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Days with Dr. Yen Lo

Days with Dr. Yen Lo is a full-length studio rap album by the duo Dr. Yen Lo – Ka and DJ Preservation. The pair recorded the album at The End in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York, where it was released on May 16, 2015 via Pavlov Institute Records. The album was produced by Preservation with Tim Fodness as co-producer. The group's name, as well as the album title, were inspired by Khigh Dhiegh's character Dr. Yen Lo from John Frankenheimer's 1962 film The Manchurian Candidate.

The album was Ka's fourth studio album, following 2013s The Night's Gambit and preceding Honor Killed the Samurai released in 2016. The duo had previously collaborated together on 1200 B.C. an extended play released in 2014. The trailer for the album was released on February 12, 2015 via Ka's YouTube channel. The album features 12 tracks, all named "Day" followed by a number. A series of music videos were released for three of the tracks:"Day 0", "Day 3" and "Day 70", all directed by the duo.

Themes and recording
Rapper Ka released The Night's Gambit in July 2013 before working on a collaborative Extended play with DJ Preservation in 2014 which released as 1200 B.C. The pair decided to name the record after Dr. Yen Lo, Khigh Dhiegh's character from the 1962 political and psychological thriller The Manchurian Candidate by John Frankenheimer. The album was written not to retrace the plot of the film but plays soundbites interspersing original lyrics.

Similar to The Night's Gambit this was recorded in The End in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York, Nathan Stevens from Spectrum Culture suggests the record is designed to be "anti-pop, meant to make listeners profoundly uncomfortable." Ka plays the part of the narrator and Preservation takes the position as director.

Critical reception
Days with Dr. Yen Lo was met with generally favorable reviews from critics. Samuel Diamond of Tiny Mix Tapes gave it maximum score saying that the album is "a work of art that feels fully realized on every level, from the Bigavelian harmonization of each seamlessly stacked Ka ad lib to the mix-mastery of each precisely-pitched Preservation sample". Critic Tom Hull said "rapper Ka and producer Preservation styled this concept album after the notorious Chinese doctor-hypnotist in The Manchurian Candidate, which also provides occasional snatches of dialog. The story strays but the music is hypnotic, with or without the monotone raps". Nathan Stevens of Spectrum Culture said that the album "builds the same world of anxiety, paranoia and treacherous twists as The Manchurian" and is "anti-pop-rap, meant to make listeners profoundly uncomfortable". Winston Cook-Wilson of Pitchfork said that the album "doesn't retrace the plot of the film or the book that inspired it, but instead engages with its themes, playing off of soundbytes interspersed between songs".

M.T. Richards of Spin stated that "This is an album about fear, death and strategic miscarriage in buckshot-logged East Brooklyn, where the carrot of job security is no incentive to hold out hope". American rapper Earl Sweatshirt highly praised the work, calling it the "album of 2015".

Personnel

 * Kaseem "Ka" Ryan – vocals
 * Jean Daval – producer
 * Tim Fodness – co-producer
 * Chris Pummill – recording
 * Charles Scott Harding – mixing
 * Michael Fossenkemper – mastering
 * Mark Shaw – design
 * Rahkeim Calief Meyer – vocals (track 7)

title: Days with Dr. Yen Lo


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Medic to Medic

Medic to Medic is a UK registered charity supporting trainee health workers in developing countries with the costs of their education.

History
The aim of the Medic to Medic is to guarantee the tuition fees for healthcare students who have academic potential, but are in financial need in developing countries. With this consistency of income, students are able to focus on their studies until graduation.

Medic to Medic links student health workers in developing countries to international donors. In this way, they function along the lines of “sponsor a child” schemes run by well-known charities. Of note, although individual students are linked to donors, donations are pooled so that even if a donor withdraws, no student is left disadvantaged. At first, donors were mostly health professionals (hence “Medic to Medic”), but now include many members of the public as well.

Students send their linked sponsor regular updates on their progress. This can then develop into a correspondence if the donor so wishes. Students are supported with tuition fees and other necessary allowances as well as being given a medical equipment pack and textbooks so that they have everything they need to reach their FULL potential and successfully qualify as health workers in their home country. As of September 2021, over 62 students are being supported with a graduate alumni of over 140 health professionals.

Medic to Medic has expanded from sponsoring only medical students to sponsoring a whole range of trainee health professionals, from one country to three and from one university to six. This has all been thanks to donors, fundraisers, supporters, partner institutions and a fantastically enthusiastic team.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Medic to Medic


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Talk:High school trigonometry for physics

Shouldn't this article specify that we are talking about a right-angled triangle, and define terms such as hypotenuse.

Ofey 07:49, 12 October 2008 (UTC)-Yeah I agree! I got the basics down. I still think that opposite/adjacent cathetus should be defined but I didn't have time to do it now, I'll try to do it later.


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Leslie Gaston

Leslie Gaston Marcus (born Leslie Anne Gaston; August 9, 1980) is an American former soccer player who played as a defender.

Youth
Gaston began playing soccer at the age of four, and played on boys' club teams until 1994. In 1995, she played on the boys' varsity soccer team of Saint James School as a captain, and was an all-city selection. She tore her ACL in late 2005, but returned from injury to compete in track and field in early 1996. She was as a state finalist in the 4 × 100, and finished fifth in the 100 and 200 meters, earning her the 1996 Rehab Associates award for the comeback of the year. She again competed in boys' varsity soccer and track in early 1997. She finished third in the state in the long jump and sixth in the 100 meters for track, and was a 1997 Parade and NSCAA All-American. She was the captain of the girls' varsity soccer team in early 1998, earning her all-state honors.

Gaston was named on regional Olympic Development Program teams from 1993 to 1995, 1997 and 1998. She played for the Briarwood Lady Lightning club team from 1994 to early 1997, before joining Atlanta's Tophat Soccer Club in late 1997. With Tophat, she won the 1997 state championship in, the 1997 WAGS Premier Cup, the 1998 Junior Orange Bowl championship, and the 1998 Region 3 championship. She was also named to the U.S. under-17 national team pool in 1997, and made the under-18 team in 1998 before withdrawing due to injury.

College
Gaston joined the North Carolina Tar Heels on an athletic scholarship in 1998. However, she redshirted during the 1998 season due to an ACL injury. In her debut 1999 season, she played a reserve role, suffering a torn MCL in her only start of the season, resulting in her missing several games during the season. The team went on to win the 1999 national championship. She played a greater role during her second season as a defensive midfielder, scoring four goals and recording one assist in 24 appearances as the team went on to win the 2000 national championship. She started all 25 games of the 2001 season primarily as a left-back, scoring three goals and recording two assists. In her final season she made 26 appearances and scored one goal. She was an All-American in 2002, selected to the second team by the NSCAA and third team by Soccer Buzz, and was named as the most valuable player of the ACC tournament. For the same season, she was included in the All-ACC second team, and was included in the All-Southeast Region by the NSCAA and Soccer Buzz. During her college career, she made 92 appearances for the Tar Heels, scoring ten goals and recording four assists.

Club
After finishing her college career, Gaston was selected as the second pick of the second round of the 2003 WUSA Draft (tenth overall) by the Atlanta Beat. She made her debut for Atlanta on April 5, 2003, against the New York Power, assisting Kylie Bivens's opening goal of a 5–0 win. Gaston made 18 regular season appearances during the 2003 season, with the team finishing second and qualifying for the playoffs. In the semifinal against the San Diego Spirit, she assisted Charmaine Hooper's winning golden goal four minutes into extra time to advance to the 2003 WUSA Founders Cup. She started in the Founders Cup against the Washington Freedom, earning a penalty at the end of the first half, which Charmaine Hooper converted to equalize the score at 1–1. Gaston was substituted out before the start of extra time, with Atlanta going on to lose six minutes later to a golden goal by Abby Wambach.

Gaston played for the Atlanta Silverbacks in the USL W-League from 2005 to 2006. She was named the defensive player of the year for the 2006 W-League season, and was included on the All W-League and All-Central Conference teams.

