzypeg ☻ 05:34, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I think we should have some mention of neopagan altar cloths, even if it's just to state that there's no standardized system, except for some rough color correspondances. A sourced statement would be best, perhaps from Cunningham's book for Solitaries? I think I gave mine away... -- nae'blis (talk) 19:34, 13 July 2006 (UTC)
 * P.S. Statements about pre-Christian usage of cloths on altars would be nice as well, for context. I'll see if I can find anything on Roman/Egyptian systems...

 * Ok, looking at the article now, Wicca seems to be an afterthought-- I was shocked to read on the talk page that it began as a neopagan article! Even the Buddhists get a short section, why is EVERYTHING gone from wicca? Kuronue 19:33, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

I know that this is a 6 year old thread, but the current Wicca section doesn't contribute anything to the article and is unsourced. I believe it should be deleted. Andrew (talk) 08:05, 30 December 2012 (UTC)

This article could really use a section on pagan and pre-christian altar cloths provided a source can be found for that information. Alkingl (talk) 21:24, 6 May 2020 (UTC)

Images

 * This image can be uploaded as it is under a free license; good example of a different decoration style
 * This image is also under a free license; example of offerings on a brightly-coloured cloth.

-

I noticed the article was sadly lacking in this respect... I'll leave the placement of images up to the people who are working on this page (as you will know more which are needed and where to place them than I) but I took the liberty of looking up some possibly helpful ones for you.

As these are generally images of the altars and not specifically the cloths upon them, they may need cropping to make them more useful for the article; just let me know which ones you'd like cropped and I'll take care of it for you. I can also upload the flickr images to Commons and post them here when done if they are at all useful. Cheers, — E ditor at  L arge  ( speak )  01:21, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Altar cloth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060810230011/http://www.trinityepiscopalonline.org/glossary-a.htm to http://www.trinityepiscopalonline.org/glossary-a.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091222014039/http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=714 to http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=714
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070520020144/http://www.stpaulmelb.com/altarguild.html to http://www.stpaulmelb.com/altarguild.html

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 13:24, 8 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Altar cloth


text:
Wikipedia:Suspected copyright violations/2015-02-08

2015-02-08 (Suspected copyright violations)

 * — http://www.jobsinmedicalglobal.com/~jobsinmedical/company/126/Call-The-Doctor/. CSBot reporting at 00:45, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.hemispherx.net/content/products/. CSBot reporting at 01:01, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.igoterra.com/artspec.asp?thingid=74067. CSBot reporting at 01:07, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Source is a Wikipedia mirror, doesn't seem to have been copied from elsewhere on Wikipedia.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

 * — Ritsumeikanuji junior and senior high school. CSBot reporting at 01:18, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Cut-and-paste move with trivial edit history.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

 * — http://goindietv.com/page/meettheteam. CSBot reporting at 03:26, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxontree/id55597/. CSBot reporting at 03:43, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Pictogram voting support.svg No copyright concern. Material PD or appropriately licensed for use. List of insect species within a genus, doesn't qualify for copyright.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://simsapa.com/en/meditation/zen-master/236-the-enlightened-master-thich-thong-lac.html. CSBot reporting at 04:04, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — https://soundcloud.com/etceterapsy. CSBot reporting at 04:25, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Pictogram voting keep.svg Article cleaned by investigator or others. No remaining infringement.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/d4a78.html. CSBot reporting at 04:33, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Pictogram voting support.svg No copyright concern. Material PD or appropriately licensed for use. List of people who have held religious offices.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://wn.com/Tikiri_Bandara_Panabokke. CSBot reporting at 04:59, 8 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Pictogram voting keep.svg Article cleaned by investigator or others. No remaining infringement.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://phys.org/news/2013-03-swift-chandra-explore-youthful-star.html. CSBot reporting at 05:18, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://artsouthampton.gallerist.com/artist/view/1329/cathy-mcclure/. CSBot reporting at 06:35, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.spoonful.sg/content/chef-angelo-ciccone-regent-singapore%E2%80%99s-executive-sous-chef. CSBot reporting at 07:29, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Henry_Peacham. CSBot reporting at 09:23, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Article split, no copyright concern. Added more explicit attribution.  Hut 8.5  22:58, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

