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Linear Elamite

Linear Elamite was a writing system used in Elam during the Bronze Age between c. 2300 and 1850 BCE, and known mainly from a few extant monumental inscriptions. It was used contemporaneously with Elamite cuneiform and records the Elamite language. The French archaeologist François Desset and his colleagues have argued that it is the oldest known purely phonographic writing system, although others, such as the linguist Michael Mäder, have argued that it is partly logographic.

There have been multiple attempts to decipher the script, aided by the discovery of a limited number of multilingual and bigraphic inscriptions. Early efforts by Carl Frank (orientalist) (1912) and Ferdinand Bork (1905, 1924) made limited progress. Later work by Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi furthered the work. Starting in 2018, Desset outlined some of his proposed decipherments of the script accomplished with a team of other scholars. Their proposed near-complete decipherment was published in 2022, being received positively by some researchers while others remain sceptical until detailed translations of texts have been published.

History

It is often argued that Linear Elamite is derived from the older Proto-Elamite writing system. The earliest evidence for the use of Linear Elamite script in Susa has been traditionally associated with the rule of king Puzur-inshushinak. He came to power sometime around 2150 BCE.

There is also evidence that the script was used even earlier, such as in 2300 BCE, but this has not been fully confirmed.

The use of Linear Elamite continued after 2100 BCE, and the death of King Puzur-Shushinak, last ruler of the Awan Dynasty in Susa. After his death, Susa was overrun by the Third dynasty of Ur, while Elam fell under control of the Shimashki dynasty, also Elamite of origin.

In 2018, substantial new Linear Elamite texts became available to scholars, which created improved conditions for decipherment. These are the texts associated with the Sukkalmah Dynasty (1900–1500 BCE).

Three corpora
, there are now 51 known texts and fragments written in Linear Elamite. They can be divided into three sub-corpora: the Western Elamite (Lowlands), the Central Elamite (Highlands), and the Eastern Elamite (Elamo-Bactrian).

Western Elamite (Lowlands)
18 texts are on stone and clay objects, with a total of 533, signs excavated in the acropolis at Susa (now kept in the Louvre in Paris). These are now classified as belonging to the Western Elamite (Lowlands) group. Other objects are held at the National Museum of Iran.

Central Elamite (Highlands)
The Central Elamite (Highlands) group consists of twenty-four inscriptions or fragments (with 1133 signs in total) all on silver vessels. In 2016, 10 additional Linear Elamite inscriptions were discovered (and published in 2018), some containing nearly 200 signs. These are now classified as belonging to this group.

Eastern Elamite (Elamo-Bactrian)
The Eastern Elamite group consists of eight short inscriptions, whose lengths range from two and eleven signs.

Older classification
According to an older classification, Elamite texts were identified by letters A-V.

The most important longer texts, partly bilingual, appear in monumental contexts. They are engraved on large stone sculptures, including an alabaster statue of a goddess identified as Narundi (I), the Table au Lion (A), and large votive boulders (B, D), as well as on a series of steps (F, G, H, U) from a monumental stone stairway, where they possibly alternated with steps bearing texts with Akkadian titles of Puzur-Shushinak. One of the best sources of knowledge regarding the Elamite language is the bilingual monument called the "Table of the Lion" currently in the Louvre museum. The monument is written in both Akkadian, which is a known language, and in Linear Elamite. A unique find is item Q, a silver vase found 1.5 kilometers northwest of Persepolis, with a single line of perfectly executed text, kept in the Tehran Museum. There are also a few texts on baked-clay cones (J, K, L), a clay disk (M), and clay tablets (N, O, R). Some objects (A, I, C) include both Linear Elamite and Akkadian cuneiform inscriptions. The bilingual and bigraphic inscriptions of the monumental stairway as a whole, and the votive boulder B have inspired the first attempts at decipherment of Linear Elamite (Bork, 1905, 1924; Frank, 1912). Nine texts have also been found on silver beakers (X, Y, Z, F', H', I', J', K' and L').

Suspected forgeries
A few of the short Linear Elamite inscriptions on some unprovenanced objects are suspected of being forgeries. In particular, three brick tablets found at Jiroft are suspect.

Decipherment
A very large Achaemenid Elamite language vocabulary is known from the trilingual Behistun inscription and numerous other bilingual or trilingual inscriptions of the Achaemenid Empire, in which Elamite was written using Elamite cuneiform (c. 400 BCE), which is fully deciphered. There is also a reasonably large corpus of the already deciphered Middle Elamite texts. By comparison not much is known about Old Elamite, the presumed language of Linear Elamite and most texts are very short. This makes the decipherment of Linear Elamite more challenging. An important dictionary of the Elamite language, the Elamisches Wörterbuch was published in 1987 by W. Hinz and H. Koch. The Linear Elamite script however, one of the scripts used to write the Elamite language (c. 2000 BCE), had remained largely elusive.

Early efforts (1905–1912)

The first readings were determined by the analysis of the bilingual cuneiform Akkadian-Linear Elamite Table au Lion (Louvre Museum), by and. Two words with similar endings were identified in the beginning of the inscription in the known Akkadian cuneiform (the words "Inshushinak" dinšušinak and "Puzur-Inshushinak"  puzur4-dinšušinak), and correspondingly similar sets of signs with identical endings were found in the beginning of the Elamite part ( and ), suggesting a match. This permitted a fairly certain determination of about ten signs of Linear Elamite:

 * Puzur-Shushinak.jpg Pu-zu-r shu-shi-na-k, King Puzur-Inshushinak.
 * Inshushinak (Linear Elamite).jpg I-n-shu-shi-na-k, God Inshushinak.

Further efforts were made, but without significant success.

Silver beakers
Additional readings were proposed by CNRS associate researcher François Desset in 2018, based on his analysis of several silver beakers that were held in a private collection, and only came to light in 2004. Desset identified repetitive sign sequences in the beginning of the inscriptions, and guessed they were names of kings, in a manner somewhat similar to Grotefend's decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1802–1815. Using the small set of letters identified in 1905–1912, the number of symbols in each sequence taken as syllables, and in one instance the repetition of a symbol, Desset was able to identify the only two contemporary historical rulers that matched these conditions: Shilhaha and Ebarat, the two earliest kings of the Sukkalmah Dynasty. Another set of signs matched the well-known God of the period: Napirisha. This permitted the determination of several additional signs:
 * Shilhaha (Shi-il-ha-ha, Linear Elamite).jpg Shi-l-ha-ha, Shilhaha, second king of the Sukkalmah Dynasty.
 * Ebarat (E-b-r-t in Linear Elamite).jpg E-ba-r-ti, Ebarat II, founder of the Sukkalmah Dynasty.
 * Napirrisha.jpg Na-pi-r-ri-sha, God Napirisha.

Reading texts
In 2020 Desset announced that he and an international team of researchers had completed a proposed decipherment of all known inscriptions in Linear Elamite, through deductive work based on the confrontation of known Elamite vocabulary and the recently determined additional letters, and through the analysis of the standard contents of known Elamite texts in cuneiform. Their near-complete decipherment of the script was published in 2022. (See below.)

New readings include:
 * Ha-ta-m-ti.jpg Ha-ta-m-ti, endonym for Elam.

Classification
In 2009, the archaeologist Jacob L. Dahl, who researches the decipherment of Proto-Elamite, argued that Linear Elamite was a limited-use writing system with few practitioners and that its signary lacked standardisation. He expressed doubts that the corpus of texts belonged to a single shared tradition of writing and suggested that many texts may be composed of pseudo-glyphs which do not encode any decipherable meaning, although some appeared to imitate older texts.

In 2022, argued that Linear Elamite is an alpha-syllabary, which would make it the oldest known purely phonographic writing system. However, they admit that some logograms may have been used, although only rarely and not systematically, arguing that Elamite scribes rejected logographic writing in the 3rd millennium BCE. Other researchers, such as the linguist Michael Mäder, dispute this, arguing that only around 70 percent of Linear Elamite characters are likely to be purely phonographic and that the remainder are logograms, as evidenced by mathematical analyses of Linear Elamite inscriptions.

Sign inventories
An early inventory of Linear Elamite by Carl Frank (orientalist), published in 1912, listed 64 distinct signs, noting some allographic variations. Since then, more recent discoveries have allowed more signs to be identified. In 2022, Desset and his colleagues published an updated inventory of 348 Linear Elamite glyphs, corresponding to between 80–110 graphemes, including 72 phonographic signs and their allographic variants, 4 undeciphered infrequent signs, and 33 hapax legomena.

Relationship to other scripts
Some scholars have suggested that Linear Elamite is derived from the older Proto-Elamite writing system. Desset and colleagues argue that Linear Elamite is an evolution of Proto-Elamite, and that Proto-Elamite evolved, in parallel with Sumerian cuneiform, from a common substrate of simple signs and numerals used with accounting tokens and numerical tablets. Desset outlined some of their discoveries in public lectures, before they were formally published in July 2022. His colleagues in this research included Kambiz Tabibzadeh, Matthieu Kervran, Gian-Pietro Basello, and Gianni Marchesi.