In July 2009, the newly founded Atlanta Beat in Women's Professional Soccer named Gaston as an assistant coach for the team's inaugural 2010 season. However, she ultimately did not serve on the team's coaching staff.

Personal life
Gaston was born to Eddie and Sally Gaston in Montgomery, Alabama, where she grew up and attended Saint James School, graduating in June 1998. She went on to graduate from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in December 2002 with a bachelor's degree in communications. After the Women's United Soccer Association folded in 2003, she began working as a marketing coordinator for arts and entertainment at The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. She married her husband David Marcus in April 2009, working at the time at a graphic design firm. They resided in Atlanta until 2014, when they relocated with their 2 children to Carbondale, Colorado.

Gaston dealt with numerous injuries during her career, primarily on her knee, requiring eleven surgeries (six on the left knee and five on the right). Her first knee surgery occurred in high school, while the remaining ten were in college. This included five surgeries to replace her anterior cruciate ligament. However, she continued to play soccer against the advice of doctors. Despite dealing with knee pain after finishing her career, she would later state: "if I had to do it all over again, I wouldn't change anything. I know that sounds strange. But all the injuries have shaped my character and life in a way that I never thought something as devastating as having five ACLs could. I know whatever obstacles I face, I can get through them." She also broke her right leg, broke her ankle twice, bruised her kidney, broke her collarbone, and had four concussions all before finishing high school.

title: Leslie Gaston


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Windows XP/Security Software

Antivirus
The cyberworld is full of threats to computer security. Among the most common are computer viruses.

Broadly speaking, a computer virus is a program that when executed attempts to "infect" other programs by modifying them (embedding a copy of themselves in the code) or by changing their execution path system-wise (so that a request to run program X causes the viral code to be executed too). Usually it stays active in memory, infecting programs run by the user.

Being self-replicating is damaging enough (they tend to clog the system's resources) but since virus writers are mostly malicious, they often include a payload - a damaging action triggered by an event the coder decided upon. The payload may cause data loss, damage to Windows' integrity and/or leakage of valuable information (passwords, email addresses, credit card numbers).

An active antivirus is a necessity when connected to the Internet, since some modern viruses (in the like of Sasser, MyDoom, etc.) try to exploit known security flaws (hopefully patched with a Windows security update... eventually) to remotely infect a computer without any user interaction.

Windows XP does not include built in antivirus functionality, but many products, free and commercial, exist to protect your computer in real time. Here is a short list of software that does the job.

 * AVG™ Antivirus (Commercial product but includes free version)
 * Clamwin Free Antivirus (GNU GPL - opensource project)
 * Comodo Antivirus (Commercial product by Comodo, offers free version)
 * avast! Antivirus (Commercial product by Alvil Software, offers free "Home" edition)
 * Avira Antivirus (Commercial product by Avira, offers free "Personal" version)
 * Has an incremental update feature, ideal for slow Internet dialup connections

 * Norton™ Antivirus (Commercial product)
 * Bundled on many OEM PCs. A rather heavyweight suite of programs.

 * Trend Micro™ Antivirus (Commercial product)

Trend Micro™ also offers a free web-based scan.

Keep in mind however that all antivirus products essentially do a best-effort attempt to recognize and remove "code patterns" in an executable that resemble known viruses (some also use heuristics and behavioral analysis to guess if viral activity is taking place). Therefore:
 * The viral definitions must be updated regularly for the software to remain effective
 * They cannot detect all possible viruses, so always use caution with unknown executables (consider the circumstances: e.g. if emailed to you from someone you know ask the sender anyway before opening them)

For more information on the various Antivirus products, and for test results by independent bodies, visit: AV-Comparatives and/or AV-Test. Also check the Sunbelt blog periodically, where clearly summarized results from AV-Test.org are published regularly.

Firewall
A firewall basically monitors and filters network activity directed to and from your computer. It is first of all a security concept which involves a security policy, software and/or hardware components.

 * By filtering Ping ICMP requests from the Internet (that mean "Is anybody there?") your computer will stay silent and hidden from hackers.
 * Malformed messages may cause undesirable behavior if, as usual, there are known glitches in the software to exploit.

The main feature of the personal firewalls (e.g. Norton, McAfee etc.) is to block open ports so that they cannot be accessed from the Internet. This allows you to deny suspicious requests. The (very basic) Windows XP firewall does this too, and versions after the Service Pack 2 update should be sufficient to protect most home users with basic needs.

Since software firewalls also check outbound traffic, they should in theory prevent Trojan horse programs that have breached the system from sending data to their creator. Unfortunately certain advanced malware is capable once in control of disabling specific firewalls (and antiviruses).

A hardware firewall is a physical device that interfaces two network segments. Most routers have one built-in that is sufficient for most home networks when used in conjunction with a good software firewall. If you need better security a dedicated firewall can be used (like Cisco Pix if the budget allows it) or for instance a Linux-based firewall system run on a older computer (e.g. IP-Cop).

Most hardware firewalls also support VPN (Virtual Private Network) connections and are capable of NAT (Network Address Translation), a feature that hides the real IP addresses of your network's computers from the outside world.

Some personal firewall programs (software firewalls):
 * Comodo Firewall (Free. Commercial Pro-Plus version also available)
 * Comodo's firewall has come to be regarded as one of the best free firewalls available by many experts. Having said that, it is more suitable for advanced users as it is highly configurable and produces more frequent warnings - which requires more decision-making by the user than other firewalls. Also included with the comodo firewall are a Host Intrusion Prevention System (HIPS) and a feature called "Clean PC Mode", which profiles a new PC and its applications and registers the existing applications as safe. From then on, only applications that are specifically allowed by the user, or those listed on Comodo's white-list of trusted applications are allowed to be installed on the PC.

 * Zone Alarm (Free. Commercial "Pro" version also available)
 * The Zone Alarm firewall is relatively easy to use, but it has become slightly bloated over time with tutorials, wizards, et cetera. It is an improvement over the Windows XP firewall though. Update: The Zone Alarm firewall now comes bundled with the Ask toolbar. This toolbar has been rumored to border on spyware, and is produced by InterActiveCorp (IAC), which is a company with a dubious past. Although the former is open to debate, the option to install the ask toolbar is pre-checked during the installation of Zone Alarm, which in any case renders the ask toolbar foistware in many security analysts' view.

Unfortunately, these personal firewalls implement some features in a highly ineffective way (e.g. "stealthed ports") and some other security measures employed by them can be avoided quite easily, like ZoneAlarm's privacy protection.

Anti-Spyware
The term spyware refers to a relatively new breed of malicious software (that first came under scrutiny around 1999) that focuses on stealing personal information and valuable data for unsavory purposes like identity theft. (Adware is a slightly tamer version of spyware that tracks your web surfing and sends you targeted advertisement, usually in the form of popup windows.)

Spyware typically installs on a computer without the user's informed consent, either bundled with another program or by exploiting one of the many bugs of Microsoft's Internet Explorer (the mammoth web browser bundled with Windows) to perform a "drive-by download" on visiting a specially crafted web page.

Antiviruses and firewalls have a hard time with these programs. Once compromised the computer may be instructed to download more spyware. The user will then experience massive slowdowns and system instability.

To cut a long story short, prevention is the best strategy. The point is to try reducing your computer's "window of exposure." A passable, free solution could consist in the following programs that complement each other:

 * Ad-Aware (Commercial, free "Personal" edition)
 * Can fix most spyware issues. To enable preemptive blocking you would have to buy the payed-for version.

 * Spybot S&D (Free program distributed under a "Dedication License")
 * Slightly glitchy. Detects known malware using heuristics. It has several features (mostly accessible in "Advanced mode"). Useful ones are the 'Immunize' function, the download-blocker BHO, and a blacklist of "bad" URLs that can be added to your HOSTS file.

Note: to minimize the hassle of updating you can insert the following commands into a batch file (.bat or .cmd extension) (replace %SBPATH% with the installation path):

@echo off CD %SBPATH% SpybotSD.exe /taskbarhide /autoupdate /autoimmunize /autoclose

Consider also trying Microsoft's Windows Defender (freely downloadable if you use a "genuine copy" of Windows).