 * — http://me-angelandferdaous.blogspot.com/2015/01/muslim-scholars-view-paris-attack.html. CSBot reporting at 10:24, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://kunjungin.com/iklan/61246/servie-kompor-gas-jakarta-dan-sekitarnya.html. CSBot reporting at 11:05, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.indiamart.com/shreeshanmuga-engineering-works/. CSBot reporting at 11:22, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://www.metromasti.com/page/biography/21525. CSBot reporting at 12:07, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — https://www.orangebikes.co.uk/dealers/yorkshire-humber/all-terrain-cycles/saltaire/. CSBot reporting at 12:09, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * — http://vimeo.com/67637551. CSBot reporting at 12:22, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
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 * — Henry l brandon. CSBot reporting at 13:55, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
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text:
Lionel Wilson (rugby union)

Lionel Geoffrey Wilson (25 May 1933 – 17 September 2017) was a South African rugby union player who played 27 tests for the Springboks. He made his debut against the All Blacks on 13 August 1960 in the Union of South Africa. The match ended in a draw 11-11. He played in 60 games for Western Province.

Wilson was born to Billy and Doris Wilson in Cape Town, he was their second child. He grew up in Plumstead and Wynberg and attended Wynberg Boys' High School. He was married to Pam Walker. He emigrated to New Zealand in 1976, he returned to South Africa before moving back again to New Zealand.

He died on 17 September 2017 at his home in Napier, New Zealand.

title: Lionel Wilson (rugby union)


text:
Hofkapelle Stuttgart

Hofkapelle Stuttgart, historically the Württemberg Hofkapelle is a German orchestra based in Stuttgart which has existed since the 16th century. It was the band of the House of Württemberg. Since 2002, it is an orchestra founded by Frieder Bernius to play Baroque music in historically informed performance.

In 1617 it consisted of 50 "excellent singers" and was affiliated with the royal chamber music ensemble. In 1699, eleven "Kapellknaben" (chapel boys) performed. From 1736 to 1750, the chapel made singers and Kapellknaben available for opera performances, the chapel choir was transformed to the opera choir, while an orchestra took the name Hofkapelle.

In 1818, Johann Nepomuk Hummel introduced subscription concerts, promoting the development of the orchestra to a modern symphony orchestra.

History
The Hofkapelle (court chapel) of Württemberg was established in 1496 by Duke Eberhard II for the playing of religious music at court. At that time, it was made up by a boys' choir and vocal and musical instrumentalists.

In 1498, Eberhard II was deposed by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor at the request of the Estates of Württemberg, and the Hofkapelle was suspended. He was replaced as Duke with his nephew, Ulrich. Ulrich reestablished the Hofkapelle, but also opened a school for the boys' choir and lavished money on benefices for the Hofkapelle's members. This and other extravagant expenditures and Ulrich's methods of supporting them made him extremely unpopular. He was expelled in 1519 by the military might of the Swabian League, who then sold the Duchy of Württemberg to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Hofkapelle continued to play at court while the Duchy was controlled by the House of Habsburg.

Hofkapelle Stuttgart
In 2002, conductor Frieder Bernius founded an orchestra to play Baroque music in historically informed performance and took the historic name.