However, the continuous evolution of Linear Elamite from Proto-Elamite is disputed by other researchers. Dahl argues that similarities with Linear Elamite are better explained by imitation of the most frequent Proto-Elamite signs from objects recovered at Susa by Elamite scribes familiar with Old Akkadian cuneiform who, faced with Mesopotamian cultural expansion, sought, in a process of schismogenesis, to culturally differentiate themselves by borrowing from an ancient local writing system, namely Proto-Elamite, to provide the basis for an archaicising new script. This, he argues, better explains the unusual content of some texts, such as "O" and "M", inconsistency in the form and execution of signs, and apparent resistance to trends of simplification that would otherwise be expected from scripts used administrative settings, as was the case with Proto-Elamite.

Encoding
During a 2-year research program at ANRT (Atelier National de Recherche Typographique), Sina Fakour designed a computer font for Linear Elamite based on the analysis of inscriptions on various materials. The typeface, named Hatamti, includes about 300 glyphs that makes the digital transmission and reproduction of Linear Elamite possible. Additionally he investigated the role of the engraving tool and the material on the quality of the signs. This project was undertaken as part of the Missing Scripts program and in collaboration with François Desset.

title: Linear Elamite


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German/Level I/Volk und Familie

Lesson I.8: Familie und Nationalität

Banks and Money
Germany's main banks are Deutsche Bank, Dresdner Bank and Commerzbank. There are many banks of all kinds throughout the country. Banks are open Mon-Fri 9am-12pm and 2:30-4pm. On Thursdays, they are open until 5:30 or 6pm. Changing money is best done at a bank because their rates will be better than exchange services located at a Bureau de Change. Major post office branches and travel agents also offer currency exchange. Germany is one of 15 European countries that have replaced their national currencies with the Euro, which is stronger to the U.S. Dollar, but weaker than the British Pound.

The Family
Home is where the heart is, they say. And what is in the home? Family! of course, so this is a very important section of the lesson. It'll give all vocabulary for the family, and later in a different section, you'll learn how to describe your brothers and sisters or any person! And now to get started let's do some vocabulary...

Now even though many of these are common phrases you and I would say in everyday life, some of these are rather used when you are on a visit to grandmother's, or things your mother would say. Maybe you notice some of these in the dialogue. Now you might be asking "How am I going to speak fluent German, if I just learn phrases?" Like I said, these are basically from the dialogue, and you can study these to look at the word order. Also certain things are just different in German, like "Wie heißt du?" which translates literally to "How are you called?" when we use "What is your name?". Okay let's get started on these common phrases...

Du bist ja richtig groß geworden.

You have grown up so much (usual sentence used by Opa und Oma)

Hast du uns etwas mitgebracht?

Have you brought something for us? (usual sentence used by Enkel and Enkelin)

Nun sei nicht so aufgeregt.

Now don't be so excited.

Komm rein.

Come in.

(Sie) Wurden schon ausgepackt.

(They) Have already been opened.

(Sich) Bedanken für etwas.

To thank for something.

Using Formal and Informal Pronouns in the Family
Some very conservative families might still use Sie with grandparents or even parents! This is sometimes practiced in families of nobility or exterritorial cultural islands in which older German customs have survived. However, using "Sie" feels very outdated to the vast majority of people. In practically every family all members use du with each other.

Describing People
I can't describe in words how important this section of the lesson is. Even though you have already learned to describe to some degree, here we will introduce a new aspect of describing, and we will review. But how could we describe if we didn't have vocabulary? Here it is...

In term of beauty, you can say four basic things. These aren't the all but these are the easiest and simplest ones.

She is beautiful.

Sie ist schön.

He is ugly.

Er ist hässlich.

These two use the verb to be, and the next one will use the verb to look which would need something else in order to make sense.

She looks beautiful, but that shirt is ugly.

Sie sieht schön aus, aber dieses Hemd ist hässlich.

He looks ugly, but he looked handsome yesterday.

Er sieht hässlich aus, aber gestern sah er schön aus.

And in the last sentence it says "ausgesehen." Don't worry about that--it wouldn't be taught until Level 3. So since you get the idea of describing, let's learn a new verb! And the new verb is klingen which is to sound. As in "He sounds weird.", "She sounds boring." Since we know how to describe, we really don't have to cover it. It's works just like other verbs.

He sounds nice.

Er klingt nett.

They sound funny.

Sie klingen komisch.

Remember that when describing it's S+V+A, or subject, verb, then adjective. Exactly like in English. For right now, that's all for describing things. We are going to have some small describing lessons with some parts of this lesson.

Related Verbs
Okay we just went over the verb in the previous section. This will basically be a list that will help you memorize them better, and there is not a lot. Other than "klingen" and "fühlen" you should know all of these. The "Er sieht aus" is to show you it is a separable-prefix verb.

Nationality
This is also a large section of this lesson: nationality, and it's very important. There are many nationalities, too many to go over in this lesson, but you will learn more nationality as this level and book goes on. Right now we are just going to have a vague little list, and as this section goes on there will be more. Finally, gentlemen, get ready to have your minds blown...

Some Nationalities
This is the small list, make sure you memorize this list and the next one.

Describing People with Nationality
It is no surprise you can describe people with nationality, most times, it's stereotypical, like Norwegians are blonde, tall, etc. or Germans wear lederhosen, drink beer, and play polka all day long, but that is just not true. However you can just use it for what it is, a nationality. If you do describe people by nationality this will help. Okay, you should already know how to describe, right?

This part we will get more in to detail later, but right it is an important part of describing people with nationality, even though in English we most times don't do this, in German they do. The difference between nationality and language, like in English, French and French. But in German it is französisch and Franzose, Französin. This also is how it works for nationality describing by noun or adjective, which we are going to learn right now.

Noun or Adjective Nationality
There are two ways to describe someone. With a noun-based nationality word or an adjective-based nationality word. But note that in German the noun-based form is used more often.

Example: Ich bin Schwede (I am Swedish) and Ich bin schwedisch (I am Swedish)

Example: Ich bin Franzose (I am French) and Ich bin französisch (I am French)

More Nationalities
A longer list of nationalities found in and around Germany:

Age
Now we are all familiar with the word "alt'", which means old. And in English, to find out somebody's age we ask "How old are you?". In German it is exactly the same. The "alt" kind of belongs to the interrogative adverb, so in both German and English it may be in front of the verb:

Wie alt bist du?

How old are you?

Now to ask the question with 1st person it is...

Wie alt bin ich?

How old am I?

And as response you might get...

Ich bin __ Jahre alt.

I am __ years old.

Du bist __ Jahre alt.

You are __ years old.

And now the plural version of the 1st person...

Wie alt sind wir?

How old are we?

The responses you will get is...

Wir sind __ Jahre alt.

We are __ years old.

Ihr seid __ Jahre alt.

You all are __ years old.

To ask this important question in the 2nd person. First, we will learn the biggest question here, "How old are you?" which is...

Wie alt bist du?

How old are you?

And there is only one response to this it is...

Ich bin __ Jahre alt.

I am __ years old.

For the equally important plural 2nd person...

Wie alt seid ihr?

How old are you all?

Which the response is...

Wir sind __ Jahre alt.

We are __ years old.

And formal question, for both singular and plural is...

Wie alt sind Sie?

How old are you?

How old are you all?

You should all ready get the pattern for this, but we are going to keep on doing this list, if you aren't sure of something or you are confused. So for the 3rd person...

Wie alt ist er/sie?

How old is he/she?

The responses to this are...

Er ist __ Jahre alt.

He is __ years old.

Sie ist __ Jahre alt.

She is __ years old.

And now the plural 3rd person of question and response...

Wie alt sind sie?

How old are they?

And of course the response...

Sie sind __ Jahre alt.

They __ years old.

Now with some people you might be able to guess their age, and you could ask them directly about it. This is usually pretty of rude, but it illustrates nicely how the phrase has to be changed if you ask a yes-no-question, so let's get started, anyway!

Bist du __ Jahre alt?

Are you __ years old?

Ist er/sie __ Jahre alt?

Is he/she __ years old?

Sind sie __ Jahre alt?

Are they __ years old?

Note the inversed order between "Wie alt bist du?" und "Bist du __ Jahre alt?" This is exactly the same as in English!

Possessives
Note: 'Euer' is irregular. When 'euer' has to have a different ending the e before r is dropped, so it turns into 'eur-'.

Expressing Favorites
Problems >>

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: German/Level I/Volk und Familie


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User:Aven13/alewbfjleyclybhwlazjbmvoappieuwuhifpaegbakvadjbhy

Hi. You've either found this page through sheer dumb luck, or were curious as to why I'd put a random string of letters at the bottom of a page. Either way, congratulations.