If you discover that you are heavily infected (with "advanced spyware" that self-repairs and/or kills known anti-spyware products), also consider if making a backup of your files, erasing your hard drive and reinstalling a clean version of Windows would be less time-consuming than trying to recover a completely compromised system.

Rogue Applications
There are many rogue security applications that exist for Windows XP. Rogue security applications are programs that pretend to clean and protect computers from malware, but the program itself is actually malicious. Visit Wikipedia's Rogue Software Article for more information on rogue applications. For a frequently updated list of rogue programs, visit: Spywarewarrior and Wikipedia's list of fake anti-spyware programs. As a general rule, stick to well-known and trusted security applications such as the ones mentioned in this wikibook.

title: Windows XP/Security Software


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List of accolades received by Enthiran

Enthiran is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language science fiction film directed by S. Shankar and produced by Kalanithi Maran. Shankar wrote the screenplay and co-wrote the dialogues with Sujatha and Madhan Karky. The film stars Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai with Danny Denzongpa, Santhanam, and Karunas playing supporting roles. The musical score was composed by A. R. Rahman while the cinematography, visual effects, editing, and art direction were handled by R. Rathnavelu, V. Srinivas Mohan, Anthony, and Sabu Cyril respectively. The film's story revolves around a scientist's struggle to control his creation, an android robot whose software is upgraded to give it the ability to comprehend and generate human emotions. The plan backfires when the robot falls in love with the scientist's fiancée and is further manipulated by a rival scientist to bring destruction to all who stand in its way. The film was dubbed into Hindi as Robot.

Produced on an estimated budget of ₹1.32 billion, Enthiran was released on 1 October 2010 and yielded a revenue of ₹1.79 billion according to a report by the Sun TV Network. The film garnered awards and nominations in several categories, with particular praise for its cinematography, visual effects, art direction, costume design, and Rajinikanth's performance. The film has won 25 awards from 38 nominations.

At the 58th National Film Awards ceremony, Enthiran won two awards for Best Special Effects (Mohan) and Best Production Design (Cyril). The film was nominated in nine categories at the 58th Filmfare Awards South, winning Best Cinematographer (Rathnavelu), Best Art Director (Cyril), and Best Costume Design (Manish Malhotra). At the 5th Vijay Awards, the film was nominated in fourteen categories and won in seven, including Best Villain and Favourite Hero (Rajinikanth), Favourite Film (Maran), and Favourite Director (Shankar). Enthiran won three awards at the 12th IIFA Awards under the Best Special Effects, Best Art Direction, and Best Makeup categories. Among other wins, the film received three Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards, two Screen Awards and Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards each, one Mirchi Music Award and Tamil Nadu State Film Awards each, and a special award at the 24th Tokyo International Film Festival.

title: List of accolades received by Enthiran


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Animal Behavior/Mimicry and Camouflage

Mimicry
A major concern of animals and other critters is to protect themselves from predators in order to survive and reproduce and pass their genes off to a new generation. Many animals have evolved adaptations known as anti-predator devices such as camouflage and chemical toxins. Animals use camouflage to blend in with their environments in an attempt to be unrecognizable by predators. Other organisms such as the monarch butterfly contain chemical toxins that are secreted into the predator’s mouth when it attempts to eat the butterfly. The monarch butterfly also has warning coloration that gives a warning sign to predators to remind them that the butterfly is toxic and should not be eaten.

These anti-predator devices are so successful that other organisms have been known to mimic them. The organism that is mimicked is known as the model and the third party that is deceived by the model and its mimic is known as the receiver. The mimics have learned to take advantage of the color patterns and markings that predators have learned by experience to avoid. The model is usually a species that has an abundant population and has successfully warded off predators with an anti-predator device.

Organisms have learned to mimic their surroundings or environment in an attempt to “hide” from predators. For example, lizards have learned to mimic tree trunk color which proves to be very successful as predators will simply move past them as they believe that they are simply looking at a tree. Another example of this type of mimicry can be seen with the Katydid who will mimic a leaf in both color and shape in an attempt to be hidden.

Some prey animals have evolved certain patterns on their bodies that mimic other animals in an attempt to startle their predators. The most common example of this type of mimicry can be found in some moths and butterflies who flash eye spots on their wings to predators. These eye spots startle the predator who believes that the eyes belong to a much larger animal that may be a threat to them.

In one form of mimicry known as aggressive mimicry, an organism will mimic a signal that is either deceptive or attractive to its prey. One example of this involves the praying mantis who will mimic flowers to attract insects that they can then capture and eat. Organisms can also imitate the behaviors of other organisms. Moth caterpillars, for example, will imitate the motion and body movements of a snake in order to scare off predators that are usually a prey item for snakes.

One of the most popular types of mimicry involves the warning coloration found on inedible or toxic organisms such as the monarch butterfly. Once these toxic organisms have adapted this warning coloration which warns predators to stay away, other organisms may start to mimic this warning coloration in an attempt to stay alive. Batesian mimics are those mimics that imitate unpalatable species even though they are palatable. Therefore, one species is harmful while the other is harmless. The wasp is a great example of Batesian mimicry. The wasp is the model species in this example as it possesses a sting which enables it to escape from predators. The bright warning coloration of the wasp has been mimicked by many other insects. Even though the mimics are harmless, the predator will avoid them due to bad experiences with wasps with the same coloration. With Müllerian mimicry, many unpalatable species share a similar color pattern. Müllerian mimicry proves to be successful as the predator only has to be exposed to one of the species in order to learn to stay away from all the other species with the same warning color patterns. The black and yellow striped bodies of social wasps, solitary digger wasps, and caterpillars of the cinnabar moths warn predators that the organism is inedible. This is a great example of Müllerian mimicry as all of these unpalatable, unrelated species have a shared color pattern that keeps predators away.

Mimicry is a very successful anti-predator device that species have evolved over many generations. As one can see, organisms have come to mimic many different characteristics such as color patterns and behaviors. However, selection only favors the mimics when they are less common than the model. Therefore, the fitness of mimics is “negatively frequency-dependent.”

title: Animal Behavior/Mimicry and Camouflage


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Chah Ab, Razavi Khorasan

Chah Ab (, also Romanized as Chāh Āb) is a village in Dughayi Rural District, in the Central District of Quchan County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. The current Agha of the village is Tilar Reeze Hossein who began his reign in 1999. At the 2006 census, its population was 45, in 15 families.

title: Chah Ab, Razavi Khorasan


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Talk:Charles H. Purcell

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title: Talk:Charles H. Purcell


text:
пльвати

Etymology
From, from. Akin to Ancient Greek, Latin , Old English (whence modern English ), Old Armenian , Sanskrit.

Verb

 * 1) to spit

title: пльвати


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Movie Making Manual/Writing/Screenplay Format

In the Motion Picture industry, screenplays are usually presented in a standardized format. This format has been developed over the years in the Hollywood studio system in order to approximate a rule of thumb of one script page equaling one minute of movie screen time. This "Hollywood Standard" format has become widely adapted and accepted worldwide due to the proliferation of screenwriting software such as Final Draft and Movie Magic. The main characteristics of this standard are:
 * 3 holed Letter size 8.5"x11" paper (US and Canada) or A4 paper format (rest of the world)
 * Character names and Dialogue should be formatted to appear centered (see below)

Writers submitting their work to US based production companies are strongly advised to follow this standard as any deviation from it is often regarded as a sign of an amateur screenwriter. Many in the industry say they refuse to accept non-standard scripts but stories abound of writers with "stunt submissions" such as the one in 2004 at Cannes. Supposedly someone took a chance and printed their screenplay up like a paperback novel (bound with a fancy cover and everything) and even though the screenplay was no good the size was very popular (being less bulky than a conventional screenplay) and lots of people took copies and read them. So some may conclude that sometimes breaking the rules works. However, as it was pointed out, the screenplay in this case was no good, so it once again reinforced the commonly held preconception that fancy stunt submissions are usually done by amateurs, whereas professionals follow the standard format.

Screenplay
Although some writers utilize their own modifications on the standard screenplay format, there is a basis upon which all feature film screenplays are formated.