Hofkapellmeister
Notable musicians and directors of the Hofkapelle Stuttgart were:
 * 1552–1554 Sigmund Hemmel (from 1544 tenor, later until his death in 1565 as composer)
 * 1572–1589 Ludwig Daser
 * 1589–1594 Balduin Hoyoul (from 1561 "Diskantist", from 1565 altus and composer)
 * 1594–1606 Leonhard Lechner (from c. 1585 tenor)
 * 1621–1637 Basilius Froberger (father of Johann Jakob Froberger)
 * 1657–1665 Samuel Capricornus
 * 1700v1704 Johann Sigismund Kusser
 * 1706–1716 Johann Christoph Pez ("Oberkapellmeister")
 * 1717–1737 Giuseppe Antonio Brescianello
 * 1738–1744 Johann Daniel Hardt, Oberkapellmeister
 * 1744–1755 Giuseppe Antonio Brescianello (again)
 * 1750–1753 Ignaz Holzbauer, Oberkapellmeister
 * 1753–1768 Niccolò Jommelli (also opera composer for the court)
 * 1770–1777 Antonio Boroni
 * 1779–1781 Ferdinando Mazzanti
 * 1783–1792 Agostino Poli
 * ?–1796 Johann Georg Distler (1781–1796 at the Hofkapelle, finally as "Kapelldirektor"
 * 1792–1802 Johann Rudolph Zumsteeg (1781–1791 as cellist)
 * 1803–1806? Johann Friedrich Kranz
 * 1806–1808 Justin Heinrich Knecht
 * 1807–1812 Franz Danzi
 * 1812–1816 Conradin Kreutzer
 * 1816–1818 Johann Nepomuk Hummel
 * 1819–1856 Peter Joseph von Lindpaintner
 * 1851–1861 Friedrich Wilhelm Kücken
 * 1861–1867? Karl Anton Eckert
 * 1865–1898 Karl Doppler
 * 1867–1888 Johann Joseph Abert (1853–1867 as double bassist)
 * 1888–1891? Paul Klengel
 * 1891–1895 Hermann Zumpe
 * 1895–1900 Aloys Obrist
 * 1898–1903 Hugo Reichenberger
 * 1900–1907 Karl Pohlig
 * c. 1904? Schinte
 * 1905–1908? Erich Band
 * until 1908 Matthäus Pitteroff
 * 1908–1918 Max von Schillings (Generalmusikdirektor)

Musicians

 * Philipp Friedrich Böddecker (seit 1639)
 * Johann Michael Nicolai (1655–1685 violinist)
 * Pietro Nardini (1763–1765 concert master)
 * Josef Rudolf Lewy (1819–1826 hornist and violist)
 * Wenzel Neukirchner (1829–1889 bassoonist)
 * Carl Maria von Weber (1806–1807 artistic director)
 * Ludwig Abeille (from 1802 concert master, 1815 court organist)
 * Joseph Huber (from 1865 violinist and composer)
 * Hugo Wehrle, from 1868 for 30 years Musikdirektor, with Edmund Singer

title: Hofkapelle Stuttgart


text:
Pomology/Tropical and subtropical pomology I

Tropical and Subtropical Pomology I is a subject which includes lessons covering fruit production and marketing of the most important fruits of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In total it consists of 12 lessons which are not only focusing fruit production, but also basics to pomology, fruit propagation and harvesting. The lessons are designed on the easier level with projects. It allows undergraduate students to study this subject with no difficulty and get in touch with it by working on the project.

Overview
Subject name: Tropical and Subtropical Pomology I Code: TaSP1DPSAEW University: English Wikiversity School: School of Agriculture Division: Department: Department of Pomology Language: English No. of lessons: 12 No. of students: not limited Status: in preparation

Aim of the subject
The aim of the subject is to give a theoretical overview of the main tropical and subtropical fruits processed and soled on the worlds markets. There is also a need to develop study materials and maintain them by adding new stuff. After passing this subject students might have a good theoretical knowledge upon the fruit production of the main taxa and able to continue on the deeper (graduate level) studying of this subject or move to Tropical and Subtropical Pomology II.

Subject organization
This subject consists of 12 lessons. Each lesson is mentioned for one week. Students can start to study whenever they want, but it is highly recommended for them to pass the lessons in the numerical order. When studying a lesson they can discuss with other student and/or the teacher upon the misunderstandings which they have or upon other related points. Each student will also get a Subject work, it mean a topic to write something. This writing exercise will be four all 12 month. On the end participants are tested by a questionar and simple questions prepared by a teacher.

