text:
Introduction to Astrophysics

Astrophysics is the study of the physics of the universe. Various objects, such as stars, planets, and galaxies, are studied under the scope of astrophysics. Since astrophysics is a very broad subject, many disciplines of physics are typically applied.

Historical context

 * 1) Early Views
 * 2) Aristotle
 * 3) /Nicolas Copernicus/
 * 4) /Galileo/
 * 5) Johannes Kepler
 * 6) Isaac Newton
 * 7) /Albert Einstein/
 * 8) /Stephen Hawking/

Basics

 * 1) Stellar Luminosity
 * 2) Stellar Classification
 * 3) Hertzsprung‐Russell Diagram

Stellar Types
Real Hypothetical
 * 1) /Light Stars/
 * 2) /Heavy Stars/
 * 3) /Main Sequence Stars/
 * 4) /Red Giants/
 * 5) /White Dwarfs/
 * 6) /Black holes/
 * 7) /Neutron Stars/

The science of Astronomy relies on universality of Physical laws. "Same in the heavens as on earth". The world of stellar objects presents us with stupendously larger scales of agglomeration of matter and energy, at which to apply the known laws. Thus we are led to new predictions of entities that have never been observed before. Likewise some species of elementary particles and certain states of matter never observed on Earth need to be postulated in order to accord with observations. Some objects and phenomena falling in such categories and awaiting confirmation or further observational details are in this list. Eventually we expect them to be confirmed in all detail. If they contradict our predictions or conflict with phenomena known on Earth, well that would be even more exciting because that would be a new discovery awaiting explanation.
 * 1) /Black Dwarfs/
 * 2) /Quark Stars/
 * 3) /Protostars/
 * 4) /Dark Matter/
 * 5) /Dark Energy/
 * 6) /Vacuum Energy/

Stellar Formation & Evolution

 * 1) /Interstellar Medium/
 * 2) /Phases of Stellar Evolution/
 * 3) /Degenerate Stars/
 * 4) /Supernovae/
 * 5) /Compact Stellar & Relativistic Objects/
 * 6) /Close Binary Systems/

Stellar Structure

 * 1) /Hydrostatic Equilibrium/
 * 2) /Nuclear Reactions/
 * 3) /Energy Transport/

Star clusters and galaxies

 * 1) /Star Cluster/
 * 2) /Galaxies:Shapes and Evolution/

Quasars and Pulsars

 * 1) /Quasars/
 * 2) /Pulsars/

Appendices

 * A: Laws and Formulae
 * B: Astronomical Constants

title: Introduction to Astrophysics


text:
upoznati

Etymology
From.

Verb

 * 1)  to familiarize, get to know, get acquainted with
 * 2)  to meet, get introduced to
 * 3)  learn
 * 4)  experience

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: upoznati


text:
User:StuRat/rules

The following are based upon a supermajority of Ref Desk volunteers.

Certain Wikipedia policies, but not all, apply to the Reference Desk. The Ref Desk is not an article, and is not subject to any policies specific to articles. In general, the rules for talk pages apply at the Ref desk, although we strive to provide a level of quality matching that of Wikipedia articles. Since the Ref Desk is unique, some Ref Desk interpretations of Wikipedia policies are unique, as well.

Reference Desk Guidelines

 * Are answers with references outside of Wikipedia allowed ? Yes.

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 * If, and only if, the author replaces the comment four times, should an Admin be summoned, via a WP:3RR violation complaint.

There are also grounds for a "speedy deletion" by anyone, such as death threats, etc., but only the most severe cases of disruption warrant such actions (see WP:DIS). And, even in these cases, the author should still be notified of the deletion (on their talk page) and the reason (policy violations) given. An exception exists for anonymous I/P users, where notification is not required.

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 * d) To avoid personal vendettas in the removals. That is "you removed my post, so I'll remove yours". If a consensus is required for such removals, this type of petty behavior is unlikely.

title: User:StuRat/rules


text:
Talk:Irritator

Tall Vertebrae
I've seen a lot of illustrations of Irritator with a sail-like structure on its back, like Spinosaurus. Is this real, speculation, or a mistake? Benosaurus 03:31, 17 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Irritator was a spinosaurid, so it was likely had a sail-like structure. If it is Angaturama, it had tall neural spines. Firsfron of Ronchester  04:45, 17 February 2007 (UTC)
 * But just because it's a spinosaurid, doesn't mean it had a sail. Baryonyx didn't have a sail. And aren't Angaturama and Irritator considered to be the same? Benosaurus 17:53, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Sample Baryonyx though seems to be a juvenile of a Suchomimus' close relative or even of a Suchomimus species. It could be that neural spines developed in size with age. And after all since both Suchomimus (mostly related to Baryonyx) and Spinosaurus had a spine sail, the fact most propably strengthens the view of Baryonyx having lost that trait secondarily to the lineage split from Spinosaurus and Irritator.--Draco ignoramus sophomoricus (talk) 12:26, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Merge with Angaturama?
Shouldn't these articles be merged? FunkMonk (talk) 22:14, 25 December 2009 (UTC)

I would haveto say that they do look like the same dinosaur, and scientists are debating on if they are the same dinosaur.--Dinonerd4488 (talk) 17:51, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I would say that they should remain separate unless and until the two are accepted as synonymous. XinaNicole (talk) 05:05, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

Picture
The Italian page on Irritator has | this picture on the page. It shows Irrittator with its head crest for one thing. Should we includ it? Spinodontosaurus (talk) 17:34, 30 January 2010 (UTC)
 * No, the crest is wrong and the eye is way too big. FunkMonk (talk) 17:46, 30 January 2010 (UTC)

Synonymy of Angaturama and Irritator
In the section discovery, it is said that "If Angaturama and Irritator are actually regarded as a member of the same genus, Irritator challengeri would be the valid scientific name under the priority rules". Indeed, Charig and Milner (1997: p 57) wrote: "It seems very likely that Irritator too is a spinosaurid, and even possible that it is a senior synonym (by one month!) of Angaturama." Likewise, Sues et al. (2002: p. 537) said: "Thus we follow Charig and Milner (1997) in considering Angaturama limai a subjective junior synonym of Irritator challengeri, which has priority by one month". Nevertheless, Angaturama and Irritator were both published in February 1996. Unfortunately, I could not find any information on the publication day for each publication. In Research Gate, it is even said that the publication on Angaturama appeared in January 1996 (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282542666_First_Early_Cretaceous_theropod_dinosaur_from_Brazil_with_comments_on_Spinosauridae). Does anyone have additional information on that matter? Could Angaturama actually be the synonym senior of Irritator, and not the other way round? Cheers,--Christophe Hendrickx (talk) 17:10, 11 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Irritator. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162356/http://www.ufrj.br/detalha_noticia.php?codnoticia=7486 to http://www.ufrj.br/detalha_noticia.php?codnoticia=7486
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131219195023/http://archosaur.us/theropoddatabase/Megalosauroidea.htm to http://archosaur.us/theropoddatabase/Megalosauroidea.htm

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 21:26, 16 November 2017 (UTC)

What?
"The holotype fossil consists only of the front part of the head, which is kept today under the number USP GP/2T-5 in the University of São Paulo. "

^ Under "Description", this is an odd way to kick off describing Irritator, considering the sentence refers to Angaturama. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 23:45, 23 November 2017 (UTC)
 * The entire section seems to be about it, actually...  Luso titan  01:00, 24 November 2017 (UTC)

 * On another what-note, I wonder why all of Megalosauroidea needs to be shown in the cladogram here? Spinosauridae is all that's relevant to the article. Instead, it could be updated to show more actual spinosaurids. FunkMonk (talk) 03:12, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * I was going to do that but unfortunately I have no experience with cladogram templates. The whole process seems tedious to me and I'm not sure how to do it without messing up the format... ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  07:29, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * I trimmed it down to just Spinosauridae+Megalosauridae for the moment. --Slate Weasel (talk | contribs) 11:37, 6 September 2018 (UTC)

 * Seems like you just can't seem to catch a break these days,, another new spinosaur paper: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66261-w?fbclid=IwAR1lvJUzd_1pCfM0ChxGeOHKD51TX6zNy5apvvMhaLmikKmUzsptp3FTsSg FunkMonk (talk) 10:51, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * It would also seem to confirm that the skull was in Germany during the Brazil Museum fire. FunkMonk (talk) 11:02, 9 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Was in the midst of updating the page when I saw this, haha. Can't complain though! Nice to see so much good research being done on a very poorly-known clade. Already uploaded the free images by the way. More to add to an already image-packed article! ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  11:06, 9 June 2020 (UTC)

Requesting suggestions on "pre-GAN" work
I've done quite a bit of expansion at this point. The article has attained a size I hadn't expected and it looks like it's getting close to a GA nomination. However, given the amount of text that I've written (being a relatively inexperienced Wikipedia editor) I think this is a good point to ask for advice on some issues that I'm having trouble with. I've summarised these below after giving the article a look-over.