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Talk:Harvey C. Couch

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Talk:Susan Howard

Birthyear
Was Susan born in 1943 or 1944? Hotwine8 02:30, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I just noticed that too. We say the earlier year; IMdb and MA both say '44. Daniel Case 03:21, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Susan Howard


text:
User:Christopher Sabater castro/sandbox

Business ventures and endorsements Levine playing the First Act 222 Guitar, which he helped design

In October 2008, Levine collaborated with First Act to create the First Act 222 Guitar, which was fashioned to his specifications. The guitar was made available for purchase at Target retail stores.[82] Two years later, he launched his own fashion line, entitled "222", at the Project Trade Show in Las Vegas. The collection is a minimalistic line of jeans, basic T-shirts and leather jackets, a style he described as "simple and pure and durable". The venture was organized in partnership with his father, Fred Levine (who operates a chain of specialty boutiques), and his cousin, Sami Cooper.[83][84]

In June 2011, Levine took part in an educational campaign to raise awareness of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The project, titled "Own It", was created by Shire and organized in collaboration with the Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA), Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD). The project targets people who were previously diagnosed with the disorder, focusing on how it may continue into adulthood. Levine, who himself was diagnosed with it as a teenager, said, "This campaign is important to me because it can help young adults and adults realize that there's a chance they may still have ADHD if they had it as a kid".[85][86] In connection to this, he wrote an article in ADDitude Magazine about his personal experience with it.[87]

In 2013, Levine collaborated with ID Perfumes to create his debut eponymous scent.[88] The line was launched at the Premiere Fragrance Installation in Los Angeles in February 2013.[89] The fragrance range, consisting of scents for both for men and women, is sold through Macy's department stores in microphone-shaped bottles. Speaking at its launch, Levine said: "The task was to make something that I would wear. So that was a process and we finally came to a great conclusion and it smells great"[90][91] The fragrance garnered media attention for contradicting his tweet the previous year, in which he said that he wanted to "put an official ban on celebrity fragrances. Punishable by death from this point forward".[92]

In 2013, it was announced that Levine would be entering a partnership with Sears Holdings to launch a multi-department lifestyle brand to develop apparel and accessories collections.[93] The company, which owns Kmart and ShopYourWay, a shopping social platform, also included rapper Nicki Minaj in the same contract. The menswear collection was launched on October 1 that year and conducts business via 500 Kmart stores across the US, as well as online.[94] In an official statement, Levine said: "Partnering with ShopYourWay to develop this line was an exciting opportunity for me and I am really looking forward to diving into the process of designing an apparel and accessory collection".[95] In an interview with People, he commented further, "it was cool that they really promoted creative control. I like to be involved with process rather than just phoning it in".[96] 222 Records

Levine founded his own record label, 222 Records, in February 2012. He stated that he was inspired to start the label to sign on Rozzi Crane, an USC music student he discovered through a mutual friend.[97] She became the first singer signed on to the label, followed by Glee actor Matthew Morrison, Mexican artist Diego Boneta and The Voice season 2 contestant and part of Team Adam, the singer Tony Lucca. It was reported that he was negotiating further with potential distributors, as well as organizing staff, to operate as a full-fledged record company with departments such as marketing, radio and publicity.[98][99]

title: User:Christopher Sabater castro/sandbox


text:
Talk:Battle of Borovo Selo

Title
The article's title - more specifically, the word "killings" - is not entirely appropriate and is potentially misleading. It is suggestive of a crime or a series of crimes (as committed by, say, a serial killer or an organized crime group), whereas the event in question was an armed conflict. The primary description of the event as an armed conflict applies without respect as to whether it was largely one-sided or not, or whether it involved (war) crimes or not. GregorB (talk) 15:17, 26 March 2013 (UTC)
 * According to WP:MILMOS, Battle of Borovo Selo would probably be the most "correct" way to go. Combat started in the morning (sometime past 9:30, and lasted until 14:30), so quite a bit of shooting would have gone on even if the police were ambushed around noon.--Tomobe03 (talk) 13:53, 21 September 2013 (UTC)
 * After review of Google books search results (wikipedia books excluded) the current title is far from common name. Furthermore there seems to be hardly anything established (incident, massacre, etc) reinforcing my belief that Battle of Borovo Selo is a neutral name conforming to MILMOS while not being in violation of WP:COMMONNAME.--Tomobe03 (talk) 12:11, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

 * The previous comment was six months ago, and the last article move was on 24 May 2006 (ChrisO moved Borovo Selo raid to Borovo Selo killings: Neutral title), so go ahead and move it, there is little in the way of presumption of controversy. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 19:13, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

Unit-specific insignia in the infobox
Hi! Please refrain from inserting unit-level insignia along for White Eagles in the infobox - the flags placed there indicate allegiance to a specific group or nation. Use of Serbian flag along with paramilitaries such as White eagle has been established by Featured Article review process for similar articles involving Serbian paramilitaries. Furthermore while use of graphics in infoboxes are generally discouraged, WP:INFOBOXFLAG allows this type of use of flags for military infoboxes. Moreover, MOS:LOGO specifically advises against use of such logos as proposed instead of the flag now in place as merely decorative and distractive. Cheers--Tomobe03 (talk) 09:48, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
This article has been revised as part of a large-scale clean-up project of multiple article copyright infringement. (See the investigation subpage.) Prior content in this article duplicated one or more previously published sources. The material was copied from: http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_bridges_id_1.pdf. Copied or closely paraphrased material has been rewritten or removed and must not be restored, unless it is duly released under a compatible license. (For more information, please see "using copyrighted works from others" if you are not the copyright holder of this material, or "donating copyrighted materials" if you are.) For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or published material; such additions will be deleted. Contributors may use copyrighted publications as a source of information, and according to fair use may copy sentences and phrases, provided they are included in quotation marks and referenced properly. The material may also be rewritten, but only if it does not infringe on the copyright of the original or plagiarize from that source. Therefore such paraphrased portions must provide their source. Please see our guideline on non-free text for how to properly implement limited quotations of copyrighted text. Wikipedia takes copyright violations very seriously, and persistent violators will be blocked from editing. While we appreciate contributions, we must require all contributors to understand and comply with these policies. Thank you. Psychonaut (talk) 09:57, 17 September 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Battle of Borovo Selo


text:
Intelligence Intensification/The Theoretician Versus the Practician

The Theoretician
In periods I'm a striking theoretician. I think about a lot of interesting things and new ideas pops up in my mind all the time. But nothing gets done. That's the problem of the theoretician. Knowing that one is a typical theoretician, one has better chances to counteract.

The typical situation is that one buys a book or reads a text about something interesting. Instead of putting everything into practice one contents oneself with reading the exercises (if there are any) and thinking about the content. One may actually feel that one really learnt something and that the reading gave lots of insights. Imagine how many insights you would get if you tried everything you read about in physical reality (whatever that is).

Another problem associated with books is that authors often wants to write hundreds of pages about a theory which very well could be explained in ten pages. In general, all an intelligent reader needs is the essence of a theory. Everything else is evident when the essence is understood. In fact, many books explains so many unnecessary details that the essence is never understood. That is the problem of the theoretician. He spends time reading about details which soon becomes obvious for anyone who put the ideas to use. Whenever you, the reader, feels a section in this book doesn't break down to the essence of the subject, please use the possiblity to discuss a page in order to make the active contributors of this book aware of the problem.

The Virtue of Discipline
The only way to solve the problem of putting things into practice that I can think of is discipline. Maintaining discipline is crucial when one must overcome the psychological barrier that so often appears when one wants to learn something or do something creative. Discipline can be practiced in various ways, the reader can probably invent his own methods. You are your best teacher. That is why you should only read this book to inspire your own thinking and practice. ???$$6=7 $$


text:
Template:Peace studies/Learning project

This template is part of the Division of Peace Studies.

Aims and Objectives

 * Clearly stated aims and objectives for the learning project, including expected learning outcomes.

Introduction to the Topic
Salaam/Shalom Itazvia Bat Shaul V Rivka (5769) Elizabeth Haran Caplan Daughter of Doris and Stanley, Mother of Joseph, Oklahoma City, OK (2008)
 * This personal narrative explores the possibilities of a deeper discourse centered on tresspassing intra-group lines of differences. The essay was written in the hours following the reporting of the Chabad, Schluchims' Rabbi Gavriel and Rivka Holtzberg's death in Mumbai. Personal narrative reflects on motherhood, a son's Peace studies and acts at the intersection of Jewish-Palestinian Friendship. Ultimately it hopes to in some measure bring honor to the lives of those who have died for the sake of peace as means and ends for life itself.

Eliza haran caplan 16:45, 30 November 2008 (UTC)==Learning Materials==
 * Including links to learning materials in wikiversity, wikipedia and on the internet.
 * http://itazviaharan.wordpress.com/2008/11/29/social-imagination-the-chabad-and-mumbai/

Reading Lists
Ideally, readings should be available on the internet, and the links made available. Give a brief summary of each reading, and possibly some questions with which to address the text. Readings that are unavailable on the internet should be referenced in the following way:

Author, A., Title of Book (Location: Publisher, Year of Publication).