Syllabus

 * lessons:
 * 1) Introduction and data sources
 * 2) Fruit and its importance
 * 3) Methods of propagations and treatments to fruit crops
 * 4) Banana production
 * 5) Pineapple production
 * 6) Passion Fruit production
 * 7) Papaya production
 * 8) Mango production
 * 9) Avocado production
 * 10) Citrus production
 * 11) Actinidia production
 * 12) Date production
 * 13) Machinery of the most important tropical and subtropical fruits

People
Please add in your user name if you are interested in studying this subject. Ones you are in here, teachers can give you study activities. Please add in your user name if you are able to facilitate this subject. Ones written in here, other people will know who can lead them and who can help them.

NOTE: all activities in this subject are not compulsory, they are recommended. Location is the place where you live. By filling up this box you can help instructor to understand your access to the materials. It helps to the instructor to give a different care to these students.

Subject consequence
Students will study with less difficulty if they will have a basic knowledge of Systematic Botany, Morphology of Plants and Wikipedia Editing. They can continue in Tropical and Subtropical Pomology II.

Community help
If there will be any problems, students might ask and/or discuss them with other students and/or users on the appropriate lesson page or via discussion page of the teachers.

Internet

 * Tropical and Subtropical Pomology - a study material of the English Wikiversity
 * Category:Horiculture of the English Wikipedia
 * GRIN taxonomy - taxonomical database of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
 * GRIN taxonomy - taxonomical database of the U.S. Department of Agriculture


text:
Carolyn Comitta

Carolyn Comitta is an American politician, educator and financial officer. A Democrat, she is a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate representing the 19th district. Previously, Comitta was the first woman to serve as Mayor of West Chester, the seat of Chester County, Pennsylvania, and served two terms in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives representing the 156th district.

Early life and education
Comitta was born in Buffalo, New York, and her family moved to West Goshen when she was 2 years old, where she has lived ever since. Comitta received her BS in Education from West Chester University (then West Chester State College) in 1974, and her M.Ed. from Widener University in 1989.

Professional career
From the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, Comitta worked in the Octorara Area School District as a special and gifted education curriculum specialist and teacher. Since 1988, she has been a member of the Board of Directors of World Information Transfer, Inc., a non-profit, non-governmental educational organization focused on health- and environment-related issues.

She is the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer of her husband's firm, Thomas Comitta Associates, Town Planners and Landscape Architects.

West Chester Borough Council
Comitta was first elected to the West Chester Borough Council in 2005, taking-over the Fifth Ward seat vacated by incumbent Democratic Councilwoman Barbara McIlvaine Smith. While on Council, she served as chair of the Borough Council's Public Safety Committee, and also chaired the Planning Zoning, Business & Industrial Development Committee. She also served as a member of the Parks, Recreation and Environmental Protection Committee, as well as the Finance Committee.

Mayor of West Chester
She sought the office of Borough Mayor in 2009, and defeated Councilman Bill Scott in the Democratic primary. She was elected unopposed in the fall general election, and took office the following January. In succeeding the term-limited incumbent Mayor, Republican Dick Yoder, Comitta became West Chester's first ever female Mayor, and its first Democratic Mayor since 1992.

Pennsylvania House of Representatives
On January 7, 2016, Comitta announced her intent to run for the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in the 156th District, challenging incumbent Dan Truitt. After a lengthy recount, she was declared the winner over Truitt by 25 votes on December 16, 2016.

On November 6, 2018, Comitta won re-election against Republican challenger Nicholas Deminski by a margin of 13 points or 4,108 votes.

In 2020, Comitta sought re-election to her House seat and was unopposed in the Democratic primary. She ended her House campaign in June 2020 to focus on her Senate campaign and was replaced on the ballot by West Chester mayor Dianne Herrin.

Pennsylvania State Senate
In February 2020, State Senator Andy Dinniman announced his retirement at the end of his term. Dinniman's retirement as considered surprising as he had been preparing for a re-election campaign for a fourth term and petitioning had already begun. The day after Dinniman's announcement, Comitta announced her campaign for the Pennsylvania State Senate in the 19th District. In a three-way Democratic primary against Dinniman's longtime aide Don Vymazal and local school board member Kyle Boyer, Dinniman endorsed Vymazal, while Comitta was endorsed by Governor Tom Wolf and several labor unions. After Pennsylvania delayed their primary to June 2 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Comitta won the primary with nearly 51% of the vote.