History of discovery

 * Pretty happy with this section, not much to note that wont probably be dealt with during the GAR.

Synonymy with Angaturama

 * Pretty happy with this section as it is, but let me know if there's any other paleontologists that have opinionated on the synonymy issue, or if there's something else relating to it that should be adressed.
 * Best one can do is always just to look through Google scholar and Jstor for references that mention the taxon in question. And then just try to get all of it through WP:RX or scihub. FunkMonk (talk) 13:46, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I have some sources I can send you, I sent an email about it. This book also seems to have some info: It seems to cover that skeleton too. FunkMonk (talk) 16:25, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, I recieved that email, will reply to it shortly! Thanks for that book as well, will certainly be useful. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  04:56, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Cool, tell me if the links work, then I will send the last pdf. FunkMonk (talk) 12:33, 18 October 2018 (UTC)

Description

 * I'd love to add something on postcranial anatomy here based on the skeletal material found in the Romualdo (especially MN 4819-V). But I'm having second thoughts on whether or not that constitutes as irrelevant or unecessary detail, since although these specimens were implemented into the Museu Nacional skeleton, they haven't really been "formally assigned" to Angaturama as much as implied to belong to it (See ). No paper from Machado, Kellner, Campos, etc. refers it to a genus and Aureliano and colleagues in 2018 considered all but the Irritator and Angaturama holotypes as Spinosaurinae indet. I admit this makes the most sense since the skeletons aren't associated with skulls, so we can't be sure whether or not they actually belong to either named genus or a completely new one. What are your guys thoughts on this? Personally I find it odd that an article on a dinosaur with images of its reconstructed skeleton has no information on body plan.
 * Has no source even suggested it might belong to Irritator? Even if it has not been assigned formally, if a source states they could belong, I think it should be covered. Also, if that's part of it shown next to the mount in the Brazil Museum, they must have at least considered it a possibility? FunkMonk (talk) 13:52, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Here Darren Naish says "a near-complete pelvis, a partial hand and various vertebrae (some of these specimens are on display at the Museu Nacional) - are implied to belong to Angaturama. Some of these elements are clearly incorporated into the mounted skeleton shown above.", which should probably be fine to add, or at least shows there might be more info to find. FunkMonk (talk) 16:25, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * That bit from the Naish blog post is in the first para of the Description section. The only places I've seen the skeleton be mentioned to belong to Irritator/Angaturama are the aforementioned blog post and the various portuguese news reports from when the exhibit was opened, where Kellner states that 60% of Angaturama's skeleton is now known, and that is what allowed the creation of the mount. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  04:56, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Ok, then it should be fine to state in this article that the connection has at least been informally implied... FunkMonk (talk) 13:35, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
 * By the way, should I remove dates from the length estimates? As suggested by Hendrickx for Baryonyx? ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  17:44, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Probably, I just did so in the Baryonyx article (slowly chipping away based on his suggestions). FunkMonk (talk) 00:40, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Done. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  00:57, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

Anatomy of the holotype

 * Pretty happy with this section, not much to note that wont probably be dealt with during the GAR.

Anatomy of the Angaturama holotype

 * Pretty happy with this section, not much to note that wont probably be dealt with during the GAR.

Classification

 * This is admittedly my least-favourite section to write in dinosaur articles, and right now it seems rather unwieldly and/or too detailed in some places (maybe that's just me). I'd appreciate some advice on how I can trim it down somewhat and if there's any other papers I should implement information from, perhaps there's a different way of handling those two cladograms as well.
 * If you want to save space, you could place the cladograms side by side, as in Elasmosaurus. FunkMonk (talk) 22:53, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Great idea! Done. I know nothing about formatting cladogram templates so it was mainly a copy-paste job. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  04:42, 18 October 2018 (UTC)

Paleobiology

 * Pretty happy with this section, not much to note that wont probably be dealt with during the GAR.

Paleoecology

 * After the whole Paleoenvironment discussion on Baryonyx due to the WikiJournal peer review I'm having second thoughts on whether the third para on semiaquatic habits should go here or in Paleobiology, is there any consensus on that or should we wait for a more general discussion on the WikiProject talk page?
 * I'd say it's function/behaviour, so would belong udner biology. Keeping such info under palaeoecology, as in Oxalaia, would mainly be if there is too little infor for a separate paleobiology section. But who knows, maybe there is even enough behavioural info in Oxalaia for a separate section? FunkMonk (talk) 13:44, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Done, placed under a new subsection under Paleobiology. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  04:42, 18 October 2018 (UTC)

Taphonomy

 * Pretty happy with this section, not much to note that wont probably be dealt with during the GAR.

I mostly noted major issues that'd be better to fix before a GA review. There's probably some that I didn't notice. In that case, I'd appreciate it if they were pointed out! ▼PσlєοGєєк ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  06:18, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I have a few thoughts on image layout, but will have a look at the rest soon. As for images, it would seem more logical that the image that shows the two skull fragments combined would go under synonymy, instead of being ion a section that covers the two separately. Also, it would probably make more sense to show the map first in the history section. Finally, the maniraptoran reconstruction seems it would make more sense under classification, where that hypothesis is actually discussed. FunkMonk (talk) 13:40, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * On a general note, there is a lot of duplinking, which can be detected with this script: FunkMonk (talk) 15:49, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * During FAC, you will most likely also be asked what the various restorations were based on, so best to link skeletals or list sources in all the file descriptions. FunkMonk (talk) 18:51, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Fixed duplinks and added references to images. Played around with the image layout, incorporating most of your suggestions. I left the historical reconstruction in the history section since that's usually where such images are placed, and also because the restoration doesn't portray it as a maniraptoran, but rather as a spinosaurid. Most dinosaur books and encyclopedias illustrated Irritator like that after it had been reassigned to the Spinosauridae by Kellner, while still using the outdated skull diagram as a reference. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  04:42, 18 October 2018 (UTC)

 * A few things I noticed (I will save the full review for FAC), you have one title called "Anatomy of the holotype" followed by "Anatomy of the "Angaturama" holotype". There are a few issues with this, first, you should state which taxon is covered in the first title for consistency. Second, genera don't have holotypes, only species do, so the full binomials might have to be spelled out. Third, Angaturama should probably not be in quotation marks anywhere in the article, since it is unknown whether it is a synonym or not. FunkMonk (talk) 14:28, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * All done. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * The "holotype of genus" issue also appears in other parts of the text. FunkMonk (talk) 14:40, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Changed to species name in all mentions of both holotypes. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * The text mentions and shows a false gharial, but aren't spinosaurs mostly compared to "actual" gharials? The abstract for the cited text doesn't mention the false gharial, so I wonder if the text and image here should be swapped. FunkMonk (talk) 14:28, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * True, very little comparison has been made to false gharials, that text and image was there from before. Changed now. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  18:49, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * Shouldn't the image of the mount eating a pterosaur be moved to the feeding section now the relevant info has been moved there? FunkMonk (talk) 14:28, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Done. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * I imagine no sources cover this, but it seems funny that the Angaturama skeletal mount clearly seems to include the Irritator skull too. This would seem to indicate that Kellner acknowledges the two are synonyms, yet still use the name Angaturama for it... FunkMonk (talk) 14:28, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I noticed that as well. But, as you said, there is no source that mentions it. Most people in Brazil seem to know this dinosaur by the name Angaturama, most likely because of the mount. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * "remains the complete preserved skull known for a spinosaurid." Most complete? Also, the article body doesn't seem to state it. In what way is it the most complete, when the two holotypes are combined? FunkMonk (talk) 14:40, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Added it to the main article text under History of discovery. It's the most complete spinosaur skull by itself, even without the Angaturama snout. I thought it was a surprising fact at first, but then I remembered that we actually know very little of the braincase in Baryonyx, Suchomimus, and Spinosaurus, And even the completeness of Spinosaurus's snout has been questioned, with the Sigilmassasaurus debate going on and all. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * Maybe the caption to the taxobox image should clarify that the postranium is hypothetical/based on remains that cannot be confidently attributed to the animal. FunkMonk (talk) 14:40, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Went with the second option. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  16:07, 19 October 2018 (UTC)