Assignments
These should initially be based around improving the learning project and building learning materials.

Please feel free to edit and improve this template.

title: Template:Peace studies/Learning project


text:
Talk:Cobra unit

They blew up because Hideo Kojima saw an anime where the bad guys blew up and he thought it would be cool

The Subsistence videos
In the secret video in MGS3: Subsistence, when The Joy fell off the bridge she exploded like the other Cobras.

But then again, so did Volgin in a different video, so I don't know how much you can count it. I mean, they are meant as jokes.

title: Talk:Cobra unit


text:
steriloida

Etymology
A contraction of, which see for more.

Verb

 * 1)  To sterilize.
 * 2)  To castrate, neuter or spay.

title: steriloida


text:
Royal Malaysian Navy Museum

Royal Malaysian Navy Museum (Muzium Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia) is a museum which exhibits items used by the Royal Malaysian Navy in Malacca City, Malacca, Malaysia. Exhibits included photos of admirals, medals of honor, as well as information about the various ranks in the naval command, evolution of naval uniforms, naval weapons, communication equipment, navigation symbols and training programs.

The museum was formerly located at Royal Malaysian Naval Base in Lumut, Perak. It was then relocated to Malacca to take the advantage of the larger number of tourists, both local and foreign visitors. The new location of the naval museum was opened to the public on 28 October 1995.

title: Royal Malaysian Navy Museum


text:
User:RobertBDurham/Books/Twilight2

Twilight

 * intro
 * Twilight (series)
 * The Twilight Saga (film series)

 * characters
 * Bella Swan
 * Edward Cullen
 * Jacob Black
 * List of Twilight characters

 * Twilight
 * Twilight (novel)
 * Twilight (2008 film)
 * Twilight (soundtrack)

 * New Moon
 * New Moon (novel)
 * The Twilight Saga: New Moon

 * Eclipse
 * Eclipse (Meyer novel)
 * The Twilight Saga: Eclipse
 * The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (soundtrack)

 * Breaking Dawn
 * Breaking Dawn
 * The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1
 * The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (soundtrack)
 * The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2
 * The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (soundtrack)

 * actors
 * Alex Meraz
 * Alex Rice
 * Alexandra Patsavas
 * Alexandre Desplat
 * Amadou Ly
 * Andrea Gabriel
 * Angela Sarafyan
 * Anna Kendrick
 * Ashley Greene
 * Bill Condon
 * Billy Burke (actor)
 * Booboo Stewart
 * Bronson Pelletier
 * Bryce Dallas Howard
 * Byron Chief-Moon
 * Cam Gigandet
 * Cameron Bright
 * Carter Burwell
 * Casey LaBow
 * Catalina Sandino Moreno
 * Catherine Hardwicke
 * Charlie Bewley
 * Chaske Spencer
 * Chris Weitz
 * Christian Camargo
 * Christian Serratos
 * Christopher Heyerdahl
 * Dakota Fanning
 * Daniel Cudmore
 * David Slade
 * Edi Gathegi
 * Elizabeth Reaser
 * Gil Birmingham
 * Graham Greene (actor)
 * Guillermo Navarro
 * Howard Shore
 * J. D. Pardo
 * Jack Huston
 * Jackson Rathbone
 * Jamie Campbell Bower
 * Javier Aguirresarobe
 * Jodelle Ferland
 * Joe Anderson (actor)
 * José Zúñiga
 * Judi Shekoni
 * Julia Jones
 * Justin Chon
 * Kellan Lutz
 * Kiowa Gordon
 * Kirsten Prout
 * Kristen Stewart
 * Lateef Crowder dos Santos
 * Leah Gibson
 * Lee Pace
 * Lisa Howard (American actress)
 * List of Twilight cast members
 * Mackenzie Foy
 * Maggie Grace
 * Marisa Quinn
 * Matt Bushell
 * Melissa Rosenberg
 * Michael Sheen
 * Michael Welch (actor)
 * Monique Ganderton
 * MyAnna Buring
 * Mía Maestro
 * Ned Bellamy
 * Nikki Reed
 * Noel Fisher
 * Noot Seear
 * Omar Metwally
 * Peter Facinelli
 * Peter Murphy (musician)
 * Rachelle Lefevre
 * Rami Malek
 * Robert Pattinson
 * Sarah Clarke
 * Stephenie Meyer
 * Taylor Lautner
 * Tinsel Korey
 * Toni Trucks
 * Ty Olsson
 * Tyson Houseman
 * Valorie Curry
 * Wendell Pierce
 * Xavier Samuel

 * Locations, Spin-Offs, Extras
 * Forks, Washington
 * Forks High School
 * La Push, Washington
 * St. Helens, Oregon
 * Volterra
 * Midnight Sun (novel)
 * The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner
 * Twilight: The Graphic Novel
 * The Twilight Saga: The Official Illustrated Guide
 * New Moon: The Graphic Novel
 * Gabriel's Inferno
 * Fifty Shades of Grey
 * Beautiful Bastard
 * Breaking Wind
 * Vampires Suck
 * List of highest-grossing openings for films

title: User:RobertBDurham/Books/Twilight2


text:
GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 2 answer 2

I'm sorry but this is the wrong answer. The 4Ω resistor gets the full 6V and the two 2Ω resistors have to share the 6V between them because they are in series. They therefore get 3V each.

On to the next question


text:
Connecting internal hardware components

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to modify and connect system hardware components according to client and user requirements."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI3021A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
... Putting all the required hardware together in the bus system. It'll all work out for good.

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

title: Connecting internal hardware components


text:
Talk:Antonio Colorado

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Antonio Colorado. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110927122154/http://www.oslpr.org/files/docs/%7BD9C45AFF-536D-4306-BC4B-213A816108A8%7D.pdf to http://www.oslpr.org/files/docs/%7BD9C45AFF-536D-4306-BC4B-213A816108A8%7D.pdf

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:12, 15 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Antonio Colorado


text:
Rosenborg Brøndanstalt

Rosenborg Brøndanstalt was a mineral spa and mineral water factory located in Gothersgade in Copenhagen, Denmark. Rosenborg Brøndanstalt was founded on 23 March 1831 at the initiative of Jonas Collin, medical doctor Ole Bang, and Johan Georg Forchhammer to provide the citizens of Copenhagen with an alternative to visiting spas abroad. First Frederik VI and later Christian VIII contributed to the project by donating a strip of Rosenborg Castle Gardens along Gothersgade. The buildings were built to a design by royal building inspector Jørgen Hansen Koch in 1833.

History

The idea for Rosenborg Brøndanstalt was conceived by professor Ole Bang. For some time, he had been interested in mineral water's medicinal properties. He raised the issue on the board of Tysernsten Sea Baths which had been established at Rysensten Bastion in 1724, The idea was met with support, both from the other board members and among the shareholders. In 1831, the board of directors handed in a formal application to establish the production of artificial mineral water in Copenhagen. Bang signed the application, Jonas Collin, Theodor Suhr, c. M. Lütken and Peder Mandrup Tuxen. The enterprise was initially created as a subsidy of Rysensten Sea Baths with the same statutes and board. The intention was to construct it on the same site. Still, Tuxen managed to persuade Frederick VI to contribute to the project with a strip of Rosenborg Garden in Gothersgade. The young chemical engineer E. A. Nørgaard was engaged as chief technical officer. He made a study trip to Berzelius’ installation in Stockholm. The technical equipment was ordered from the College of Advanced Technology's workshop. The buildings were built to a design by royal building inspector Jørgen Hansen Koch in 1833.

The popularity of the institution peaked in the 1880s. The mineral spa attracted some 700 guests a year, while the mineral water factory produced two to three million quarter bottles a year which were sold through pharmacies across the country. The product range included mineral water, limonade and tonic water.

In 1929, Rosenborg Brøndanstalt acquired the mineral water factory Sødring & Co. in Østerbro. The two companies' activities were moved to a new factory at Bispevej 25 in Bispebjerg the same year.

The company was in 1950 headed by Svend Sørensen (1908–). Board members were professor Carl Faurholt (1890–), director L. Tholstrup (1896–) and lawyer J. C. Bang (1913–).

title: Rosenborg Brøndanstalt


text:
FC Chamalières

Football Club de Chamalières commonly known as FC Chamalières is a French football club based in Chamalières in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of France. The club was founded in 1965 and since 2007 plays its games at Complexe Sportif Claude Wolff in the commune.

The club has climbed steadily through the amateur division, winning back-to-back promotions in 2015 and 2016 to reach the Championnat National 3 for the first time. The club plays in Championnat National 2, the fourth level of French football, having secured promotion from the Championnat National 3 in 2019.