The standard screenplay format is devised for simplicity of reading by many different departments in addition to roughly timing out to one minute of screen time for one page of script.

Screenplays should be written in twelve point Courier font. Twelve point Courier is an important component of the standard format for two reasons. One is nostalgic (Courier font resembles the look of a page written on a mechanical typewriter), but the other reason is highly practical: Courier is a monospaced font meaning every glyph is the same width (as opposed to variable-width fonts, where the "w" and "m" are wider than most letters, and the "i" is narrower). With a monospaced font only a certain number of letters will fit on each row and each page, assuring uniformity of the format and achieving the one page per minute of screen time formula. Final Draft, the popular screenwriting software has developed their own Courier font, Courier Final Draft. This font was designed to mimic a PC Courier font on Mac computers to achieve further uniformity between the platforms. There are no differences between the glyphs of Courier and Courier Final Draft and the two fonts are interchangeable on those platforms. Utilizing any font other than twelve point Courier or Courier Final Draft will result in a screenplay that does not adhere to the standard format, does not approximate the one page per minute of screentime formula and therefore regarded as highly undesirable by producers. NOTE: The Courier New font alters the pitch of the typeface, taking up more space on the page and therefore altering the overall page count of a script document. Courier New font is not recommended for screenwriters.

Margins are generally set as such (spaces are assuming 12 point font at 72 spaces per line):
 * Scene Number (if used) is 1.25 inches from the left edge or 13 "spaces" in
 * Scene Heading 1.75 inches from the left edge or 19 spaces in
 * Action 1.75 inches from the left edge or 19 spaces in (cut off at 55 characters (including spaces) per line)
 * Dialogue 2.75 inches from the left edge or 29 spaces in (cut off at 35 characters (including spaces) per line)
 * Character name is centered on the page (about 43 spaces in)
 * Parenthetical direction is 3.5 inches from the left or 36 spaces in (cut off at 16 characters (including spaces) per line)

Elements of the screenplay
Screenplays traditionally start with FADE IN in the upper left hand corner of the first page, immediately followed by the scene heading for the first location.

SCENE HEADING (SLUG) A scene heading always starts with a distinction whether the location of the scene is indoors or outdoors. INT. signifies an interior location whereas EXT. signifies an exterior location. These are always abbreviated and followed by a period and one blank space and then the name of the location where that scene takes place. Scene headings, also called slugs, are placed for each and every location in the screenplay, including all the various elements of a location. For example INT. OLD HOUSE LIVING ROOM might be followed by INT. OLD HOUSE KITCHEN if the characters or action moves to the kitchen. It is not correct to have INT. OLD HOUSE and move characters from one room to the next within the same scene. Each room is treated as a separate location in the script because when the film is actually shot these sequences will most likely be shot out of order (all scenes in the kitchen will be shot together and all scenes in the living room will be shot together, possibly on different days) and, possibly, in completely different physical locations (the kitchen may be a practical location in an Old House, the living room might be built on a soundstage). Some writers like to put a hyphen between the main location and the sub location, IE: INT. OLD HOUSE - LIVING ROOM and INT. OLD HOUSE - KITCHEN, but this is not required. Following the location name is one or two hyphens (depending on writer's taste) and the time of day the scene takes place; DAY, NIGHT, DAWN, DUSK, EVENING or MOMENTS LATER, CONTINUOUS (if the scene is immediately after the following as in the characters walking from the living room to the kitchen in one conversation). After the Scene heading, there are two carriage returns (one blank space) and the ACTION begins. Scene headings are always in all capital letters.

ACTION Action is the description of what is happening in the scene, IE: Mark walks into the living room from the kitchen and picks up his books. Action is always written in present tense (Mark walks, not Mark walked). Action is in non-indented paragraph/prose form and is the longest element on the page (spanning from the far left to the far right hand margins of the page). It is generally accepted that action should not be longer than 10 lines without a break. Action also describes the locations, as much as necessary. Action is always in traditional English upper/lowercase. There are two line breaks between the end of action and the name of a character speaking (one blank line between action and character name) or the beginning of a new scene (one blank line between the end of action and the scene heading for the next scene).

CHARACTER NAME When dialogue is spoken, it is preceded by the name of the character speaking the dialogue. The Character Name is placed on its own line and centered on the page. It is always in capital letters. There are some modifiers that can be placed after the character name in parenthesis (separated by a single space). Voice Over (V.O.) IE: JOHN (V.O.) is dialogue that is presented on the film's audio track, but is not spoken by the character on screen. Voice Over can be a voice on a telephone or the sound of the character's own thoughts. Off Screen (O.S.) IE: JOHN (O.S.) is dialogue that is spoken by a character in or immediately near the physical location of the scene, but who is not visible on the screen in that shot or scene. This could be a character speaking from another room. There is only one line break after the character name before dialogue (no blank space).

DIALOGUE Dialogue is the actual spoken words by the character. It is placed immediately under the centered character's name and indented considerably from the left hand side and slightly from the right to stand out on the page. Dialogue is presented in standard upper/lowercase text (ALL CAPS can signify extreme emphasis or SHOUTING). Underline and italics can be used for emphasis, but should be used sparingly.

PARENTHETICAL DIRECTION This is very brief (usually one or two words) of direction or clarification that is placed within a character's spoken dialogue. It is placed, indented from the dialogue, on a separate line and enclosed in parenthesis. Parenthetical direction is only specific to the speaking character (not to other characters in the scene) and should be extremely brief. It can indicate a parawr use, a direction of conversation to a different character in the scene, a notation on a specific emotion or intent in the following dialogue. Parentheticals are always in the middle of dialogue - dialogue never ends with a parenthetical direction. Parenthetical direction is usually written in all lowercase letters IE: (beat). After the dialogue ends, there are two line breaks (one blank space) between the next character name or action or a new scene heading.

Some standard format notes:
 * The first time a character is introduced in action, their name is presented in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS to point out their introduction.
 * Sound effects such as a phone RINGS or an alarm BEEPS are placed in all capital letters to point them out.
 * Scene transitions such as DISSOLVE TO:, CUT TO:, FADE TO BLACK: are placed flush right, on their own line. They are placed at the end of a scene with one blank space before a new scene heading. Generally speaking, they should be used sparingly.

An HTML example of screenplay formatting (incorporating all of the above) can be found at:

More notes on screenplay formatting can be found at: Academy notes on Screenwriting Format

Other Formats

 * Television
 * Stage Play
 * Radio Drama

Locking the Script
As part of the pre-production process, the script is going to be accepted and locked. This provides the basis for keeping everyone on the same page. A locked script means that the page numbers do not change. Every copy of the script will have the same page 10 because it will never change. As new material is added, sub pages ("a" pages) are added (10a, 10b, 10c and so forth). If significant deletions are made as to eliminate all the material on a page, it remains in the script as a blank page merely with the word "OMITTED" on it. In addition to page numbers, scene numbers are also locked and treated the same. If a scene is cut from the script, its number remains and the slug reads "OMITTED"; added scenes are sometimes identified with capital letters 101A, 101B, 101C and so forth. Sometimes additional scenes are numbered as in 101-1, 101-2 or 101.1, 101.2. Numbering is somewhat preferred as the traditional system for identifying coverage on slates while shooting a movie is to designate each new shot with a letter. Scene 101 may be one page in the script, but the final scene may be made up of 15 different camera angles. On the set, these will be designated on the slate and in continuity notes as 101a, 101b, 101c and so forth, so it can be confusing to see scene 101Aa, 101Ab. Each assistant director or unit production manager has their own system for locking the script and each script supervisor has their own system for designating shots on set. It's up to that team to coordinate how these numbers will be implemented.

Rewrites
Throughout the production process the script may need to be modified or re-written. Scenes are added, moved, deleted, or changed.

The location supervisor reports that the restaurant location will not be available. The director confers with the writers and decides that the scene can take place in a park instead.

This means the casting director doesn't need to cast a waiter for the scene, but a hot dog vendor and a street entertainer will be required.

The scene has moved from indoors to outdoors, different lights/film may be required. The DoP will need to know this.