 * Changes look good, you can maybe get more opinions if you "advertise" at the dino project talk page, but you could also just GA nominate it now I think. One last image nitpick, I think maybe the image of the skeleton under diet could be swapped with the head restoration under paleoecology? Could look good juxtaposed with the gharial photo. FunkMonk (talk) 20:34, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Hmm, I think I'll leave the images where they are. The closeup of the neck and skull, in my opinion, fits better with the adjacent discussion on the mechanical biology of the head. While the head restoration was created with the ecology section in mind, which is why the animal is depicted near a shoreline. I'll hold off on GA nominating it for now; there's still a few things I'm gonna do before that, such as adding more researcher's opinions on the synonymy discussion, cleaning up the Classification section, and adding a brief subsection describing the postcrania. The rest of the article looks good to go for GAN, though! I was surprised at the amount of research there is pertaining to this taxon. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  21:56, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Yeah, perhaps a copy edit would also come in handy before FAC at least, they're getting a lot stricter on the prose there. As for sources, we were extremely lucky that revaluations of both Irritator and Thalassodromeus were published right before the Brazil museum fire (Thalasso was redesribed just a few months before!). Without that, it would probably have been impossible to ever write such definitive accounts here. FunkMonk (talk) 22:36, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Added the brief postcrania subsection, and a diagram of MN 4819-V's arm to go with it. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  22:13, 21 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Now's as good a time as ever to nominate for GA. This is the most work I've done on any article, so a pair of fresh eyes is certainly needed. See you during the FA review, ! When the time comes. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  01:38, 23 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Good luck, it certainly looks promising! FunkMonk (talk) 01:46, 23 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I was just thinking that you will probably be called out during FAC for using blog sources, so it will maybe be good to state this outright in the FAC blurb, pointing out that the bloggers are respected in their fields, as I for example did in the Nemegtomaia nomination. FunkMonk (talk) 19:28, 29 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Good idea, I'll keep that in mind! There were also some minor suggestions in that review that I implemented in this article as well, which are always nice to find. ▼PσlєοGєєк  ƧɊƲΔƦΣƉ▼  19:37, 29 October 2018 (UTC)

Angaturama separate Article
It says here that Angaturama is distinct from Irritator, with a clade formed by MSNM V4047, and Irritator, and then a larger clade with Oxalaia, and then an even larger clade with Angaturama, and shows that Angaturama is much more basal than Irritator. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2021.2000974?journalCode=ghbi20 Savage Almond (talk) 01:07, 18 January 2022 (UTC)
 * That is one out of several contradictory studies. If a consensus emerges, we could do it, but that's not the case yet. FunkMonk (talk) 06:19, 18 January 2022 (UTC)
 * The prematurely published Irritator osteology paper also keeps them separate. What do we think should be done about this, ? FunkMonk (talk) 23:35, 5 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Now it's out, and seems it's more ambiguous: "Given the uncertainty in the tooth count, tooth positions given in the following always refer to preserved positions. Although our tooth position interpretation would invalidate the main argument used by Sales and Schultz (2017) to exclude Angaturama from being the same specimen as the holotype of Irritator, these authors provide further tentative reasons, such as relative proportional differences and slight differences in the preservational mode (Sales and Schultz, 2017). Based on our observations, we cannot provide any further information that could resolve this question." FunkMonk (talk) 00:33, 12 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Irritator


text:
kuvitus

Noun

 * 1) The illustration of a publication collectively.

Related terms

 * adjectives:
 * nouns:, , , ,
 * verbs:, frequentative , ,

title: kuvitus


text:
Wikijunior talk:South America/South America

Anyone know how to get the images working? i got them from South America The bellman 00:41, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Continent?
America is a continent, South America is just part of it. At least that's how we learn it in Brazil. Is it taught differntly in other countries? <IP_ADDRESS> 00:53, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * most of the world says that there are seven continents; Europe, Asia, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South America, and North America. HOWEVER almost everyone in south and north america, says that there are only six continents. And since the name of this wikijuniour book is South America, i guess we have litle choice but to use the seven continents. Geologicaly, they are very different, and in a few bajillion years wont be touching each other. But really the whole continent idea is pretty stupid, since its a mashing together of geological boundries and political boundries (europe and asia are a good example) The bellman 01:08, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I put the following info box about continents into the article (after the first paragraph), but it was screwing up the contents, anyone who thinks they know how to put it in with out breaking everyting have a go. remember if you screw up, we can always revert. The bellman 01:31, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Continents
A continent is a large mass of land, sorounded by water. Some people think that there are seven continents, while others think there are only six, or even five. The seven basic continents are; Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. However many people belive that North and South America are parts of one bigger continent called The Americas while others believe that Europe and Asia are actually just part of a bigger continent call Eurasia.

 * I'm in North America- I was always taught they were seperate continents. Didn't realize anyone else thought they weren't. <IP_ADDRESS> 02:45, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC) and that would be me Lyellin 02:46, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * do you live in Canada or the US? I'm preety sure the US teaches it as the americas, but canada because its part of the commonwealth might teach it as north and south. I dunno. Does anyone have any objections to it being written as two continents, with a clarification in the info box (if anyone manages to work out how to put the damn thing in with out fucking up the contents)? The bellman 00:20, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm in the US, always taught them as being seperate. Clarification is fine, even good. You learn new things, good to teach the kids ;) <IP_ADDRESS> 04:42, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

translations
What do people think of the translations box? add in more english words if you think they are necessary, and ill try and fill in the translations. The bellman 01:11, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Yo y'all, i was just wondering if we should include french and dutch into the translation box. I know nothing of those languages, so someone else would have to do the translations. what do others think? The bellman 23:56, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I have only studied Quechua 1 year, but I have learned different ways to say most of those things... I'm learning Qusqu dialect. These phrases must be from another, I don't doubt that they're correct. I'll add my versions, feel free to to remove if it is too confusing...but really my teacher never says several of these (she is a native speaker of course).

Europeans
The "Europeans" section states that Iberians were the first colonizers. This is not entirely true; the French first colonized French Guyana as early as 1604. Guyana was first colonized by the Dutch in 1616 (Essequibo), and then later the British; indeed it is one of the few pockets of non-iberian heritage, still speaking English. The French and Dutch both set up early colonies in Brazil, in 1555 and 1630 respectively, but failed. Suriname was first colonized by English, and then the Dutch. I think that covers about all of the non-Iberian early settlement. What do you think? --Dmcdevit 03:23, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The Incas are dead
In the part where we talk about the indigenous people, the Incas are mentioned as the most famous ones. In fact, "Inca" was the name given only to the rulers of the empire. This means that someone "plebeian" was not an Inca. Furthermore, the Incas are considered long dead, regardless of who you are referring to, royalty or not. I think we should either change the paragraph to be in the past tense or talk about the descendants of the Incas, but the latter I think would be too confusing for the kids. --Arca 23:01, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Offending religious feelings (Poland)

Picture
I wonder if there are any other pictures that could be added here? --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 09:45, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

Offending religious feelings in Poland (?)
Should this be moved to the above title? - GizzyCatBella  🍁  20:59, 6 September 2020 (UTC) *Oppose, this is the only article on offending feelings.--Alpha Pasha (talk) 11:14, 7 September 2020 (UTC) (blocked sockpuppet)
 * Oppose No disambiguation is necessary (at least for now) because Wikipedia has no other article about offending religious feelings (WP:DAB). However, there appears to be a similar law in the Philippines, and if a standalone article was created on that, disambiguation might make sense.