In the 2019–20 season, the club only retained their place in National 2 by winning the last game before the season was prematurely terminated due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Honours

 * Division d'Honneur, Auvergne: 2016
 * Championnat National 3, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes: 2019

title: FC Chamalières


text:
Meg Patterson

Margaret Angus Patterson MBE (9 November 1922 – 25 July 2002 ) was a Scottish surgeon and medical missionary in India and Hong Kong. She claimed to be able to treat drug addiction using electric shocks, something she called "neuro-electric therapy" (NET). The reputation gained by NET was based on celebrity endorsements, but there is no evidence that it is an effective treatment.

Early life and education
Margaret Angus Ingram was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1922. The daughter of Alexander Ingram, she was the youngest of five children. Patterson started medical school at 21 during World War II, and qualified as a member Fellowship of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons when she was 25, the only woman in the group.

Career
Patterson went to India as a medical missionary. While in India she met George Patterson in Kalimpong and they married in 1953; the couple were committed Christians. George Patterson had become famous through his involvement with the Dalai Lama, and his reporting on the 1959 Tibetan uprising and the subsequent events in China's annexation of Tibet. For her work establishing and expanding clinics in India she was awarded the MBE in 1961.

In 1964, she moved to Hong Kong with her husband, where she was appointed surgeon-in-charge at Tung Wah Hospital. They remained in Hong Kong until 1973.

In 1972, other doctors in Hong Kong, H.L. Wen and S.Y.C. Cheung, published their work on electroacupuncture for treatment of addiction. Patterson adopted their method, developing a technique called "neuro-electric therapy" (NET), replacing the acupuncture needles with electrodes, making this a form of cranial electrotherapy stimulation. On returning to the UK she and her husband collaborated to popularise the technique, which became popular with rock and pop stars.

The medical and scientific community was skeptical about the technique. Patterson found herself building clinics with minimal funding, much as she had in India.

In 1974, Patterson treated Eric Clapton for heroin addiction.

In 1976, Patterson set up a clinic in Broadhurst Manor, East Sussex, funded by the Robert Stigwood Organisation. Donors misleadingly marketed the clinic as "a cure for heroin addiction", which it was not. In 1981, funding ran out and she moved the clinic to California.

A 1986 article in New Scientist said that the medical establishment viewed Patterson as a quack for trying to remove addiction with tiny electrical currents, and that one clinical trial found it to be ineffective. People magazine said there was "disbelief and even hostility from Britain's medical establishment and from the US medical world".

Death and legacy
In 1999, Patterson had a major stroke a week after opening a clinic in Tijuana. In 2001, she and her husband returned to Scotland, where she died on 25 July 2002. She was survived by her husband, a daughter, two sons, and five grandchildren.

Her husband and one of her sons, Lorne, continued marketing the NET technique. As of 2012, evidence reviewed within NHS Scotland found no substantial evidence that neuro-electric therapy was helpful in treating opiate addiction.

Awards and honours

 * MBE, 1961

title: Meg Patterson


text:
User:Xnmbauua 20

Hi....xnmbauua is rearly known for xnmbauua shang vcyarha.... He is a great hacker...n a programmer...kindly follow up

title: User:Xnmbauua 20


text:
Physics Study Guide/Momentum

=Momentum=

Linear momentum
Momentum is equal to mass times velocity.

Angular momentum
Angular momentum of an object revolving around an external axis $$O$$ is equal to the cross-product of the position vector with respect to $$O$$ and its linear momentum.

Angular momentum of a rotating object is equal to the moment of inertia times angular velocity.

Force and linear momentum, torque and angular momentum
Net force is equal to the change in linear momentum over the change in time.

Net torque is equal to the change in angular momentum over the change in time.

Conservation of momentum
Let us prove this law.

We'll take two particles $$a,b$$. Their momentums are $$\vec p_a,\vec p_b$$. They are moving opposite to each other along the $$x$$-axis and they collide. Now force is given by:
 * $$\vec F=\frac{d\vec p}{\mathrm{d}t}$$

According to Newton's third law, the forces on each particle are equal and opposite.So,
 * $$\frac{d\vec{p}_a}{dt}=-\frac{d\vec{p}_b}{dt}$$

Rearranging,
 * $$\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}+\frac{d\vec{p}_b}{dt}=0$$

This means that the sum of the momentums does not change with time. Therefore, the law is proved.

Variables

Calculus-based Momentum
Force is equal to the derivative of linear momentum with respect to time.

Torque is equal to the derivative of angular momentum with respect to time.

title: Physics Study Guide/Momentum


text:
Margaret Wigham

Margaret Viola Wigham (February 3, 1904 – April 17, 1972) was a composer, music educator and pianist, born in Minnesota. She was nationally known as a mid-century composer of student piano pieces. Her pieces often had an educational focus such as chromaticism, counterpoint, learning to play in different keys, or using each hand independently. Her works were published by Oliver Ditson Co., Willis Music, Harold Flammer Inc, Belwin Inc, and R. D. Row. They were also published in Braille and made available through the Library of Congress National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled.

Her compositions include:

Orchestra

 * Concerto for Two Pianos

Piano

 * Bachette
 * By the Little Mill
 * Carefree
 * Fun with a Hoop
 * Gay Caprice
 * Happitat
 * Hop Along My Little Froggie
 * In the Chapel
 * Introduction and Sonatina
 * Just Before Dawn
 * Little Prelude
 * Merrily Over the Waves We Go
 * Musical Moods in All Keys
 * Musical Playmates
 * Now It's Time to Run and Play
 * O So Happy
 * Old Cowboy Trail
 * On Swan Lake
 * Puppet Mischief
 * Rhapsody
 * Scampering Whole Steps
 * Scherzino

Vocal

 * “I Wonder Where the Robins Go?” (words by Margaret Wigham and Wilma Wigham)

title: Margaret Wigham


text:
Talk:San Benito, Texas

RESACA IN DOWNTOWN SAN BENITO LOOKING SOUTH-SOUTHWEST. - San Benito Irrigation System, San Benito, Cameron County, TX
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/tx1174.photos.3/ --evrik (talk) 19:06, 30 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:San Benito, Texas


text:
Mulsum

Mulsum is a village and a former municipality in the district of Cuxhaven, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Since 1 January 2015 it is part of the municipality Wurster Nordseeküste. It is located on Wurster Landstraße, L129, between Dorum to the north-east, and Wremen to the south-west. The town is two-and-a-half miles east of the North Sea.

The Land of Wursten, a rather autonomous farmers' republic including Mulsum, had long been claimed by the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, until in 1524 it could be definitely be subjected. In 1648 the Prince-Archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish and from 1715 on by the Hanoverian Crown. In 1823 the Duchy was abolished and its territory became part of the Stade Region.

title: Mulsum


text:
Double heterostructure

A double heterostructure, sometimes called double heterojunction, is formed when two semiconductor materials are grown into a "sandwich". One material (such as AlGaAs) is used for the outer layers (or cladding), and another of smaller band gap (such as GaAs) is used for the inner layer. In this example, there are two AlGaAs-GaAs junctions (or boundaries), one at each side of the inner layer. There must be two boundaries for the device to be a double heterostructure. If there was only one side of cladding material, the device would be a simple, or single, heterostructure.

The double heterostructure is a very useful structure in optoelectronic devices and has interesting electronic properties. If one of the cladding layers is p-doped, the other cladding layer n-doped and the smaller energy gap semiconductor material undoped, a p-i-n structure is formed. When a current is applied to the ends of the pin structure, electrons and holes are injected into the heterostructure. The smaller energy gap material forms energy discontinuities at the boundaries, confining the electrons and holes to the smaller energy gap semiconductor. The electrons and holes recombine in the intrinsic semiconductor emitting photons. If the width of the intrinsic region is reduced to the order of the de Broglie wavelength, the energies in the intrinsic region no longer become continuous but become discrete. (Actually, they are not continuous but the energy levels are very close together so we think of them as being continuous.) In this situation the double heterostructure becomes a quantum well.

title: Double heterostructure


text:
User:Shubham Chauhan HR

Hello Everyone,

Please Share My Wikipedia. My Wikipedia USER Name "Shubham Chauhan HR"

Thanking You!

title: User:Shubham Chauhan HR


text:
James O'Brien (filmmaker)

James O'Brien is an American independent film director, screenwriter and producer.

Early life and education
Raised in Harrington Park, New Jersey, O’Brien attended Bergen Catholic High School, and was a captain of the cross country and track teams. He is a graduate of Providence College, and competed in his early collegiate years for Ray Treacy's Providence Friars.

Midway through college, O'Brien shifted gears from athletics to English and Drama, directing a number of university-screened short films and documentaries and acting in the Blackfriars Theatre productions.

After backpacking around Europe, and inspired by the DIY cinema of Jim Jarmusch, Spike Lee and Richard Linklater, O’Brien moved to Los Angeles, to make independent films.

Early career
The first film he made after moving to LA was Bastard, a B&W short about a schizophrenic hit man. It was selected by the American Cinematheque to open for Werner Herzog’s Nosferatu the Vampyre at a 1993 Directors Guild of America retrospective.