In the general election, Comitta defeated Republican Kevin Runey with 57.43% of the vote.

Personal life
Comitta and her husband, Tom, have two grown children. Tom Comitta is a Planner and Landscape Architect.

title: Carolyn Comitta


text:
Biochemistry/Proteins/Protein structure and folding

What is protein folding?
Protein folding is commonly a fast or very fast process, often but not always reversible, taking no more than a few milliseconds to occur. It can be viewed as a complex compromise between the different chemical interactions that can happen between the amino acid sidechains, the amidic backbone and the solvent. There are literally millions of possible three-dimensional configurations, often with minimal energetic differences between them. That's why we're still almost unable to predict the folding of a given polypeptide chain ab initio.Protein folding problem is that scientist still has failed to crack the code that governs folding. Moreover, the ability of biological polymers such as protein fold into well-defined structures is remarkable thermodynamically. An unfolded polymer exists are random coils, each copy of an unfolded polymers will have different conformation, yielding a mixture of many possible conformation.

Folding depends only on primary structure
In 1954 Christian Anfinsen demonstrated that the folding of a protein in a given environment depends only on its primary structure - the amino acid sequence. This conclusion was by no means obvious, given the complexity of the folding process and the paucity of biochemical knowledge at the time. The process of folding often begins co-translationally, so that the N-terminus of the protein begins to fold while the C-terminal portion of the protein is still being synthesized by the ribosome. Specialized proteins called chaperones assist in the folding of other proteins. Meanwhile, protein folding is a thermodynamically driven process: that is, proteins fold by reaching their thermodynamically most stable structure. The path followed by the protein in the potential energy landscape is far from obvious, however. Many local and non-local interactions take part in the process, and the space of possible structures is enormous. As of today molecular dynamics simulations are giving invaluable hints on the first stages of the folding process. It is known now that the unfolded state still retains key long-range interactions and that the local propensity of the sequence to fold in a given secondary structure element narrow the "search" in the so-called conformational space. This seems to mean that biological proteins somehow evolved to properly fold. In fact, many random amino acid sequences only acquire ill-defined structures (molten globules) or no structure at all.

There are some general rules, however. Hydrophobic amino acids will tend to be kept inside the structure, with little or no contact with the surrounding water; conversely, polar or charged amino acids will be often exposed to solvent. Very long proteins will often fold in various distinct modules, instead of in a single large structure.

The Ramachandran plot
The Ramachandran plot was invented by professor G.N.Ramachandran, a very eminent scientist from India. He discovered the triple helix structure of collagen in 1954 a year after the double helix structure was put forth. In a polypeptide the main chain N-Calpha and Calpha-C bonds relatively are free to rotate. These rotations are represented by the torsion angles phi and psi, respectively.

G N Ramachandran used computer models of small polypeptides to systematically vary phi and psi with the objective of finding stable conformations. For each conformation, the structure was examined for close contacts between atoms. Atoms were treated as hard spheres with dimensions corresponding to their van der Waals radii. Therefore, phi and psi angles which cause spheres to collide correspond to sterically disallowed conformations of the polypeptide backbone

Intramolecular forces in protein folding
The tertiary structure is held together by hydrogen bonds, hydrophilic interactions, ionic interactions, and/or disulfide bonds.

The protein folding problem
The protein folding problem relates to what is known as the Levinthal paradox. Levinthal calculated that if a fairly small protein is composed of 100 amino acids and each amino acid residue has only 3 possible conformations (an underestimate) then the entire protein can fold into 3100-1 or 5x1047 possible conformations. Even if it takes only 10-13 of a second to try each conformation it would take 1027 years to try them all. Obviously a protein doesn't take that long to fold, so randomly trying out all possible conformations is not the way proteins fold. Since most proteins fold on a timescale of the order of milliseconds it is clear that the process is directed in some manner dependent on the constituents of the chain. The protein folding problem which has perplexed scientists for over thirty years is that of understanding how the tertiary structure of a protein is related to its primary structure, because it has been proven that the primary structure of a protein holds the only information necessary for the protein to fold. Ultimately the aim is also to be able to predict what pathway the protein will take.