 * The standard English phrase is "offend religious sensibilities" though "sentiments" also occurs (both sound better because of assonance). Why is 'feelings' used? Seems a bit of a calque. Malick78 (talk) 12:35, 2 March 2021 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Blasphemy law with Offending religious feelings
We have this Blasphemy law already, why do we need a dedicated article about Poland? (besides the fact that if we do, then the title should reflect that this article is about Poland). GizzyCatBella 🍁  21:58, 6 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose:
 * Blasphemy law is already 60 kB of readable prose, above the recommended article size;
 * Articles about blasphemy laws in other countries already exist such as Blasphemy law in New Zealand
 * The subject is clearly notable as it is discussed in many reliable sources. (t · c)  buidhe  22:08, 6 September 2020 (UTC)
 * So change the title to Offending religious feelings in Poland maybe? Or perhaps Blasphemy law in Poland to keep it consistent with Blasphemy law in New Zealand etc.? -  GizzyCatBella  🍁  22:13, 6 September 2020 (UTC)
 * See above. (t · c)  buidhe  22:17, 6 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Above does’t address my concerns Buidhe, I’m afraid.. - GizzyCatBella  🍁  22:18, 6 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Which concerns? Anyway, "blasphemy law" is not the WP:COMMONNAME for this law and some sources distinguish between "religious insult" and "blasphemy" laws, this one is in the former category. (t · c)  buidhe  22:51, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

 * I agree with User:Buidhe - strong oppose; at the same time, I think the article might be renamed "(Poland)"; I have tried to address what I felt were the most glaring NPOV issues, Maculosae tegmine lyncis (talk) 23:31, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

 * Rename to Blasphemy law in Poland. A synonym for the idea.

BTW, I can see a weird reference in the Blasphemy Law / Poland section: dailystormer.name (!) -> https://www.tvp.info/40355485/jerzy-urban-w-areszcie-domowym-opinia which is an attack piece.

This is The Daily Stormer. What the heck? Somebody reads it and lands at an (embedded?) tvp Poland article and proceeds to edit Wiki while logged to DS? I will fix it there, with a comment. Zezen (talk) 06:27, 7 September 2020 (UTC) *Oppose. Jesus, Mary, and Joseph! Combining this article into Blasphemy law will lead to a hugely large section on Poland. Also blasphemy and hurting feelings are not the same, in Poland Biedroń was investigated for hurting feelings and all he did was remove a picture of a dead Pope from his office, which is not blasphemous. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image anyone?--Alpha Pasha (talk) 11:20, 7 September 2020 (UTC )( new - possible single-purpose account ) - GizzyCatBella  🍁  23:02, 15 September 2020 (UTC) (blocked sockpuppet)
 * Support merger or renaming as a second option - I guess I should support this as a nominator. -  GizzyCatBella  🍁  10:08, 7 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Support renaming as Blasphemy law in Poland per Zezen. Cbl62 (talk) 22:50, 15 September 2020 (UTC)


text:
European History/Authors

Zach B is a sophomore at Unionville High School in Pennsylvania. He has edited much of the text and looks forward to making the book more easy to read and more interesting to the casual learner.

Alex Botero-Lowry is a senior in high school in the United States. He is interested in history and especially enjoys European History. He started this project because he could not believe there was not a European History text started, and has greatly enjoyed researching the material so far. He sadly has little time to work on the project but just decided to rearrange things so that he would be more able to work on the project. He tries to keep in contact with anyone who begins to work on or edit the project, so please email him if you become interested.

Payam Doostzadeh is currently a sophomore at Woodbridge High School, in Irvine, California. He is currently attending school on a regular basis while taking on a rigorous academic course and having fun on the weekends with his friends. He is a man with dreams, dreams that cannot be denied. Wisdom is the key to wisdom.

Josh Harmon is a sophomore at Brea Olinda High School. He wants to contribute as much as he can to this Wiki so that his fellow classmates, as well as future AP European history students will have a resource that can assist them with the course.

Brandon Johnsonn is a pseudonym for this contributor. He is an avid learner and tweaked the chapter on exploration and discovery for easier understanding. He is in late junior high school.

title: European History/Authors


text:
Talk:Mueang

Subdivisions of Thailand says: The district which contains the capital is named Amphoe Mueang

so what's the meaning of Mueang? Tobias Conradi (Talk) 23:26, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Mueang is simply "city" or "town" - thus "Amphoe Mueang" means something like city district. However the cities nowadays have as full name "thesaban mueang" (see List of cities in Thailand). Thus to call "Mueang" a "former subdivison" is nonsense, as I tried to explain at Category talk:Former provinces of Thailand at the beginning of the 20th century there was no division between "town" and "province", and even today many Thais don't know about those "thesaban" entities. IMHO instead of this nanostub (wikipedia is not a dictionary) this can be redirect to List of cities in Thailand, or a yet to create article about the administrative structures of cities is Thailand. andy 08:48, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Talk:Monthon, because after what you say here the article is buggy. Tobias Conradi (Talk) 17:50, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * What do you mean? What part is wrong? andy 17:53, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

It says monthon were made up of changwats. then you come and say XY changwat (Category talk:Former provinces of Thailand) was not a changwat, but a mueang. This info should be added to monthon. The intro does not mention mueang at all. Tobias Conradi (Talk) 17:57, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The monthon did contain provinces, which however were more-or-less just cities. The term changwat was introduced during the administrative reforms, at first in 1907 for the provinces in Monthon Pattani, and in 1916 it became in general use. Before these entities were usually simply called Mueang. The fact that these towns became provinces in the modern sense is covered in Provinces of Thailand. andy 18:12, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Maybe instead of writing here, fix monthon. This article is confusing.
 * Together with the monthon also the still existing provinces (changwat), districts (amphoe) and communes (tambon) were established nationwide.
 * The system was officially adopted by the 1897 Local Administration Act, after some monthon were established before and the details of administration were tried out. Tobias Conradi (Talk) 18:25, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Miiang
Anybody know enough Lao to comment on miiang? I often hear it used in Isan. I don't know how it is spelled in Lao script, but miiang is used in many instance, especially in footnotes referring to titles of sources, in the history of 18-19th century Thai vs. Lao, beginning with the fabric of history. --Pawyilee (talk) 03:17, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Source
Paths to conflagration : fifty years of diplomacy and warfare in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, 1778-1828. Authors: Mayurī Ngaosīvat [Mayuri Ngaosivat]and Pheuiphanh Ngaosyvathn. Publisher: Ithaca, N.Y. : Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 1998. Series: Studies on Southeast Asia, no. 24. Edition/Format: Book : English. ID Numbers: Open Library OL433527M | ISBN 10<PHONE_NUMBER> Library Thing 4223523
 * LC Control Number 98141866 | OCLC/WorldCat 38909607 |

Review
 * With this work, the authors, Mayoury and Pheuiphanh Ngaosyvathn, offer us a wealth of information on the history of a small kingdom, the Lao, centered at Vientiane, in modern Laos, caught between expanding core states (Burma, Thailand, and Vietnam) in the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth century. The authors draw upon a wide literature and an impressive range of languages to present a clear and careful picture of a very complex period in Lao and Southeast Asian history.

 * This book is really the story of Chou Anou, the last of the Lao kings of Vientiane and his struggle against rivals on all sides. Chou Anou played a political game between the expansionist Thai and Vietnamese states in the late eighteenth and ear]y nineteenth centuries, a game that his kingdom eventually lost. Because of the Tay Son, Vietnam was out of the picture for decades; the central Thai court was Chou Anou's chief antagonist. When Vietnam does enter the picture again under Minh Mang, it is as a supporter of Chou Anou, in the context of a larger Thai-Vietnamese competitive hostility. Fighting between Thailand and Vientiane appears on an extremely personal level in the text — the authors stressing at one point Rama III's anxiety that a massacre of Vietnamese emissaries and Lao guides by a Thai officer had not left enough dead, considering an earlier massacre of Thai by Chou Anou in Vientiane (p. 242); they stress also the personal nature of the fighting between Chou Anou and the Thai general Bodin. Further, the text seems almost to replicate, anachronistically, aspects of war more endemic to the post-World-War II conflicts in Indochina, including a reference to "sophisticated Siamese psychological operations" (p. 212).

 * Paths to Conflagration is organized into nine chapters, each covering a different episode of the period, examined step-by-step, and turns from one incarnation of Vientiane to another — from victim to provocateur to buffer state. Each page is heavy with documentation, but the narrative is lighter. This book has three real strengths. First, it discusses history at the point of intersection between three different polities and does not apply the nation-state "cookie-cutter" approach — looking only at developments as they relate to a state-centered narrative (thus framed by political borders). Instead of the history of Laos, we find here the history of a very turbulent period in which political borders did not mean very much in delineating the boundaries of action. Second, this book makes use of a very wide range of sources, especially from the Thai archives, spanning a large number of languages (including Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Chinese, French, English, and German — both primary sources and secondary literature) and a multitude of perspectives. Third, this book focuses attention on developments sometimes left out of analyses of mainland Southeast Asian history, such as the all-important impact of migration, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no mistake that migration is referred to over and over again in chronicles of the period, from western Burma to Vietnam, and that migration is used as metaphor for political change and state reformation for far earlier periods in these chronicles. Here too, migration played a very important role, as the authors stress both migration into the Lao kingdom, and forcible expulsion by the Thais, as a basis for the well-being and even survival of the Vientiane-based state.