Venice Bound
O'Brien's debut feature Venice Bound follows the lives of three off-beat twenty-somethings who meet by chance on Venice Beach and agree to pull a robbery. The film debuted at the Orpheum Theatre in downtown Los Angeles before making its international premiere at Cannes.

Variety called O'Brien a "talent in the raw" but said the film is "too narratively chaotic and technically hamstrung to connect commercially".

Venice Bound was released theatrically in 1996–97, playing an extended run at the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica, as well as the Laemmle Sunset 5 (now Sundance Sunset Cinemas). It also played on the east coast at the Cable Car Cinema in Providence, Rhode Island.

Wish You Were Here & Hyperfutura
Wish You Were Here stars Louie Sabatasso, Gary Douglas Kohn and Arroyn Ambrose in a road adventure film about on the effects of addiction and the bond of family and friends.

Jonathan Freeman-Anderson of LA Film and Music Magazine called the film "an entertaining and soul searching ride of comical and sobering proportions". Nelson Madison Films released the movie in 2013.

On the other end of the spectrum, O'Brien made the mashup Hyperfutura. Created with Eric Kopatz, producer and star of Bastard, the science fiction film Hyperfutura involves genetic engineering, mind control and time travel. It has polarized audiences since its 2013 worldwide digital release by PanGlobal Entertainment.

Chris Garcia, the museum culture specialist behind the visual arts podcast, Three Minute Modernist and the film journal Klaus at Gunpoint, included the film in his 52 Episodes to Science Fiction Literacy, linking it to the works of artist Bruce Conner and the Stanley Kubrick epic 2001: A Space Odyssey, in the episode entitled: "Hyperfutura: Avant-Garde or Really Messed Up?"

Western Religion
O’Brien's most recent work is the independent Western film Western Religion. It features Claude Duhamel, Peter Shinkoda and Miles Szanto, among others.

The 'making of' story of the production was first picked up by Variety in 2013 as the filmmakers looked to overcome the government shutdown of all national parks just weeks before their scheduled shoot at Paramount Ranch. To remedy the situation, O'Brien and his producing partner Louie Sabatasso of 3rd Partner Productions enlisted Peter Sherayko, who had worked on Tombstone. Together, they built a Western tent city in the mountains of Agua Dulce, California. Sherayko, who played Texas Jack Vermillion in Tombstone, is also featured in the film as Southern Bill. Sabatasso plays a lead as the eccentric, deadly dandy Salt Peter.

Selected filmography

 * Bastard (short film, 1993)
 * Venice Bound (1995)
 * Hyperfutura (2013)
 * Wish You Were Here (2013)
 * Western Religion (2015)
 * The Night They Came Home (2024)

title: James O'Brien (filmmaker)


text:
User:VCzuprynski/sandbox

Current Word Count: 2008

The GHG footprint, or greenhouse gas footprint, refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services. It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint, which measures only carbon dioxide, one of many greenhouse gases.

The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential (GGWP) and is generated by products or services, whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies.

Our addition…

Human activity is one of the main causes of GHGs. GHGs increase the earth's temperature and are emitted from fossil fuel usage in electricity and other byproducts of manufacturing. The major effects mainly consist of extreme climate changes. Such as, extreme precipitation and acidification and warming of oceans. Climate change has been in full swing since the start of the Industrial Revolution which was around 1820’s. Due to human's heavy reliance on fossil fuels, energy usage and constant deforestation, which increase the amount of GHG in the atmosphere, reducing the GHG footprint may be harder to achieve. That does not mean that there have not been efforts to reduce the GHG have not been put in place, such as using more energy efficient household appliances, the increase of fuel efficient cars, and the like. Changes in everyday lives such as lowering dependence on air conditioning and heating can make a huge impact on ones GHG footprint.

Definition
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases that increase the temperature of the Earth due to their absorption of infrared radiation. Although some emissions are natural, the rate of which they are being produced has increased because of humans. These gases are emitted from fossil fue l usage in electricity, in heat and transportation, as well as being emitted as byproducts of manufacturing. The most common GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and many fluorinated gases. A greenhouse gas footprint is the numerical quantity of these gases that a single entity emits. The calculations can be computed ranging from a single person to the entire world. A GHG footprint can be calculated on the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) website. After entering data, a number with units of pounds of CO2 will be given. The EPA use pounds of CO2 equivalence to determine the greenhouse gas footprint.

History
As early as the 1820’s the investigation on climate change was in full swing. Joseph Fourier believed that light from the sun can enter the atmosphere, but cannot leave nearly as easily. He sought to prove that air can absorb the infrared radiation and will be given back to the Earth’s surface. Later in 1859, John Tyndall discovered that water vapor and CO2 trap heat waves given by the sun. In 1896, Svante Arrhenius tried to prove that it would take thousands of years for the industrial production of CO2 to raise the Earth’s temperature 5-6°C. But this idea was met with much skepticism throughout the early 1900’s because it was oversimplified. In the mid 1900’s, it was concluded that there was a 10% increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the 19th century, which resulted in a slight warming. It was at this time that people believed  the emissions of CO2 will increase exponentially in the future and the oceans would absorb any surplus of greenhouse gases. In 1956, Gilbert N. Plass concluded that greenhouse gas emissions will have an effect on the Earth’s temperature and argued that dismissing GHG emissions would be a mistake. Soon after, scientists from all sectors began to work together to figure out the mystery of GHG emissions and their effects. As technology advanced, it was in the 1980’s that there was proof of a rise in CO2 levels. An ice core, captured through drilling, was clear evidence that carbon dioxide levels have risen

Causes
Greenhouse gases are mostly caused by human activity. Major industrial sources of greenhouse gasses are power plants, Residential buildings, Road transportation, Energy industry processes and losses, Iron and Steel manufacturing, coal mining and Chemical and Petrochemical industries. Changes in the environment also contribute the increase in greenhouse gas emission such as, Deforestation, forest degradation & land use, Livestock, Agricultural soils and water and wastewater. China is the largest contributor of greenhouse gas making up 30% of the total emission. The United states follows China in leading gas emission making up 15% followed by the EU with 9%, then India with 7%, Russia with 5%, Japan with 4%, and other miscellaneous countries make up the remaining 30%.

Although Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is the most prevalent gas, it is not the most damaging. Carbon dioxide is essential to life because animals release it during cellular respiration and when they breathe whereas plants use it for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is released naturally by decomposition, ocean release and respiration. Humans contribute to carbon dioxide emissions by burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement production.

Methane (CH4) is largely released by coal, oil and natural gas industries. Methane also is a very strong greenhouse gas, although it is second to carbon in being the most prevalent gas, it traps more heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is a main component in natural gas. Recently industries as well as consumers have been using natural gas because they believe that it is better for the environment because it contains less carbon dioxide, but in fact it is not.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is released by fuel combustion, most coming from coal fired power plants, agricultural and industrial activities.

Fluorinated gases include hydroflucarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). These gases have no natural source and are solely product of human activity. The biggest cause of these sources is the substitution of Ozone depleting substances, such as refrigerants, aerosol,propellants, foam blowing agents, solvents, and fire retardants.

Rise in Greenhouse Gas Over Time
Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gas emission has increased immensely. The carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are 142%, of what they were pre-industrial level,methane is 253%, and nitrous oxide is 121% of pre-industrial levels. The energy driven consumption of fossil fuels has made GHG emission rapidly increase cause the Earth's temperature to rise. In the past 250 years human activity such as burning fossil fuels and cutting down carbon-absorbing forest have contributed greatly to this increase. In the last 25 years alone emissions have increase by more than a third, carbon dioxide accounted for three-fourths of this increase. Each of these gases spend different amount of time in the atmosphere for example fluorinated gases can last for a few weeks or a few thousand years whereas nitrous oxide can last up to more than a century, with methane being somewhere in the middle lasting a little over a decade.(carbon dioxide's lifespan cannot be calculated exactly because it does not disappear like the others but moves to different parts of the earth such as being used by plants or absorbed by the ocean )  This may make problems arise because if people trying to reduce their footprint, they may be unaware of the damage done and how long it will take to reverse there is a possibility that there is still some greenhouse gas that has been in the atmosphere since the beginning of the twentieth century, when the firsts signs of an increase of these gases were just beginning.

Impacts
Greenhouse Gas footprints increase the likelihood of severe and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems. The warming caused by CO2 emissions is effectively irreversible over multi-century time scales. Risks of GHG footprints are evaluated based on the interaction of projected damages in an earth system climate change effected by choice of emission scenarios. A lot of the effects are extreme weather changes which include cold winter extremes, increase in annual mean precipitation in high latitudes and the equatorial pacific, and year round reductions in arctic sea ice. Climate change and the carbon cycle will amplify global warming. It is likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer. Extreme precipitation events will become more intense and frequent and the ocean will continue to warm and acidify. The warming will be greatest in the southern ocean and the global mean sea level will rise. Near-surface permafrost in high northern latitudes will reduce and sea level rise will not be uniform across regions. There will be a rise in about 95% of ocean area. The sea level rise depends on the pathway of CO2 emissions not only the cumulative total. In some regions, the future sea level will be at an extreme by 2100. 70 percent of coastlines are projected to have sea level change within more or less than 20 percent of global mean. The global mean surface temperature change per trillion tonnes of carbon emitted as CO2 is likely in range of .8 to 2.5 degrees Celsius. This is known as a transient climate response to cumulative carbon emissions (TCRE). There are a lot of key risks that span over sectors and regions. This includes severe ill-health and disrupted livelihoods, breaking down of infrastructure, and risk loss of ecosystems. The disrupted livelihoods and severe ill-health includes storm surges and costal and inland flooding. The breaking down of infrastructure includes the networks and critical services. There is also a risk if loss of biodiversity, ecosystme goods, functions, and services.