The costume designer no longer needs to dress 40 extras in evening dinner attire.

It's very important for everyone to be on the same page; changes are usually printed on different color pages. For example, if everyone else is carrying light-blue scripts, and you have a pink script, then you've got a problem.

Templates

 * A free screenplay template for Apple Pages compiled according to Final Draft’s Cole & Haag standard
 * Snoozeletter MSWord 2002 + 97/2000/2003/2007 templates
 * LibreOffice + OpenOffice Screenwright(R) screenplay formatting templates (FREE!)
 * LibreOffice, OpenDocument .odt Script - Screenplay template by Carlos (Free)
 * ScriptTeX a free macro package for TeX users
 * Screenplay mode for Emacs
 * John August's CSS formatting for webpage screenwriting
 * screenplay templates for Google docs
 * European Screenplay template MSWord from abcguionistas (in Spanish)

Screenwriting Software

 * Final Draft Screenwriting software
 * Scrivener Writing software
 * Movie Magic Screenwriter
 * Movie Outline Scriptwriting Software
 * Montage Screenwriting Software
 * Writer's Cafe
 * Celtx screenwriting software (FREE!)
 * Wikimedia screenplay extension
 * Cinergy Script Editor (FREE!)
 * Plotbot Online Script Editor (FREE!)
 * Zhura - Features online collaboration. (FREE!)
 * Trelby - Simple, fast and elegantly laid out to make screenwriting simple.(FREE!)

 * Linux
 * Mac
 * Windows

Lessons in Screenplay Formatting

 * Wikiversity has a free lesson in Script Formatting for a very short motion picture.  The lesson uses the free demo version of Final Draft (Macintosh or Windows version).  This lesson can be completed in less than two hours.  And you can earn points!

 * Note: While many of the lessons of Wikiversity Film School are not complete, this one is ready for you to begin immediately.  And it is fun.

/Writing movies /Working Fields


text:
Computers for Beginners/The Basics

= What is a computer? =

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes data into information, stores information for future uses, and outputs the information whenever it is needed.

Brief History

Computers, by a wider definition, have been around for thousands of years. One of the earliest computers was the abacus, series of beads arranged on metal rods. Beads could be slid back and forth to operate on numbers. This was a very rudimentary device and is not commonly thought of as a computer in modern times. Our idea of computers involves electricity and electronics.

Electricity makes computers much more efficient. The first computers used an incredible amount of electricity, which changed voltages in vacuum tubes to operate the computer. These computers were given instructions using punch cards, and were behemoths, taking up entire floors of buildings. Only the more privileged universities and government facilities had access to them.

In the 1960s, the vacuum tube was replaced by the integrated circuit and transistor. These greatly reduced the size and power consumption of computers. They were still very large by today's standards, but more institutions had access to computing power than ever before. At the end of the decade, the microchip was invented, which reduced the size of the computer even more.

By the end of the 1970s, computers were widespread in businesses. Using a computer involved typing on a terminal (a keyboard and monitor connected to a large central computer). Soon, parts became small enough to allow many users to have a computer at their home. Thus the Personal Computer, or PC, was born.

Since then, personal computers have become tremendously more efficient. They are much smaller, and yet have seen extreme performance gains. In addition to these improvements, computers have become affordable enough for many families worldwide.

= Hardware/Software = Hardware is the stuff you can touch, as opposed to software which is abstract and exists only in a virtual world as computer code. Hardware is made of materials found in the universe and are subject to the laws of physics. Contrary to the former, software is bound only by the creator's imagination and the user's willingness to use the software.

The Insides
Inside the computer case are various components that allow the computer to run.

CPU
The Central Processing Unit, or CPU, does nearly all the calculating. It is the main microchip in the computer that distributes tasks to all other parts of the computer. When most people talk about the processor, or chip, it is actually the CPU they are referring to.

Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory), commonly called just memory, holds computer code that needs to be operated on quickly. This allows information held in memory to quickly interact with the CPU. The amount of RAM available is limited and therefore needs to be constantly cleared and refilled (don't worry; all computers do this automatically). RAM is just one part of the computer that determines your speed.

RAM is referred to as "volatile" memory because the information stored in it disappears when the power is turned off. Hard drives and flash drives, on the other hand, contain non-volatile memory, which is like paper: it can be destroyed or erased, but when properly taken care of, can last forever.

RAM is plugged into special slots on the motherboard. There is a large link (known as a bus) from the memory to the CPU. Each motherboard has a fixed number of slots for RAM - often 2 or 4 slots. Only certain types of RAM and sizes of RAM can be used with any motherboard. So before buying, check your motherboard details.

Hard Drive
The hard drive is the main storage area in the computer. It is usually where you put your data to be stored permanently (until you choose to erase it). It keeps data after the power is turned off. The official name for a hard disk is hard disk drive (HDD), but is almost always referred to as hard drive.

Virtually all of your data is stored on your hard drive. A hard drive is composed of disk(s), where the data is recorded magnetically onto the surface, similar to records, CDs, and DVDs. The size of the hard drive (today's are usually in gigabytes) is determined by how dense (small) the recording is. Many of today's major programs (such as games and media creating and editing programs like Photoshop) and files (such as pictures, music, or video) use a considerable amount of space. Most low-end computers, as of 2011, are shipped with a 160GB (gigabyte) or larger hard drive. In 2019, it is common to find desktop computers and laptops with 1000 GB (1 terabyte) hard drive or more. As an example, an average .mp3 file takes between 7.5 and 15 MB (megabytes) of space. A megabyte is 1/1024 of a gigabyte, thus allowing most new computers to store thousands of such files.

Users who wish to store a lot of media on a computer will want a larger hard drive. As will users who want to store numerous large programs, like modern games, or videos, which both require a lot of space. A full size film is over 4 gigabytes. Video games today are commonly downloaded but used to be distributed via DVD discs that store data, called DVD-ROM (read only memory, which can be read off the disk, but not modified). A DVD can be anywhere from 4.7 GB for a single layer disk to 8.5 GB for a double layered disk... and many large programs are already taking up more than one disk.

Another concern for users who want higher performance is hard drive speed, measured in RPM (rotations per minute). Most desktop hard drives today are 7200 RPM models. Lower end 4200 RPM models are not commonly seen in new systems (other than laptops). Higher end 10,000 RPM hard drives are generally seen only in gaming and other extremely high performance computers due to their cost. For example, a 1 TB 7200 RPM drive costs around $50 (as of January, 2017), while a 1 TB 10,000 RPM drive costs $120 or more (as of January 2017). A 1 TB SSD starts at about $250.

Hard drives are constantly increasing in size, both because technology allows, and because of demand for more storage space. For example, an Apple iMac in the late nineties shipped with a 4 GB hard drive, and sold for $1,300 US (although it should be noted that the cost alone is not indicative of the hard drive, or vice versa). A modern iMac sells for $1000 US and carries a 1 TB hard drive with a 21-inch screen and faster processor (January 2017). Compare to the original IBM PC, which carried only a 10 MB hard drive, or 10/1024 of a GB. The largest HDD in 2016 was more than 15 TB.

Many computers already have more than 2 terabytes, and within decades petabytes (thousands of terabytes) and even exobytes (thousands of petabytes) will not be unheard of.

SSD
The SSD, or otherwise known as a Solid State Drive, is a storage device using RAM modules instead of a spinning disk. It is like a Hard Disk Drive, but these storage devices are much faster than traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) because they don't have to spin up. The SSD can have transfer speeds up to 10x as fast because of this. They are quieter and more expensive than HDDs

The Peripherals
Peripherals are hardware attached to a computer, but external to the main case that houses the CPU, Hard drives, and other such equipment. They are basically devices that allow people to communicate to the computer. It is generally a good idea, although not as important as it used to be, to add and remove hardware from the computer while it is turned off. Things such as USB storage devices and keyboards/mice can generally be inserted and removed at a whim with no consequence, however more advanced things such as printers should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions, which may include shutting down your computer.

Keyboard and Mouse
The keyboard and mouse are basic input devices.