--Pawyilee (talk) 03:50, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Etymology
An email contact has told me the Müang in Müang Fai is not a stand-alone word, and that Müang is unrelated to Mueang. --Pawyilee (talk) 11:54, 12 June 2013 (UTC)
 * I've addressed the controversy as best as I can. --Pawyilee (talk) 05:06, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

The word mueang
mueang means "Old City" I am not sure where to add that translation information <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 13:58, 18 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mueang


text:
Cookbook:Skate

The term skate is used in Britain to describe almost any member of the ray family or Rajidae; especially the genus Raja. They have flat pectoral fins continuous with their head, two dorsal fins and a short, spineless tail.

In the kitchen, two parts of the skate are cooked as food. Skate wings are the pectoral fins. When skinned, they take the form of a sheet of cartilage separating two layers of fibred flesh. The wings can be cooked in a variety of ways. The simplest is to dust the wing on both sides with seasoned flour and shallow fry fairly quickly. They can also be poached in a court-bouillon. To eat, scrape the flesh off the cartilage with a knife and fork. Skate wings are often served with a caper sauce.

Less commonly seen are skate knobs. Stop giggling. These are balls of flesh from the cheeks of the fish. They are easily and quickly cooked by shallow frying. You can also coat them in breadcrumbs before cooking. Overcome any qualms you have, because they are very tasty.

title: Cookbook:Skate


text:
St. Stephan railway station

St. Stephan railway station (Bahnhof St. Stephan) is a railway station in the municipality of St. Stephan, in the Swiss canton of Bern. It is an intermediate stop on the Montreux–Lenk im Simmental line of the Montreux Oberland Bernois Railway.

Services
The following services stop at St. Stephan:

 * Regio: hourly service between Zweisimmen and Lenk im Simmental.

During the ski season there is a connecting bus to the Lengebrand–Parwengesattel chairlift to the Rinderberg.

title: St. Stephan railway station


text:
Ericeia epitheca

Ericeia epitheca is a moth in the family Erebidae first described by Charles Swinhoe in 1915. It is found on New Guinea, where it has been recorded from Fergusson Island.

title: Ericeia epitheca


text:
User:IUB-jl73/sandbox

Art
Laura Kina creates art which relates to race, religion, class, family, and identity, more specifically Asian American and mixed race identity. Kina's work typically studies highly personal subjects such as her own family circle, friends, memories, and dreams. It is precisely the intimate relationship Kina has with her subjects that allows her to examine complex social and political issues with great care and detail. Her solo exhibitions include Blue Hawaii (2014), Sugar (2010), A Many-Splendored Thing (2010), Aloha Dreams (2007), Loving (2006), and Hapa Soap Operas (2003). She has exhibited at the Chicago Cultural Center, India Habitat Centre, Nehuru Art Centre, Okinawa Prefectural Art Museum, the Rose Art Museum, the Spertus Museum, the University of Memphis, and the Wing Luke Museum of the Asian Pacific American Experience.

 * Aloha Dreams (2006–2008)- the series comments on issues of immigration/migration, heritage, and orientalist fantasies, through the exploration of color, pattern figuration, and abstraction. Kina utilizes Pop Art images, textile design, as well as works of Gaugin, compelling the viewer "to think of the history of Hawai'i and ultimately of the layering of myths and perceptions of place and subject within the painting". Diana Lowenstein Fine Arts in Miami, FL. 2007.

 * Loving (2006)- the series was inspired by the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision Loving v. Virginia, which declared race-based legal restrictions on marriage unconstitutional. The artist uses the genre of Portrait to examine mixed race issues. In the words of the artist, "these life-size charcoal portraits of myself along with other mixed race friends surround the viewer in a meditative half circle that simultaneously embraces and confronts the viewer". Grand Projects in New Haven, CT 2006.

 * Mishpoche (2005–2007) destroyed- the name "Mishpoche" refers to the Yiddish word for family. The artist relates her personal experiences as she examines her own complex identity. This series' main installation is a 12' by 12' quilt-like area created using 60 smaller paintings (enamel on wood), each depicting a sliver of the artist's identity. These paintings constitute a platform which the viewer is invited to walk on after donning a pair of beach flip flops which line the sides of the installation. This feature enhances the viewer's intimacy with the subject, allowing a closer reflection on the patterns and subjects portrayed. Among the panels are depictions of fabric patterns, a Talith, and a Challah cover. Walsh Gallery Chicago, IL. 2005Diana Lowenstien Fine Arts Miami, FL. 2007.

 * Hapa Soap Operas (2002–2005)- the term Hapa is Hawaiian and literally means “half”; it has been used colloquially to describe mixed race Asian and Pacific Islander Americans. Kina grew up describing herself as hapa although the term has since come to be contested. The series consists of paintings based on photographs the artist took of mixed race Asian Americans from across the country. Some of the paintings are larger-than-life oil paintings, while others appear as actual movie posters that were installed in flashing movie poster marquees.  Diana Lowenstein Fine Arts 2003

 * Refrigerator Portrait Series (2001)- in this series Kina comments on class, family, and identity, by creating trompe-l’oeil depictions of household refrigerators. The refrigerators are titled after their owners, all members of Kina's extended family. The paintings convey something about their owners' identities through magnets, drawings, and other items appearing on their doors. This series deals with the ever-blurring boundaries between race, religion, and national identity. One of the paintings, titled "The Rosenfelds", depicts a high end Sub-Zero refrigerator made of shining steel and surrounded by custom wood cabinetry. Unlike the other works in this series, this refrigerator’s surface is unadorned. In its stark simplicity, its formal presence invokes the work of Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman. “While the variety of adornments on the Kina-Aronson fridge indicates a multiplicity of identities, the interiors of the refrigerators, and, by extension, the inner lives of their owners, remain closed to the viewer”. Spertus Museum, Chicago, IL. 2007-2008Rose Art Museum Waltham. MA. 2008

Laura Kina New Work (2012-2013) New paintings about Okinawa, Hawaii, and family history

Laura Kina Sugar Artist Statement

Set during the 1920’s-1940’s, Laura Kina’s SUGAR paintings recall obake ghost stories and feature Japanese and Okinawan picture brides turned machete carrying sugar cane plantation field laborers on the Big Island of Hawaii. Drawing on oral history and family photographs from Nisei (2nd generation) and Sansei (3rd generation) from Peepekeo, Pi’ihonua, and Hakalau plantation community members as well as historic images, Kina’s paintings take us into a beautiful yet grueling world of manual labor, cane field fires and flumes.

Laura Kina Devon Avenue Sampler Artist Statement Devon Avenue Sampler features vintage and contemporary street signs and imagery from my West Roger’s Park Chicago immigrant neighborhood where Orthodox Jews, Hindus, Muslims and Christians all live.

title: User:IUB-jl73/sandbox


text:
User:Sebmol/wikiversilinky

Hi. I'm wikiversilinky a Wikiversity IRC bot operated by sebmol. I'm not at all like these bots. (I don't edit pages. I just help out in IRC channels like #wikiversity-en)

My jobs
My jobs include (but aren't limited to):
 * translating links - when someone types  some link  using the square brackets, I know it's a Wikiversity page and display the full url on the next line. I also understand Interwiki links.
 * finding missing persons - type in !seen so-and-so and I'll let you know when I last saw so-and-so in the channel.
 * time of day - just type in !time and I'll show you the time-of-day across the planet.
 * ...I'll let you in on more when you're ready

My channels
Sometimes I have to clone myself. (Don't you wish you could do that?) I may have a trailing number.
 * #wikiversity-en
 * #wikiversity-de
 * ...who really knows?

As is, no warranty
I'm pretty much complete. I'm a bit of a hand-me-down and my creator wishes to remain anonymous. So please like me the way I am. wikiversilinky grins sheepishly

title: User:Sebmol/wikiversilinky


text:
Alkhadzhakent

Alkhadzhakent (Алхаджакент; Алходжагент, Alxocagent) is a rural locality (a selo) and the administrative centre of Alkhadzhakentsky Selsoviet, Kayakentsky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. The population was 2,411 as of 2010. There are 25 streets.