Reduction by Gas
Reducing carbon dioxide emissions seems like a simple task, but is actually quite difficult. In order to decrease CO2 emissions, the reliance of fossil fuels must be lowered. These fuels are producing lots of CO2 across all forms of their usage. An alternative form of energy is the usage of renewable sources which are more clean for the environment. To save on energy, an increase of insulation, usage of fuel-efficient vehicles, ENERGY STAR appliances, as well as a reduction of electrical items plugged in when not in use, will all decrease the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. Capturing CO2 from power plants is also another way to reduce emissions.

Reducing methane emissions can be accomplished in several ways. Capturing CH4 emissions from coal mines and landfills, are two ways of reducing these emissions. An alteration of manure management and livestock operations is another possible solution. Motor vehicles use fossil fuels, which produces CO2, but fossil fuels also produce CH4 as a byproduct. Thus, better technology for these vehicles to avoid leakage would be very beneficial.

Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is not a simple task either. N2O is often given off as a byproduct in various ways. Nylon production and fossil fuel usage are two ways that N2O is given off as a byproduct. Thus, improving technology for nylon production and the gathering of fossil fuels would greatly reduce nitrous oxide emissions. Also, many fertilizers have a nitrogenous base. A decrease in usage of these fertilizers, or changing their components, are more ways to reduce N2O emissions.

Although fluorinated gases are not produced on a massive scale, they have the worst effect on the environment. A reduction of fluorinated gas emissions can be done in many ways. Many industries that emit these gases can capture or recycle them. These same industries can also invest in more advanced technology that will not produce these gases. A reduction of leakage within power grids and motor vehicles will also decrease the emissions of fluorinated gases. There are also many air conditioning systems that emit fluorinated, thus an update in technology would decrease these emissions.

All of these possible “solutions” will greatly reduce the greenhouse gas footprint of industries/people/businesses that put them into practice. A reduction of greenhouse gases is the only way to positively affect one's GHG footprint.

Everyday Life Changes
There are many simple changes that can be made to the everyday lifestyle of a person that would reduce a GHG footprint. Reducing energy consumption within a household is a great solution. This means lowering one’s dependence on air conditioning and heating, using CFL light bulbs, choosing ENERGY STAR appliances, recycling, using cold water to wash clothes, and avoiding a dryer. These minor changes will have a great impact on reducing one’s GHG footprint. Another adjustment would be to use a motor vehicle that is fuel-efficient as well as reducing reliance on motor vehicles. These modes of transportation produce many GHGs, thus an adjustment to one’s usage will greatly affect a GHG footprint.

Past Assignments
GHG Footprint

The GHG footprint article already include a definition and it differentiates GHG footprint from Carbon footprint and ecological footprint
 * 1) The stub is currently 87 words long
 * 2) There is no table of contents
 * 3) There are no sources for this article

Possible Table of Contents: What each person is working on
 * 1) Lead Section
 * 2) Definition/History
 * 3) What is causing it?
 * 4) Impacts
 * 5) Solutions
 * Lead Section-Victoria & Amy
 * Definition/History-Brian
 * What is causing it?-Victoria
 * Impacts- Amy
 * Solutions- Brian

In order to write good and informative Wikipedia article, certain criteria should be followed to ensure it will be interesting and worth reading. Articles in the natural sciences have a lot of diversity. So, although there is a set style that Wikipedia uses for its articles, the articles themselves may differ greatly due to the amount information and amount of media the writer decides to put in it.

Contents

First, pick a broad enough topic where it is possible to do research on it. The article must have credible sources in order to be reliable. When starting to compose the article, use simple language that everyone can understand. Wikipedia is made for the masses and is not a scholarly journal; therefore, it would be smart to use words that everyone will know and not complicated words only people that specialize in the subject or have extensive knowledge on will understand. Wikipedia has a policy to prevent bias in articles, so any bias or personal opinions should not be put in the article. Also, be sure to make the article as factually sound as possible so that it does not have to be edited unnecessarily. Sometimes edits cannot be helped because biological discoveries are always being made and information is always changing so updates and edits to the article are inevitable. When writing an article, it is important to follow the Wikipedia: Manual of Style to make it match the rest of the articles. These include the lead section, main body of the article, media, sources, and references.

Length

A Wikipedia article includes a lead section and a main section. The lead section should be a summary of the main points but should not be too long nor too short compared to the article itself. Then there is the main body which is where all the pertinent information is located. When determining the length of the article one must consider that they need to have enough factual information in order for the article to be worth reading, but making it too long may make readers bored with the article and they may move on to a different source to get clear information faster and easier. Also, when writing the article make it flow in a way easy for the reader to follow. So, it is best to group all related topics together with one major, broad topic and then split the info into smaller more specific subsections. For topics pertaining to biology and the natural sciences most of the article length is varied because there are many different sub-branches, for instance Environmental Science article has about 1200 words whereas Ecology is about 12000.

Citation

When it comes to the citations, it is best to keep all the citations in the same style so the reader can easily find what they are looking for. Switching between styles may confuse the readers. Most works of science use the APA format so it is best to use this citation format. It will be most helpful if the cited source is credible and relevant like a scholarly journal, book or even a reliable science magazine. If the source is not reliable, there is no guarantee that the information it provides is reliable either.

Links

Sometimes, it can be helpful to provide links to other Wikipedia articles within an article. Instead of trying to elaborate on the term and risk the explanation confusing the reader about what is trying to be said, one should use links when there is a term that may not be common knowledge. The links will take the reader to a page explaining term and to help the reader understand it. When using links, one should make sure that they do not excessively use them within the article. Otherwise, it may distract the reader and discourage them from reading. Also, it is better for the links to be spread out throughout the article and not clustered in one section. Since few people are knowledgeable about natural science terminology, the proper use of links would be helpful.

Design

To pique the audience’s interest, it would be wise to include pictures, videos, interesting findings, and references so the article is not a barrage of information thrown at the reader without anything breaking it up. When using media, it is important to think whether the purpose is for explanation or for supplementation. Showing an example or specific idea can help readers get a further understanding of the information being given. For example, in the Environmental Science article, there is a section talking about erosion, surface runoff, and sediment transport. Infoboxes can also give additional information by showing something relevant to the article then explaining it. Then, under that is a picture of a site that gives a visual representation on these concepts. On the other hand, the article presents a picture of the earth, and below is the word, “environment,” which does not explain the concept well but gives the general idea. To help the reader navigate the page  having a table of contents at the top of the article so the reader can go straight to the section they are looking for.

Added some more information in regards to design The Child's War was one of the earliest attempts of the British to take control of the trading opportunities in Bengal. This is often overlooked buy British historians due to the humiliating loss of they endured. Due to a miscommunication on how and when to disperse troops, so instead of having a big group of troops coming in at once there were smaller groups going throughout the country at different times that alerted Shaista Khan and after a scuffle between Mughal and English officials canceled any prior deals between the two nations and a war ensued. Negotiations resumed between the two nations, however due to English reinforcements and an English attempt at a blockade; negotiations once again stopped and Emperor Aurangzeb stopped all supplies going to the English. The British underestimated how strong the Bengal troops were and were met with force and were defeated. http://archive.dhakatribune.com/heritage/2014/dec/26/child%E2%80%99s-war

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Marc Wilson (footballer)

Marc David Wilson (born 17 August 1987) is an Irish former professional footballer.

Wilson left his home town of Aghagallon in 2000 to join the Manchester United Academy, after four years he was released and was signed by Hampshire club Portsmouth. He went out on loan to AFC Bournemouth, Luton Town and Yeovil Town to gain first team experience before making his Premier League debut on boxing day in 2008. After Portsmouth were relegated to the Football League in 2010 Wilson was named as club captain.

In August 2010 he joined Stoke City in a deal which saw Stoke duo Liam Lawrence and Dave Kitson join Pompey. He converted to left back under Tony Pulis and in his first season at Stoke he played in the 2011 FA Cup final as Stoke lost 1–0 to Manchester City. Wilson was a regular in 2011–12 as Stoke played in the UEFA Europa League. He suffered a broken leg in October 2012 which saw him miss most of the 2012–13 season. He became used as a back-up player under Mark Hughes and left Stoke in August 2016 to join Bournemouth.