Folding in extreme environments
Most proteins are not capable of maintaining their three-dimensional shape when they are exposed to environmental extremes such as a low or high pH, or a highly variable temperature.

Changes in the pH of the proteins environment may alter the charges on the amino acid side chains that form the whole protein, so that repulsive or attractive forces may form, altering the secondary and tertiary structure of the protein as a whole, as a result the shape of the enzyme is warped, and the now non-functional protein is said to be denatured.

A high or exceptionally low temperature can cause the constitutive bonds on the protein to be broken, again resulting in the protein being rendered non-functional.

It is important to note that certain proteins, mainly digestive enzymes such as trypsin, are capable of with-standing a pH as low as 1. If the pH of such an enzymes environment were to increase to approximately pH5, it would be inactivated.

Protein misfolding
The way that a protein folds is one of the most important factors influencing its properties, as this is what determines which active groups are exposed for interaction. If the protein misfolds, its properties can be markedly changed. One example of this is in Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies, such as BSE, and Scrapie. In these, the prion protein, which is involved in the brain's copper metabolism, misfolds, and starts forming plaques, which destroy brain tissue.

=Protein structural levels= Biochemists refer to four distinct aspects of a protein's structure:

Primary structure
Primary structure is practically a synonym of the amino acid sequence. It can also contain informations on amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Primary structure is typically written as a string of three letter sequences, each representing an amino acid. Peptides and proteins must have the correct sequence of amino acids.

Secondary structure
Secondary structure elements are elementary structural patterns that are present in most,if not all,known proteins. These are highly patterned sub-structures --alpha helix and beta sheet-- consisting of loops between elements or segments of polypeptide chain that assume no stable shape. Secondary structure elements, when mapped on the sequence and depicted in the relative position they have in respect to each other, define the topology of the protein. It is also relevant to note that hydrogen bonding between residues is the cause for secondary structure features; secondary structure is usually described to beginning biochemists as (almost) entirely independent of residue side-chain interactions.

Tertiary structure
Tertiary structure is the name given to refer to the overall shape of a single protein molecule. Although tertiary structure is sometimes described (especially to beginning biology and biochemistry students) as being a result of interactions between amino acid residue side chains, a more correct understanding of tertiary structure is the interactions between elements of secondary protein structure, i.e. alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets. Tertiary structure is often referred to as the "fold structure" of a protein, since it is the result of the complex three-dimensional interplay of other structural and environmental elements.

Super-tertiary structure (protein modules)
Some literature refers to elements of super-tertiary structure, which often refers to elements of folding that, for whatever reason, do not neatly fit into the category of tertiary structure. Often this level of distinction is saved for graduate level coursework. Protein denaturation can be a reversible or an irreversible process, i.e., it may be possible or impossible to make the protein regain its original spatial conformation.

Quaternary structure
Quaternary structure is the shape or structure that results from the union of more than one protein molecule, usually called subunit proteins subunits in this context, which function as part of the larger assembly or protein complex. And it refers to the regular association of two or more polypeptide chains to form a complex. A multi-subunit protein may be composed of two or more identical polypeptides, or it may include different polypeptides. Quaternary structure tends to be stabilized mainly by weak interactions between residues exposed on surfaces polypeptides within a complex.

=Secondary structure elements=

The alpha helix
The alpha helix is a periodic structure formed when main-chain atoms from residues spaced four residues apart hydrogen bond with one another. This gives rise to a helical structure, which in natural proteins is always right-handed. Each turn of the helix comprises 3.6 amino acids. Alpha helices are stiff, rod-like structures which are found in many unrelated proteins. One feature of these structures is that they tend to show a bias in the distribution of hydrophobic residues such that they tend to occur primarily on one face of the helix.