Geography
Alkhadzhakent is located 23 km southwest of Izberbash. Mamaaul and Usemikent are the nearest rural localities.

Nationalities
Kumyks live there.

Famous residents

 * Sheykh Ismailov (Doctor of Biological Sciences)

title: Alkhadzhakent


text:
User:Artix Kreiger/Chusquea grandiflora

Chusquea grandiflora is a species of Chusquea bamboo in the grass family.

Distribution
Chusquea  is endemic to

title: User:Artix Kreiger/Chusquea grandiflora


text:
Mort Crim

Mort Crim (born July 31, 1935) is an author and former broadcast journalist. Crim joined Channel 4 (soon to be named WDIV-TV) in Detroit in 1978. Crim stayed with the station 19 years before retiring from anchoring TV newscasts in 1997. Previously, he served as an anchor at WHAS-TV in Louisville, KYW-TV in Philadelphia and WBBM-TV in Chicago. Crim was considered to be a top candidate by former ABC News president Roone Arledge to be a co-anchor for ABC's World News Tonight newscast in 1978. In 1984, he hosted a technology program on PBS, New Tech Times. Crim is also a founder of a Detroit area integrated marketing agency, Mort Crim Communications, Inc. Crim served as a spokesman for Majic Window Company in Wixom, Michigan, and for several years was featured in television commercials for that company.

Crim anchored the American Information Network (ABC) program News Around The World in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as well as many other hourly newscasts. In addition to his anchoring duties, Mort Crim also has four syndicated editorial and news features for radio: One Moment Please (originally a television feature), News You'll Care About (a five-minute news summary), Second Thoughts and American Spirit. He was also previously a substitute anchor for Paul Harvey's daily radio programs.

Crim contributed an intro monologue to The White Stripes' song "Little Acorns", from their 2003 album Elephant.

Crim read the eulogy at news colleague Jessica Savitch's memorial service, following her 1983 death.

Crim remains active as a keynote speaker, addressing conventions and conferences across the country. He is the author of seven books and has recently completed his eighth, a memoir. He also writes and produces television documentaries—his most recent, Flight Level Seven Four and Still Climbing, an account of the solo cross-country flight he made in his light sport aircraft to celebrate his 74th birthday.

In February 2007, Crim was diagnosed with colon cancer. According to his doctors at Mayo Clinic, the cancer was caught early and Crim has since made a full recovery.

The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia inducted Crim into their Hall of Fame in 2009. He also has been inducted into the Michigan and Illinois broadcast halls of fame and Northwestern University's Hall of Achievement.

Crim earned his master's degree in journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism. He is the recipient of five honorary doctorates.

In a 2013 interview, actor/comedian Will Ferrell revealed that Crim was the main inspiration for his popular TV news anchor character Ron Burgundy.

Between 2017 and 2018 Crim appeared as himself in 12 episodes of the Comedy Central series Detroiters.

In September 2023, he narrated a minute-long teaser video promoting singer-songwriter Olivia Rodrigo’s sophomore studio album Guts.

title: Mort Crim


text:
User:Andy isonline

nick: andy

currently pursuing electrical engineering. interested in a career in computer networking and security. email: andy_isonline@yahoo.com

title: User:Andy isonline


text:
Time in Finland

Finland uses Eastern European Time (EET) during the winter as standard time and Eastern European Summer Time (EEST) during the summer as daylight saving time. EET is two hours ahead of coordinated universal time (UTC+02:00) and EEST is three hours ahead of coordinated universal time (UTC+03:00). Finland adopted EET on 30 April 1921, and has observed daylight saving time in its current alignment since 1981 by advancing the clock forward one hour at 03:00 EET on the last Sunday in March and back at 04:00 EET on the last Sunday in October, doing so an hour earlier for the first two years.

Before the 19th century, each locality followed its own solar time, which meant the time between the western and easternmost localities of Finland differed by thirty minutes. In the 19th century, a single time zone across Finland was needed to coordinate scheduling for the newly invented railway and telegraph. In 1862, the mean time 1:39:49.2 ahead of UT was adopted for the railway. Two separate, unsuccessful proposals for a standard time zone were made by the Diet of Finland in 1888 and 1897, when Finland was an autonomous duchy of the Russian Empire. On 30 April 1921, the newly independent government officially adopted the time zone UTC+02:00, known as Eastern European Time. Daylight saving time was first attempted in 1942, but abandoned as not useful. It was introduced again in 1981, so that Finland's time zone could always be aligned with neighbouring countries. In 2017, the Finnish parliament voted in favour of proposals calling on the European Union to consider abolishing daylight saving time.

Finland's time zone is maintained by the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation. Using atomic clocks, they make sure the official timekeeping devices in Finland do not fall behind. Finland's high latitude means that in summer the nights are short, and daylight saving time has no impact on the population. Northernmost Finland is within the Arctic Circle and has a polar night lasting 51 days and a polar day lasting 73 days, whilst the southernmost localities of Finland experience less than six hours of daylight in winter and an average of 20 hours of daylight in summer. The country uses the 24 hour clock notation.

History
Before the 19th century, there was no need for a single time zone across Finland, and each locality followed its own solar time. This meant that if it was 12:00 in Helsinki, the local times in other localities would range from 11:40.02 in Mariehamn, Åland, to 12:10.53 in Kuopio, North Savo. The railway required more precise timetables than earlier means of transport, such as sailing ships and stage-coaches. The telegraph, which allowed near real-time communication, also made it inconvenient for each location to observe its own solar time.

The first railway line in Finland (the Hämeenlinna–Helsinki railway) was inaugurated in 1862. Its timetables were noted in a common mean time, measured at the Helsinki University Observatory from the mean time of UTC+01:39:49.2, known as "Helsinki time". A ball was released at noon and its falling was noted optically at the railway station and the clock adjusted accordingly. If it was raining, which would prevent the ball from being seen from that far away, noon would additionally be announced by a shot from a cannon. The correct time was relayed to the other stations via electrical telegraph, which had been introduced in Finland in 1854. On the Riihimäki–Saint Petersburg railway, inaugurated in 1870, Helsinki time was used as far as Kaipiainen, just east of Kouvola. In 1882, clock synchronisations to Helsinki time by telephone were arranged between the Finnish Meteorological Institute and Sweden's National Meteorological Institute in order to conveniently conduct geomagnetic measurements.

The International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., in October 1884 divided the world into 24 meridians, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. Each meridian had an hourly offset from Greenwich Mean Time in the United Kingdom (which was agreed to be the prime meridian at the conference), ranging from GMT−12:00 to the west to GMT+12:00 to the east. However this was not immediately implemented in most countries, including Finland. In October 1893, most of the railways in Europe adopted the offsets GMT (also named Western European Time), GMT+01:00 (Middle European Time or Central European Time) and GMT+02:00 (Eastern European Time). The implementation of this was overseen by the American Railway Association. Between 1893 and 1895, several countries in Europe adopted standard times that corresponded with one of these three time zones, but Finland did not.

In 1888, the Diet of Finland asked Emperor Alexander III of Russia (Finland was at this time an autonomous part of the Russian Empire) for Helsinki time to be established as standard throughout Finland. Alexander thought it was enough that the railways had their standard time. A second motion for a standard time was proposed by the government in 1897, now proposing to adopt Eastern European Time as the nearest standard time to Helsinki time. However it was again without success, as the Diet thought that switching to the proposed GMT+02:00 would be met with protest from the railways which used Helsinki time, and subsequently result in there simultaneously being two time zones in use. Nevertheless, as the range of telecommunications increased, Helsinki time spread to common usage throughout the country as it made communications more convenient. Finland became independent in 1917, and in late 1919 the Geographical Society of Finland wrote a proposal to the government that Finland adopt Eastern European Time. The government agreed, and on 12 March 1920 the Minister of Justice decreed that from 1 May 1921 the standard time of Finland would be Eastern European Time. On 30 April 1921 at midnight on Walpurgis Night, the official time was advanced 20 minutes and 10.9 seconds to Eastern European Time, to become the standard time zone for the country. The time change went smoothly, and no major objections were made by Finns. The railways easily adapted to the change.

1929 proposal to adopt Central European Time
Between the late 1920s and mid-1930s, development of railway and telegraph connections increased communication between Finland and its western neighbours. Finland's observance of Eastern European Time, while other countries to the west used Central European Time at GMT+01:00, caused difficulties for some businesses, such as differentiating office hours which resulted in inconveniences when making telephone connections. In June 1929, the Finnish Post and Telegraph Board proposed to the Finnish government that Finland's standard time be switched to Central European Time. The proposal failed to gain support, as the Ostrobothnia Chamber of Commerce released a statement in September arguing that Finnish companies were adequately adapting to the two time zones.