Wilson got his first call up to the Republic of Ireland senior squad for their game against Brazil in March 2010, and made his first appearance as a substitute in February 2011 during the 3–0 Nations Cup win over Wales.

Early career
Wilson was born in Aghagallon near Lisburn and started out playing association football with Lisburn Youth and Gaelic football with St Paul's Lurgan High School and St Mary's Aghagallon GAA. Whilst playing GAA Wilson scored a goal in the 2001 McDevitt Cup Final. Wilson decided to concentrate on his football with Lisburn Youth and earned a place in Manchester United's centre of excellence. He spent four years in Manchester before joining Portsmouth in 2004 at the age of 16.

Portsmouth

In his early years at Portsmouth, he played regularly for the reserve team and was loaned out to other clubs on four occasions. In March 2006 he made his League One debut with Yeovil Town in a 2–0 win away to Walsall. In 2007, he spent two separate spells at AFC Bournemouth, making 26 league appearances and scoring three goals. In November 2007 he also had a brief loan spell at Luton Town which was cut short when the club went into administration.

On 7 July 2008, Marc Wilson signed a new three-year contract at Portsmouth. He made his Pompey debut coming on as a substitute for Richard Hughes in a 4–0 League Cup 3rd round loss to Chelsea on 24 September 2008. Wilson excelled playing at right-back on his first start for Portsmouth in a 3–0 UEFA Cup victory over Heerenveen. On Boxing Day 2008, Wilson started his first Premier League match in the 4–1 loss at home to West Ham. On 5 August 2009, it was revealed that Wilson had been involved in an alleged bust-up with fellow team-mate David Nugent during Portsmouth's pre-season trip to Portugal. Both players were sent home and consequently fined two weeks wages by the club.

In 2009–10 Wilson became a first choice player in the Pompey side that was relegated and reached the FA Cup final although Wilson himself did not play in the final due to injury. Though his performances as a central defender earned him criticism, he impressed after returning to his natural position of centre midfield towards the end of the season. On 5 February 2010 Wilson signed a new three-and-a-half-year contract to stay at Portsmouth to the end of the 2012–13 season. After Portsmouth's relegation to the Championship Wilson was handed the number 6 shirt after previously wearing 35 and was named as captain. At 22 years old he became one of the youngest permanent captains in the club's history. However manager Steve Cotterill revealed that Wilson was close to a transfer to Premier League side Stoke City.

Stoke City
Wilson signed for Stoke City on 31 August 2010 player-plus-cash exchange deal which saw Liam Lawrence and Dave Kitson move in the opposite direction to Football League Championship club Portsmouth. Wilson made his City debut on 13 September 2010 against Aston Villa, despite playing well and making some good passes Wilson seemed to be struggling with the physicality of Villa's midfielders Stiliyan Petrov and Nigel Reo-Coker and was substituted just after half time. He completed his first full 90 minutes against Manchester United on 24 October 2010. His performance earned praise from manager Tony Pulis. "He was smashing. He passed the ball well and looked a quality player, he's one for the future, without a question of doubt". Wilson scored his first goal for City in a 2–0 win away at Blackburn Rovers on 26 December 2010. He then produced man of the match displays against Manchester United and Cardiff City at the beginning of 2011.

Since joining Stoke, Wilson has shown his versatility and has occupied three positions – centre midfield, right back and due to injury to Danny Higginbotham and Danny Collins in poor form has also played mostly at left back. Wilson played in every FA Cup match, at left back, as Stoke reached the 2011 FA Cup Final. Prior to the final, Wilson was not on the losing side in 14 FA Cup matches. However his run was ended as Stoke lost the final 1–0 to Manchester City. Wilson continued to play at left back during the 2011–12 season and was branded by Tony Pulis as 'Stoke's unsung hero'. Wilson played in 45 matches for Stoke in 2011–12 including six in the UEFA Europa League as Stoke finished in 14th position.

Wilson began the 2012–13 season in fine form but on 27 October 2012 he suffered a broken fibula playing against Sunderland. Just before his injury Wilson had signed a new three-year contract. He returned to training in January 2013. He made his return from injury against Fulham on 23 February 2013. He ended the season with 20 appearances to his name as Stoke finished in 13th position and at the end of the campaign manager Tony Pulis was replaced with Mark Hughes, which was met with approval from Wilson.

Following the signings of Erik Pieters and Marc Muniesa, assistant manager Mark Bowen stated that Wilson could revert to a midfield position in 2013–14. As expected Wilson began the season in a centre midfield spot and he stated that he is enjoying the change in style under Hughes. He failed to hold down a regular place in midfield and after spending a few months on the bench he returned to the starting line-up in December 2013, playing at centre-back after injury to Robert Huth. Wilson continued to play alongside Ryan Shawcross in centre of defence until the end of the 2013–14 season as Stoke finished in 9th position. Wilson played 30 times for Stoke in 2014–15 as Stoke again finished in 9th position. Wilson was the only Stoke player to be sent-off in the Premier League during the season after he received two yellow cards against Swansea City on 2 May 2015.

On 30 January 2016 Wilson suffered a knee injury in a FA Cup match against Crystal Palace ruling him out for up-to six months. Wilson made ten appearances in 2015–16 making just one league start.

Prior to the start of the 2016–17 season, Wilson cast doubt over his future at Stoke after he criticised manager Mark Hughes on social media.

AFC Bournemouth
Wilson re-joined Bournemouth on 15 August 2016 signing a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee. He scored his first goal in his most recent spell at the club in a 2–1 EFL Cup win over Morecambe on 24 August 2016.

After being a peripheral figure at Dean Court, Wilson re-joined Tony Pulis at West Bromwich Albion on 31 January 2017 on loan for the remainder of the 2016–17 season. He made his debut for West Brom on 6 May 2017, starting in a 2–2 draw against Burnley.

Sunderland
Wilson joined Championship side Sunderland on 31 August 2017 on a free transfer.

At the end of the 2017–18 season, following Sunderland's relegation, he was released by the club.

Bolton Wanderers
On 24 July 2018, he joined Bolton Wanderers on a one-year contract, becoming Wanderers manager Phil Parkinson sixth new addition of the close season.

He made his debut for Bolton on 14 August 2018 in an EFL Cup defeat against Leeds United at Elland Road. In his first full league start for Wanderers against Ipswich Town on 22 September 2018 he was red-carded in the first half of the game for bringing down Ipswich striker Kayden Jackson.

Player/coaching career in Iceland
In April 2021, Wilson joined Icelandic side Þróttur Vogum as player-coach where his former Portsmouth teammate Hermann Hreiðarsson was manager. He played ten total matches in the 2. deild karla during the season. He then joined another Icelandic team in the same player/coach role — ÍBV — following Hreiðarsson, who had also joined ÍBV. He played no matches due to struggling with injury throughout the season.

International career
Wilson was involved in an ongoing dispute between the Irish Football Association (who represent the Northern Ireland national team) and the Football Association of Ireland (who represent the Ireland national team) over international eligibility. He has been quoted as saying: "I think everybody has their own personal reasons for wanting to play for the Republic or the North. I grew up supporting the Republic so it was a comfortable decision for me."

Northern Ireland
Wilson played for Northern Ireland at under-15 level before switching allegiances to the Republic.

Republic of Ireland
Wilson later represented the Republic of Ireland at various youth levels including under-18, under-19 and under-21. Wilson received his first call up for the international side for a friendly against Brazil in March 2010, but did not feature in the game. He earned his first cap for the Republic as a second-half substitute in the 2011 Nations Cup against Wales in February 2011. In January 2012 new Northern Ireland manager Michael O'Neill offered Wilson a chance to switch allegiances again but Wilson rejected his offer. On 16 October 2012, he scored his first international goal in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying match in a 4–1 away win against the Faroe Islands with an impressive 25-yard shot with his right foot. He continued at left back throughout the 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign but Ireland failed to qualify.

In Martin O'Neill's first game as Irish manager against Latvia, O'Neill converted Wilson to centre back partnering John O'Shea. Ireland won the match 3–0. Wilson continued at centre back against Serbia. Wilson started in O'Neill's first competitive game as Irish manager against Georgia. Ireland won 2–1 thanks to a superb last minute winner by Aiden McGeady. Wilson started in the memorable 1–1 draw against Germany in Gelsenkirchen.

On 23 May 2016, Martin O'Neill announced that Wilson, who was named in the Republic of Ireland's initial 35-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016, had been ruled out of the campaign through injury. O'Neill told a press conference at the FAI National Training Centre: "Marc Wilson has had a setback. The best thing for him is to take four or five weeks off. He will be out."

International goals
Ireland score listed first, score column indicates score after each Wilson goal.

Club
Portsmouth:
 * FA Cup runner-up: 2009–10

Stoke City:
 * FA Cup runner-up: 2010–11

Republic of Ireland
 * Nations Cup: 2011

Individual

 * Stoke City coaching staff's player of the year: 2012

title: Marc Wilson (footballer)