Keyboard
The keyboard has keys that, when pressed, send information to the computer. The keyboard is the most widely used device for interacting with a desktop computer. However, the touchscreen is the most common input for phones, tablets and some laptops. The most commonly used keyboard, by far, is the QWERTY layout, which almost all keyboards sold use. This is the same layout as most typewriters sold within the last century. The second most common, but a very distant follower, is the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard. While this is technically better, the industry and consumer market as a whole has mostly rejected it.

The QWERTY keyboard was designed to prevent typewriters from jamming while keys were being pushed at a fast rate. It did this by keeping keys as far apart as possible. The Dvorak keyboard layout was designed for computers, where this is obviously not a problem, and thus places the most commonly used keys where they are easy to reach, and because of that, quicker. However, because of the popularity QWERTY had, the Dvorak keyboard layout never became popular.

It is generally advised that you use a QWERTY keyboard, as even though Dvorak users gain significantly faster typing speeds, the rarity of the layout makes it hard for people who use Dvorak to use most other computers.

Keyboards vary in appearance. Those attached to a desktop computer are frequently large with an additional number pad built in on the right side, while laptop keyboards are attached to the computer and are often much smaller. Some keyboards also offer special buttons to play music, open common programs such as the web browser or email program. These multimedia keys tend to be put above the F keys and make the keyboard bigger as a result. Smaller keyboards combine keys or shrink the keys. They are commonly used as an accessory for a laptop - a small size makes them easier to travel with.

There are wired and wireless keyboards (and mice). Wired keyboards usually plug into a USB slot. Older style keyboards use the PS2 socket at the back of a desktop. (PS2 to USB adapters are available). Wireless keyboards work by Bluetooth, Infrared (IR) or Radio frequency (RF). Bluetooth is built into most laptops so a Bluetooth keyboard or mouse can connect with no extra equipment. Most desktops do not have bluetooth built in but a USB Bluetooth key can be used to add it. RF keyboards and mice need a receiver plugged into the computer, the transmitter is usually built into the keyboard or mouse.

Mouse

The mouse is an input device which is primarily used by physically moving the device across a surface. This causes a pointer symbol, called a "cursor", to move across the screen. The other input comes from pressing a button while the cursor is over an object on the monitor, or "clicking". All mice have at least one button, with the most common layout having three. Gaming mice may have 7 buttons.

 * One button mice: The Apple mighty mouse is the only mouse known to most people which uses a single button. This button is usually activated by pushing on the front of the mouse, or pushing the entire mouse down. The "right-click" is done by pressing a "control" or "Ctrl" key on the keyboard while pressing the main button. These are only used with Macintosh OS, such as Mac OS X.
 * Two button mice: The second most common layout, more common in older computers, which has a button on the left and right, usually for the index and middle finger. While less useful than a three-button mouse, they are, when teamed with a standard keyboard, capable of performing almost all computer tasks.
 * Three-button mice: The most common layout, Fundamentally the same as a two button mice, but with a third button, the middle button, added between the "left" and "right" click buttons. While the mouse technically has three buttons,this may be confusing to some users, as the "middle"/"center" click button is also a scroll wheel. This design allows the user to scroll through documents, make selections, and do other tasks by moving a finger. The other way to is to press an arrow key or "Page up/Page down" key on a keyboard. The center button can also be press inwards to create a "middle click" button. The middle click is used in some programs to perform a simple function, such as the Firefox web browser, which uses the middle click to open a link in a new tab.
 * Four (or more) button mice: Usually seen only on gaming and multimedia specialization mice. The extra buttons generally do not serve any native purpose, and rather are assigned a function to perform by the user. For example, a user who uses the mouse to play games might assign the additional buttons to switch between weapons in a shooter, or cast spells in a fantasy game.

There are two other major differences in mice, which is Optical/Laser mice, and Ball mice. This is how the mouse tells where it is, with the laser measuring the distance it crosses when it is moved, and the ball measuring how it rotates. The laser is generally more accurate and less of a hassle to use, and can be used on more surfaces, but the ball mouse is cheaper. Ball mice are rarely seen today.

The last important consideration when buying a mouse is size. You should always try to put your hand on a mouse and move it around, to see how well it feels in your hand. If it feels awkward, small, big, long, or short, look for something better! Not only will your hands thank you, but you will be more efficient.

Mice can be wired or wireless - see the above section on keyboards.

A trackball is very similar to a mouse but has a ball instead of the middle button. This ball allows you to move the mouse up, down or side to side. There are usually 2 or more buttons as well. Many users find they cause less pain than a traditional mouse.

A Touchpad is often found on a laptop instead of a mouse. This pad is found under the keyboard in most laptops i.e. closer to the body than the actual keys. Moving a finger across it moves the pointer. Multiple fingers can be used to send other commands e.g. two finger prolonged press opens up a page in a new tab.

Media Devices (Floppy, CD-ROM, DVD, USB)
These devices carry data, in the same way that a hard drive does, but are much more portable. They are the primary method of storing data outside of a computer, and the main method of transferring information between computers without the use of a network, such as the Internet.

There are three main types of these in use today:
 * CD-ROM: mostly read only memory unless labeled "rewritable" - Capable of storing 700MB of data, CDs have been the most common method of storing data for most of the last decade or so. They are being largely replaced by DVDs and USB drives (see below).
 * DVD: Capable of storing 4.7GB of data in their single layer form and 8.5GB in their double layer form, they are the most common method today for most store-bought programs, as well as videos.
 * USB/Flash: While not usually used by commercial software, USB 'sticks' and Flash 'cards' have become popular ways of storing data because of their ease of use and low cost. While sizes range from 2GB on old units to 256GB on larger, more expensive modern units, the average stick today is 4 or 8GB, with an average 4GB USB stick costing about $15 US.

The floppy disk has been phased out.

Monitor
The monitor is the main method for the computer to produce output, in the same way a book has pages. A book filled with letters, but in a way you can't possibly understand or even see is of no use to you, and the same is true for a computer. While older monitors, CRTs, were rather bulky like TVs, newer monitors, or LCDs, are much more compact, and can be easily lifted.

For much of the history of computers, the most common monitors were CRTs, short for Cathode Ray Tubes. They work on the same principle as a television. They were generally heavy, had a lower image quality, and were in general less reliable than an LCD. They come in two forms, the normal version, which has a curved monitor, and "Flat Screen", where the display is completely level (although it still has the bulky back end). It is suggested that if you plan to remove a CRT, it is better for the environment to safely dispose of it (not just into a bin, an electronic waste bin), as CRT's contain high levels of toxic chemicals. The most common type of monitor today is an LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display, which is much lighter, although slightly more expensive. They have a smaller form, a higher image quality, and are overall better than CRT monitors.

''Tip: To take proper care of your monitor, always be sure that the screen is not left on a static image for long periods of time. This can "burn" the image into the monitor, meaning that it will have a ghosting effect, even when that image is not displayed. This can not only be highly annoying, but in some cases, make it so the monitor needs to be replaced. To avoid this, either set a moving screensaver, which will trigger after a set amount of time, or simply turn the monitor off''

Printer
If you have a printer attached to your computer you can print your information and keep a physical copy of data. Depending on what type of printer you have, you can print in color, double-sided or book form. The output quality of some printers goes from draft (to save ink) all the way to photo quality.

Printers come in all price ranges and in many types. The most common for home use are ink jets (bubble jets) and laser. There are specialized printers for data plotting (mapping), photos only, labels and more.

A lot of printers are "all-in-ones" which simply means they combine more than one function. They can be any combination of printer, copier, fax and scanner. If you are looking to buy an all-in-one make sure it has all the features you are looking for. You don't want to get it home and find out you still need a separate fax machine or scanner that you thought was included!

=Software=

What is Software?
Computer software, or simply software, also known as computer programs, is the non-tangible component of computers. Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the physical component of computers. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used without the other.

Computer software includes all computer programs regardless of their architecture; for example, executable files, libraries and scripts are computer software. Yet, it shares their mutual properties: software consists of clearly-defined instructions that upon execution, instructs hardware to perform the tasks for which it is designed. Software is stored in computer memory and cannot be touched, just as a 3D model shown in an illustration cannot be touched.