The amino acids in an α helix are arranged in a helical structure, about 5 Å wide. Each amino acid results in a 100° turn in the helix, and corresponds to a translation of 1.5Å along the helical axis. The helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. All amino acid side-chains are arranged at the outside of the helix. The N-H group of amino acid (n) can establish a hydrogen bond with the C=O group of amino acid (n+4).

Short polypeptides usually are not able to adopt the alpha helical structure, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is too high. Some amino acids (called helix breakers) like proline will disrupt the helical structure.

Ordinarily, a helix has a buildup of positive charge at the N-terminal end and negative charge at the C-terminal end which is a destabilizing influence. As a result, α helices are often capped at the N-terminal end by a negatively charged amino acid (like glutamic acid) in order to stabilize the helix dipole. Less common (and less effective) is C-terminal capping with a positively charged protein like lysine.

α helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the structural coincidence of the α helix diameter of 12Å being the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA.

α helices are one of the basic structural elements in proteins, together with beta sheets.

The peptide backbone of an α helix has 3.6 amino acids per turn.

The beta sheet
The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is a commonly occurring form of regular secondary structure in proteins, first proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951. It consists of two or more amino acid sequences within the same protein that are arranged adjacently and in parallel, but with alternating orientation such that hydrogen bonds can form between the two strands. The amino acid chain is almost fully extended throughout a β strand, lessening the probability of bulky steric clashes. The Ramachandran plot shows optimal conformation with angle phi = -120 to -60 degrees and angle psi = 120 to 160 degrees. The N-H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent, parallel strand(s). The cumulative effect of multiple such hydrogen bonds arranged in this way contributes to the sheet's stability and structural rigidity and integrity: for example, cellulose's beta-1,4 glucose structure. The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent side chains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic). Some sequences involved in a β sheet, when traced along the backbone, take a hairpin turn in orientation (direction), sometimes through one or more prolines. The α-C atoms of adjacent strands stand 3.5Å apart. In addition to the parallel beta sheet, there is also the anti-parallel beta sheet. The hydrogen-bond still exists in this conformation but the main difference lies in the directionality of the protein. In this conformation the proteins run in opposite directions, but the resulting hydrogen bonds connect directly across from one another instead of the diagonal. In short, beta sheets can be purely parallel, anti-parallel, or even mixed.

The random coil
A protein that completely lacks secondary structure is a random coil. In random coil, the only fixed relationship between amino acids is that between adjacent residues through the peptide bond. As a result, random coil can be detected from the absence of the signals in a multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance experiment that depend on particular peptide-peptide interactions. Likewise in the images produced in crystallography experiments, pieces of random coil appear simply as an absence of "electron density" or contrast. Random coil is also easily distinguished by circular dichroism. Denaturing reduces a protein entirely to random coil.

Less common secondary structure elements
Certain other periodic structures rarely appear in proteins, some of which are similar to the more common types. For example, two variants of the alpha-helix also occur, the 3-10 helix and the pi helix. These have helical pitches of 3 and 4.4 residues per turn respectively, corresponding to hydrogen bonds forming between residue i and i+3 for the 3-10 helix and between i and i+5 for the pi helix. Both are usually very short (1 turn or so) and have been seen only at the ends of alpha helices.

=Tertiary structure elements=

Alpha-only structures
Structures that contain only Alpha Helices

Beta-only structures
=Common folds and modules=

The Rossman fold
The Rossmann fold is a protein structural motif found in proteins that bind nucleotides, especially the cofactor NAD. The structure is composed of three or more parallel beta strands linked by two alpha helices in the topological order beta-alpha-beta-alpha-beta. Because each Rossmann fold can bind one nucleotide, binding domains for dinucleotides such as NAD consist of two paired Rossmann folds that each bind one nucleotide moiety of the cofactor molecule. Single Rossmann folds can bind mononucleotides such as the cofactor FMN.

The motif is named for Michael Rossmann who first pointed out that this was a frequently occurring motif in nucleotide binding proteins.

Keratin
Found in hair and in the palms of human hands.