The possible time zone change was discussed at the European Timetable Conference in Stockholm in October 1937, where the representatives of Finland, alongside Estonia and Latvia, agreed to present the proposal for the transition to Central European Time to their respective governments. Initial reactions by Finns to the proposal were positive, but the proposal was scrapped after the Finnish Medical Society Duodecim argued that it would misalign biological time and lead to detrimental health effects. The Finnish Post and Telegraph Board also withdrew its original 1929 proposal, and the Ministry of Transport rejected the proposal.

Introduction of daylight saving time
Daylight saving time was first attempted on 2 April 1942, after the Finnish Medical Society Duodecim claimed that observing daylight saving time would provide economic benefits (the later light in the evenings means less energy consumption) and limit food consumption. The clock moved forward one hour at 24:00 and back again on 4 October at 01:00, but the government did not find daylight saving time useful and its observation was abandoned. In 1980, the other Nordic countries introduced daylight saving time, in line with the directive from the European Economic Community, as did the Soviet Union in 1981. In order to avoid the disturbance of changing time differences with the rest of Europe, daylight saving time was introduced again in Finland in 1981, which was observed from 02:00 EET the last Sunday in March to 03:00 EET on the last Sunday in October, following the same schedule as the other Nordic countries and the Soviet Union so that their time zones could always be aligned. Since 1983, the change has been made an hour later. When Finland joined the European Union (successor to the European Economic Community) in 1995, it continued to observe daylight saving time in line with said directive and is now bound by European Union law to follow it. The current government regulation stipulating that the European Union directive be followed came into effect in 2001.

Daylight saving time
Finland observes daylight saving time by advancing the clock forward one hour from Eastern European Time in UTC+02:00 to Eastern European Summer Time in UTC+03:00 at 03:00 EET on the last Sunday in March and back at 04:00 EET on the last Sunday in October. Finland has observed daylight saving time since 1981. Finland's high latitude means that in summer the nights are short (in Helsinki in July, there are only five hours between sunset and sunrise), and daylight saving time has no impact on the population. In spring and autumn it does (with Helsinki experiencing between 13 and 18 hours of sunlight in spring and 11 to 6 hours in autumn), in addition to the advantage of keeping the time coordinated with other countries.

Proposals to end daylight saving time
In 2017, the Finnish parliament voted in favour of proposals calling on the European Union to consider abolishing daylight saving time, and a citizen's petition that same year asking the state to give up the practice received 70,000 signatures. At the time, the European Commission was reviewing it. On 8 February 2018, the European Parliament voted to ask the European Commission to re-evaluate daylight saving time in Europe, and on 12 September 2018 the European Commission decided to propose an end to daylight saving time, which would thus repeal Directive 2000/84/EC. In order for this to take effect, both the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament were required to approve the proposal. On 4 March 2019, the European Parliament Transport and Tourism Committee approved the commission's proposal, with a start date planned to be postponed until 2021 at the earliest in order to ensure a smooth transition. This decision was later confirmed by the European Parliament on 26 March.

As of March 2022, the approval from the Council of the European Union had yet to be obtained as the European Union was preoccupied with the COVID-19 pandemic. If the practice were to end, it is not known whether or not Finland would decide to remain on permanent winter time (UTC+02:00) or permanent summer time (UTC+03:00). Yle, Finland's national broadcasting company, has stated that the government would first gather expert opinions and consult the public before implementing changes. A 2018 survey conducted by the Ministry of Justice, which received over 120,000 responses within its first 24 hours, revealed a small majority were in favour of observing permanent winter time over permanent summer time, and a 2019 petition to observe permanent summer time received 50,000 signatures.

Geography and solar time

Most of Finland lies within the geographical UTC+02:00 offset. The southwestern coast of Finland, including the city of Turku, the northwestern most part of Finland, including the villages Kilpisjärvi and Kaaresuvanto, and Åland are all located west of 22°30' East, and fall under the geographical offset of UTC+01:00. Finland's standard meridian is located at the 30th meridian east. Northernmost Finland is within the Arctic Circle and has a polar night lasting 51 days and a polar day lasting 73 days. Because of Finland's high latitude, in summer there is no local utility to daylight saving time. All localities north of Sodankylä (67°25'N) experience polar night. The southernmost localities of Finland experience less than six hours of daylight in winter and an average of 20 hours of daylight in summer. At Muotkavaara, a tripoint border between Finland, Norway and Russia, three time zones meet during Finland's winter time: Central European Time (UTC+01:00) in Norway, Eastern European Time (UTC+02:00) in Finland, and Moscow Time (UTC+03:00) in Russia. {{legend|none|Standard time}} {{legend|yellow|Daylight saving time}}

Maintenance

The VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation are responsible for implementing leap seconds to Finland's time zone, following the International Bureau of Weights and Measures as defined by the International Telecommunication Union. Finland adopted Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1972 in order to implement these leap seconds and remain in the correct atomic time of Earth's rotation. Since Finland's first leap second occurred on 30 June 1972, 28 more have been implemented – occurring on either 30 June or 31 December – the latest occurring on 31 December 2016. VTT also transmits a high-precision time signal produced by six atomic clocks that maintain Finland's official time zone at a frequency of 25 megahertz to make sure the official timekeeping devices in Finland do not fall behind. Since the end of 2009, VTT's official time has remained within 30 nanoseconds of UTC. Furthermore, VTT is also responsible for clock synchronisation on computer networks connected via the Internet, relying on the Network Time Protocol (NTP), which is supported by the Ministry of Finance, and takes time directly from other external sources, either GPS, an atomic clock or a BIOS clock. Though the protocol is designed to account for variable latency between networks, the accuracy of time synchronisation ultimately still depends on a network's internet connection speed and bandwidth. As an example, VTT noted that a network connection at a speed of 100 Mbit/s results in a 0.0001 second delay between the official time of Finland and that of what is displayed on a computer. The accuracy worsens with slower connection speeds and delayed bandwidth.

Notation
In Finnish writing, the 24-hour clock notation is used. A baseline dot is used as the standardised and recommended separator between the hour and the minute (e.g. "15.07" or "8.27"). The use of a colon is also common especially in relation to telecommunications and digital clocks, but is not recommended in normal text. Midnight is written as "24.00". The notation for times within the first hour of the day starts with one zero (e.g. "0.15"). Leading zeros are not used (e.g. no "09"). If greater accuracy is needed, seconds are added using the same symbol as the one used to separate the hours from the minutes (e.g. "1.27.36"). Fractions of a second are added using the comma as separator (e.g. "1.27.36,30"). For time ranges, a hyphen is used (e.g. "12–21" for noon till 9 pm).

In normal text, the time can also be spelled out using the 12-hour clock, with clarifications as needed (e.g. nine in the morning: morning+nine → "aamuyhdeksältä"). The practice in Swedish is similar. Finland previously used the 12-hour clock, switching to 24-hour time in 1928 to comply with the 1926 Schedule Conference on European Railways' agreement for universal timetables across railways.

IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Finland is given two zones in the file zone.tab – Europe/Helsinki and Europe/Mariehamn for Åland. "AX" and "FI" refer to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes, the former being for Åland and the latter for the country in general. The table below displays data taken directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database. Columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:

Computers which do not support "Europe/Helsinki" or "Europe/Mariehamn" may use the older POSIX syntax:.

title: Time in Finland


text:
pilastro

Etymology
From, compare 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1)  pillar, column
 * 2)  pilaster
 * 3) obelisk
 * 4)  mainstay a chief support
 * 1)  mainstay a chief support

title: pilastro


text:
Talk:None So Vile

Singles
The page lists Phobophile as being released as a single for this album, however, I couldn't find any sources for that (at least not on discogs.com), which I find a tad bizarre. Can somebody confirm/deny that it was/n't, in fact, released as a promotional single? Arrythmic (talk) 12:49, 12 October 2020 (UTC)
 * There was no "single" that Cryptopsy released in the 90s of any kind. Wikipedia album articles always do this shit for some reason — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk • contribs) 26 september 2021

title: Talk:None So Vile


text:
User:Demidafabolus/sandbox

Name: Demi D/O/B: 29/07/1999 Age: 15

Demi Is A Strange Creature She Lives Of Rum Truffles In The Winter Is Obsessed Bars And Melody. And She's Telling Me To Stop Writing This

title: User:Demidafabolus/sandbox


text:
SA NC Doing Investigations/Chapter 8

Clusters, support networks and communities of practice
The ideal environment in which to bring about change, either system-wide curriculum change or more local efforts to change, say, to a more investigative approach to teaching and learning, is one where teacher support is freely available - when and where needed. Ideally the "when" is all the time and on demand. And ideally the "where" is in the place where educators encounter their problems and difficulties: the classroom. Giving support is not as simple as it sounds. For a start, the giver and receiver should be in a trusting, professional relationship. Secondly, the receiver must trust the support giver's knowledge and skills in that discipline. And thirdly the support giver must be an expert. The fact is that nowhere is the ideal commonplace. Givers and receivers of professional support seldom have the time to develop the perfect "mentor-mentee" relationship. There are never enough experts in school education as their skills are in high demand, making them very mobile. It seems to be the way of the organizational world that experts are promoted away from their areas of expertise as they are probably too competent in too many areas! And then there is the principal limitation: money and not enough of it. No government anywhere can afford the cost of quality support needed to effect major change in a very short time. Finally, we all have responsibilities and lives to live beyond our work and so the demands on people and their own time must be kept reasonable.

Now where does this leave us? Is enduring curriculum change a pipe dream? Well, actually, no. If teachers like our MSTotY finalists and many others like them are anything to go by, it is not. We, the willing, can change the curriculum and provide better science and mathematics to all South African learners. But it will take steady progress, creativity and energy to bring about any changes we desire. This chapter offers a few simple suggestions on one course of action. Quite simply, educators can't wait for "the department" to do everything for them. An answer is to develop educator-to-educator support networks. How to organize these depends so much on local circumstances that it is pointless to go into too much detail but here are some provisos for viable teacher support networks. We must start with teachers who:

 * really want to improve themselves professionally;
 * really want to receive support;
 * are prepared to put in effort to improve themselves and each other;
 * are really prepared to give to others as well as receive from them;
 * live reasonably close together;
 * are prepared to meet regularly;
 * are prepared to try new things and ...
 * are prepared to fail (at first) in their attempts to change without withdrawing.

With a group of like-minded professionals we can establish "communities of practice". In our context a community of practice is a group of educators who live and work in close proximity and who can meet regularly to offer practical and moral support; to share ideas and to recount successful teaching experiences. Together educators can analyze their failures and see them not as sources of embarrassment but as sources of really useful, professional knowledge. Building a community of practice takes time and patience but it is a basis for true professional development. Because a community of practice is teacher-driven it encourages a stronger commitment to professional development than official programmes that are attend reluctantly and infrequently. How does one start a professional growth and development group that will become a healthy community of practice? An approach is for a small, committed group to answer a few, key questions. The questions should be re-visited and possible answers re-negotiated as the group grows. The moral "buy-in" of all members is critical so it is important to give every member the chance to add his or her views to the debate. Here are some guidelines.

Who are you?
Someone needs to take the initiative and put out invitations to local schools and teachers to get together. Once this has been done the ball will roll if there is a perceived need for such a grouping.

What do the group members need in general?
Ask this question and come to a consensus about a programme.

What do the group members need, specifically?
Specific, curricular or teaching support. But be realistic. The group can't equip labs or supply computers!

Why do the group members need these things?
Opens the discussion on group members' circumstances and gets a mutual appreciation of each others' problems.

Needs by phase / grade?
Catalogue needs. This will help with the development of the group's programme. After the initial discussions, is there still a genuinely felt need for the group/network?

Clustering.
Schools within close proximity; with similar needs; and with resources or expertise that they are willing to offer to / share with the whole group.

Optimum size: what can YOU handle?
Don't be over-ambitious. Although there may be a great need to serve this group, you cannot do it alone.

What REAL official support is available?
Survey this and find out from local education authorities.

Cooperating with official bodies and personnel.
Make the co-operation with official bodies and persons a priority. Get their blessing and buy-in for the idea.

Sustaining professional development: communities of practice.
When group members start seeing their efforts and participation as important to the survival of the group; and when the survival of the group becomes professionally important to the individual group members, you have a community of practice.

Limitations / problems / weaknesses / difficulties.
Identify and acknowledge these. Then reduce or solve them.

Where are you?
Know where group members teach and try to have all members visit the schools of all other members.

Committees.
Keep committee work to a minimum and make sure that the bulk of meeting time is spent on doing professional work Â and not talking about trivial, administrative matters.

Functions of committee members / portfolios.
If a small committee is formed, make sure that each member has a portfolio and that there is general agreement in the whole group of roles and responsibilities.

Exam setting by cluster.
This is a useful way to get the group collaborate and to address an important need.

How often to meet?
Balance frequency versus efficiency.

Communicating.
Establishing a "communication triangle so that no-one has to contact more than two people:

[[Image:DoingInvestigations_chp8_1.png

Running successful workshops.
The "workshop" has become a standard in development work, and for good reason. A good workshop involves more doing and less talking; an occasion where participants experiment, investigate, hear and share new ideas, and give themselves time to think of better approaches in an engaging atmosphere. Some key features of successful workshops are:

Participant selection:
Workshop participants begin by selecting themselves, in that they should already have done something to show that they are passionate about improving maths, science and technology (MST) education in their schools or districts. Punctuality and attendance; responsiveness, participation and enthusiasm for MST; and the willingness to share their curricular and content insights are important. The group decides who is welcome and who is not.

Intensive engagement:
Workshops must be intensive with total immersion in MST, the principles of OBE and activity-based teaching and learning. This also means workshops that are not too short or where people are arriving late and leaving early. Teacher participants who cannot cope with intense, hard work should not be part of the group in the first place.

Modeling:
At MST workshops, the presenters should try to model good MST education and OBE practice, from planning to presentation. Participants must be able to imbibe the spirit and application of good teaching and learning, the first principle of which is "maximum learner activity."

Less is more:
Less focus on recallable answers (less "right answer-ism") and more focus on the processes of scientific and mathematical investigation, exploration, discovery and pattern-seeking. Less talking and more doing does not mean no time for critical discussion and reflection. It means a shift in emphasis from talk to action. OBE: The context of all MST work done is set by the spirit of OBE. But worry less about OBE terminology and OBE Policy and give more attention to elements of good MST education that promote OBE.

Technology:
Technology Education is a wonderful means to integrate mathematics and science learning and gives both learning areas relevance. Emphasise mathematical, scientific and technological literacy. (The "literacies" get their meaning from an ability to apply MST knowledge to real life. Technological problems are solved by using science and mathematics in context.)

Resources:
Place an emphasis on using waste and recycle-able materials and on improvisation. Any resource that enables learners to do hands-on work is important. Teachers cannot wait for such materials to be supplied and must work together to create them through ingenuity and improvisation.

Follow up and "Subject Advisors":
A focus of the community of practice model is to develop "lead teachers" who give rather than take the lead in their own group's development. Ideally MST lead teachers should serve a wider, provincial commitment to MST- and HR Development but this is not essential. Subject advisors are ideally placed to take the "community's" lead teachers into a wider development process but again, this does not have to be a primary aim of the home-grown support and development network. Educators should see themselves as professional friends and mentors for the other members of their group. Where possible members should observe each other's teaching.

Keep a reflective journal

 * It is not a report of factual information but a record of personal insights and of expectations, perceptions and feelings about one's teaching activities.
 * Journal entries should include observation, speculation, doubt, questioning, self-awareness, problem stating, problem solving, expressing sentiments and emotions, stating ideas regarding content and direction of one's teaching.
 * What did you learn today that you can apply to your teaching in the future?
 * What questions did today's lessons raise for you?
 * What do you need to learn more about?
 * Did you encounter anything today that was a complete surprise to you?

title: SA NC Doing Investigations/Chapter 8


text:
User:Santoshlib

Voluntary Library is also called as popular libraries, circulating libraries and social libraries. It can be described as "a library established voluntarily, having a social service motive as the prime objective, by an individual, informal group or an organization other than Government of any kind or jurisdiction". Or "a library established by voluntary group to make the books accessible to public with or without any membership charges".

title: User:Santoshlib


text:
manati

Etymology
From, from.

Noun

 * 1) manatee any of several plant-eating marine mammals, of family Trichechidae

Noun

 * 1) catapult, slingshot

title: manati