At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor – typically a central processing unit (CPU). A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location inside the computer – an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the computer system – a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or interrupted.

Software is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, essentially, a vaguely mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language is converted into object code via an assembler.

Types of Softwares
Application software uses the computer system to perform useful work or provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself.

System software is designed to operate the computer hardware, to provide basic functionality, and to provide a platform for running application software.

System software includes:
 * Operating system, an essential collection of computer programs that manages resources and provides common services for other software. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system.
 * Device driver, a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; thus a computer needs more than one device driver.
 * Utilities, software designed to assist users in maintenance and care of their computers.

Malicious software or malware, computer software developed to harm and disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated with computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs may have been designed as practical jokes.

Nature, or domain of execution
Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft Office, as well as smartphone and tablet applications (called "apps"). Server software Scripts, such as JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly inside the web browser when a web page is loaded, without the need for a web browser plugin. Software written in other programming languages can also be run within the web browser if the software is either translated into JavaScript, or if a web browser plugin that supports that language is installed; the most common example of the latter is ActionScript scripts, which are supported by the Adobe Flash plugin. Web applications usually run on the web server and output dynamically-generated web pages to web browsers, using e.g. PHP, Java or ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs on the server; in modern times they commonly include some JavaScript to be run in the web browser as well, in which case they typically run partly on the server, partly in the web browser. Plugins and extensions are software that extends or modifies the functionality of another piece of software, and require that software be used in order to function; Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single use or a few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC or smartphone). In the embedded system context there is sometimes no clear distinction between the system software and the application software. However, some embedded systems run embedded operating systems, and these systems do retain the distinction between system software and application software (although typically there will only be one, fixed, application which is always ran).

Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded software which tells the processor itself how to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code. It is typically proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and any necessary correctional microcode software updates are supplied by them to users (which is much cheaper than shipping replacement processor hardware). Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it.

Programming tools
Programming tools are software in the form of programs or applications that software developers (also known as programmers, coders, hackers or software engineers) use to create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or fix), or otherwise support software. Software is written in one or more programming languages; there are many programming languages in existence, and each has at least one implementation, each of which consists of its own set of programming tools. These tools may be relatively self-contained programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple hand tools to fix a physical object, or they may be an integrated development environment (IDE), which combines much or all of the functionality of such self-contained tools. An IDE may do this either by invoking the relevant individual tools on behalf of the programmer, or by reimplementing their functionality in a new way. Almost all programming language implementations (a notable exception being Smalltalk) provide the option of using individual tools rather than an IDE, because some programmers prefer not to use IDEs for various reasons, and IDEs usually take longer to be developed to an "acceptable" standard than individual tools - indeed, initially, new programming languages (which are created every year) would not typically have IDEs available for them.

= Setup and Boot = The first thing to do after taking your computer out of the box is to set it up. While many stores offer at home installation, this is generally unneeded for anyone able to operate a computer, as a computer can be hooked up with about the same effort as a television and components.

The basic parts are: You may want Speakers, microphones and webcams to be able to hear sound, input sound or input film clips.
 * The Case: Also known as the 'tower', or incorrectly as the 'CPU', the case is what stores all of the brains of the computer- the graphics card, processor, hard drives, etc. This is the most important and expensive part of your setup, and technically the 'computer' itself.
 * The monitor
 * The keyboard/mouse

Simply place the case wherever you wish to have it, plug the monitor's cable into the appropriate slot on the back of the computer (should have a monitor picture on the slot), place the monitor where you wish to have it, plug the monitor's cable into the monitor (the ends are usually a white (DVI-D) or blue (VGA, being phased out), plug the keyboard and mouse into the appropriate slots on your computer (USB), and lastly plug the power cable into the power supply on the back of the computer, and into a standard wall outlet. You should consider using a surge protector to protect the delicate electronics inside a computer from any power surge, or loss. You may also consider using a power backup, which will allow you time to shut your computer down safely during a blackout, or even continue to use it until the power is restored, in some cases.

You may have a laptop/notebook computer, which all of the components are integrated into a single compact source that you can carry in a briefcase/backpack. In that case you need only plug in your battery and power cord. Follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the computer for putting the battery in the laptop/notebook and plugging in the power cord.

Some additional models differ from the above two designs. For example, the iMac series of Apple computers have the internals and monitor housed in one case, with only the keyboard and mouse separate. Please refer to your instruction manual for setup instructions (Apple usually has very clear instructions). Note: Many of the instructions in this Wikibook require a Windows computer.

After everything is assembled, proceed to turn on your computer and your peripherals. It is important to turn the monitor and speakers on first so that you can hear and see any error sounds or messages. You should also pay attention to your computer, and be ready to turn the power off immediately if there are any problems, such as the fans not starting. Though you should be careful, as computer fans can be extremely quiet, if the fans do not start, immediately turn the computer off to prevent the CPU and other delicate components from overheating.

= Operating Systems = The major software application on a computer is called the operating system. The operating system is like the driver of a car. While it might seem like it's only telling the car (computer) what to do, it is in fact also interfacing with the different parts of it, as well as taking any new input (say, a map, or instructions on where to go- which equates to other software) and performing these tasks to the best of its ability. Although many things are compatible across platforms, more involved programs, such as photo editing tools and games, will not work across all platforms, in the same way that if you started giving your cab driver directions in French, he'd probably tell you to get out, unless you were of course, in France!

An operating system, aka "OS", is the middleman between you and the computer. It creates an environment where the user can interact with the computer in an efficient manner.

There are three major OS that you should consider using for your first desktop/notebook PC.

 * Windows: The most recent edition of Windows is Windows 11 previous versions are Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and so on.
 * Mac: The second most common OS in desktop systems, Mac OS X is comparatively compared to Windows, although its market share is increasing. Macs have been designed to be very easy for people to use, and are thus a good choice for a first system, as long as you don't mind not having as many software and games options as Windows users. Many Mac users are extremely loyal to the OS, due to the popularity of the iPod MP3 device, and various other Apple iDevices.
 * Linux: While it is also rare compared to Windows, Linux does have its advantages. Linux is open source, which means that anyone can change the code around and redistribute it as they want, resulting in many different versions. Though it can be daunting, a Google search can help the average person decide which version of the OS would be best for them. There is a wide range of versions, called distros, ranging from one that's meant to fit on a 50MB business card sized CD to ones that are meant to be easier to use than Windows! Linux can be harder to use than Windows at times, especially because it is almost required that you use the command line occasionally, however users who are willing to put in the effort to search for a solution (usually quick and easy) and copy/paste the answer into the command line will generally appreciate it, with some being as devoted or more so than the aforementioned Mac users! Linux suffers many of the same downfalls as Mac, however, including a lack of commercial software, especially games. This is slightly remedied by the large amount of free, open source Linux games, and the WINE program, which can run many Windows programs, including games, under Linux, without having to emulate the Windows OS. While many 'hardcore' gamers are disappointed by the lack of games, even compared to the Mac, there are many games which are either native to Linux, or work well enough under WINE that most casual gamers will not have a problem. The most popular Linux distro, Ubuntu, has a clean interface and a thorough help system.

= Basic Operating Tasks =

Moving the Mouse
The mouse controls the movement of an on-screen pointer, called the cursor, that often appears as a small white arrow. When you move the mouse, the on-screen pointer moves too, usually in the same direction as the mouse. In other words, move the mouse toward you to move the on-screen pointer toward the bottom of the screen. Move the mouse away from you and the arrow moves to the top, and so on. You indicate to the computer what parts of the screen you want to interact with by placing the pointer over those areas on the screen.

Keyboard
The keyboard is used for inputting text into the computer. It is designed so that users can type all the letters of the alphabet without moving their hands. Many programs from word processors to media players utilize the keyboard.

 * The numbers at the right of the keyboard can work in two ways. While in normal mode, the keys will function as another set of arrow keys, in num lock mode, they will instead be an alternate way of inputting numbers. This is mainly useful when putting in more than a few digits at a time, when using the numbers over the letters becomes more of a hassle than a time saving method.
 * The keys labeled F1, F2, F3 ... at the top of the keyboard are the "function keys". F1 is usually assigned as a "help" key, which will open a help dialog when pressed. If you are having trouble with a program, or just want tips, reading these files can often be useful or insightful.
 * "Ctrl" and "Alt" at the bottom means "control" and "alternative". These keys are normally used to type special symbols or for shortcuts. More on that below.

GUI (Gooey)
Almost all programs that you will be working with will have a GUI or Graphical User Interface. The GUI is the 'pretty' part of a computer ― the windows, buttons, scroll bars, and task trays. The GUI is really just a front for the command line, which is what does the actual process and such. While almost all Windows and Mac users do not need to worry about this, it is important for users of Linux to know, as they will use the command line for tasks which either cannot be done or are more efficient to do through the command line terminal.

=Windows XP=

Booting for the first time
Turn on the computer as described above.

The boring process of booting up will begin. Booting is just starting up the computer. (Remember to turn on peripherals first!). This may take a few minutes, so be patient. Your computer is testing itself and running a bunch of internal functions that you'll probably never have to worry about. You don't care what's happening inside when you turn on your TV. You just want it on. It's the same with the computer. Just let it do its thing!

If it is the first time booting up the computer running XP operating system, a prompt asking you to choose a user name and password will appear; you may enter up to five different users. Note: if you want the computer to just boot up straight into Windows XP every time you use it, you should create only one user and not enter a password. In Windows XP Home edition, different users have the same programs installed, but may choose different backgrounds for their desktop (more on this later), and have different program icons on it as well; if you have Windows XP Professional, the differences are much fewer. Passwords should be secure, but not as secure as if it were an online password, as you only need to prevent people accessing the actual computer itself- make sure if you choose a password you can remember and write it down, as this is one password you simply cannot afford to lose. DON'T ever tape your password to a keyboard or other part of your system. That's the first place everyone looks! There will be some questions that show up on the screen. Answer them the best you can and if you're not sure, use the default. You may be asked to activate your software if the installer has not done so. Microsoft requires you to activate XP. If you don't activate it will quit working and you'll have to install it all over. Activation is usually done over the Internet but can also be done by phone. The number will appear on the screen. Register it ASAP!

Running Windows XP
Now Windows XP has booted up, hopefully, and is running. You should now be looking at a rolling green hillside with a blue sky and clouds. This view is called the desktop, which makes sense. The rolling green hillside is called the background and can be changed to a variety of pictures installed with Windows XP, or to one you yourself load onto your computer. You'll probably notice a couple of pictures with words like "AOL Free Trial" or "Shortcut to...something" beneath them (don't panic if these particular ones aren't present). These are called icons and are linked to specific actions, usually opening a program (see below). You can create your own icons, as well as delete ones you do not want. Don't worry, this will be explained later. The blue bar at the bottom of the screen is called the taskbar. If you have a program open, it will be represented with a little icon and a name here. On the far left of the taskbar is a large green button which says START; this is logically known as the Start menu. If you left click (hereafter simply referred to as "click") it with your mouse, you will open a menu which contains links to almost everything in your computer (the first time you ever start Windows XP, the Start menu will automatically be displayed). On the far right of the taskbar, you will see a notification area known as the system tray. It contains both temporary and constant notification icons. Right now, it probably has only the clock and a button with a message, asking you to click it if you want to take the Windows XP tour. If you are unfamiliar with computers, it is highly recommended that you take the tour. If you wish to wait, you can take it later by clicking on the Start menu, clicking All Programs, clicking Accessories, and clicking Tour Windows XP (this type of menu action will from here on be represented as START -> All Programs -> Accessories -> Tour Windows XP).

Some useful keyboard shortcuts in Windows
The following keyboard shortcuts are used for frequently performed tasks and will speed up your computing. They normally work on all major platforms (Windows, Linux, Mac). (NOTE: When you are asked to press multiple buttons at once, you can first press the buttons Ctrl, Alt and Shift, and while keeping them pressed, press the remaining button. For example, to press Alt+Tab you first press and hold down Alt, then momentarily press tab, and then let go of the Alt key.)

 * When filling out a form or a dialogue, enter the text, then press "tab" to get to the next text box or button. To go backwards, press Shift-Tab. Press "enter" to press a button. This will save you from taking your hands off the keyboard to use the mouse.
 * To copy a selected text, or a selected file or folder, press "Ctrl+C"
 * To paste the text or file into a new location, press "Ctrl+V"
 * To select all the text (or items) press "Ctrl+A"
 * To switch between open windows press "Alt-Tab"
 * To log off from you session or to shut down the computer press "Ctrl-Alt-Delete"
 * To select a piece of text or a list of files or folders, click the left mouse button on the starting position, then press and hold "Shift", then click on the end position, then release "Shift"
 * To select text, files, or folders that are not contiguous (side-by-side or together), select the first item by clicking; next press and hold the "Ctrl" (control), click the next item, release the "Ctrl", repeat if necessary.

Background Information
A program does something. Programs can process words, play music, and much much more. One simple program is called Notepad, and it is on many computers. Microsoft Word is a program, AbiWord is a program, and Mozilla Firefox is a program. They will be explained later.

Opening a Window
Now it is time for a tutorial.
 * 1) Left click on the Start Menu. It is in the lower left corner of the screen.
 * 2) Put the mouse over the words that say "All Programs" or "Programs" (This depends on if you have the classical start menu or not which will be discussed in a chapter about customization)
 * 3) More menus will come out of the arrow. Bring the mouse up to accessories and let it expand.
 * 4) Click on Notepad.

Another way to say steps 1-3 in a simple fashion is Start -> All Programs -> Accessories -> Notepad.

Modifying the Window
After doing this, many things happen. First of all, a window appears on the screen. Notice that there are three boxes in the upper right hand corner of the window. Here is what they do:

 * 1) Click the first box going from left to right. Oh no! It's gone! Don't be startled because Notepad hasn't been lost in oblivion. It's just been minimized.
 * 2) To get it back, look at the bottom of the screen. You will see a rectangular box that says "Untitled - Notepad". Almost every program will have this little box located in the task bar. When it is gone, the program's not running. Now, click on the box to see Notepad again.
 * 3) Click the middle square. Notepad now takes up most of the screen. This is called maximizing. Look at the icon that you just clicked. It has changed.
 * 4) To get it back to normal, click the same button. That is called restoring.
 * 5) Click the last square (with a big X on it) to close the window. It is gone for good and will never come back (until you do what you did in step one of Opening a Window again). This button is called the "X" button. If someone wanted someone else to press this, they could say "X it out."

Moving a Window
Now it's time to learn how to move windows.

 * 1) To begin, open Notepad again with your new skills.
 * 2) The place in the border where the three buttons are located is called the title bar.
 * 3) Click anywhere on the title bar except the boxes and hold the mouse button down.
 * 4) While still holding the button, move the mouse pointer. This is called "dragging". The window will follow the mouse and become an extension of your hand.
 * 5) When the window is in that perfect location, let go of the button.

Working with Multiple Windows
The great thing about computers is that they allow for multi-tasking. You can listen to your favorite tunes, write a book, get work done, chat with your friends, and check your e-mail all at the same time. This can be done with much ease if learned correctly.

Time to get busy.

 * 1) Open Notepad again.
 * 2) Open Wordpad, which is located in Start -> Programs -> Accessories -> Wordpad.

There should now be two windows on the screen. The Wordpad window is the active window. We know this because its titlebar is brighter than Notepad's. Also, Wordpad's taskbar rectangle is a different color than Notepad's. When a program is active, keyboard and mouse input will go to that program.

 * 1) Type "Hello." The text is in Wordpad's window because this is the active one. (If nothing shows up, then click in the part where you would type in the Wordpad program).
 * 2) To make Notepad active, click on its titlebar. If it is covered by Wordpad, move it out of the way (by dragging it). Notepad will come on top of Wordpad once it is activated.
 * 3) To make Wordpad active again, click its rectangle in the taskbar.
 * 4) Play with the two programs until you get the hang of working with multiple windows. Use the maximize and minimize buttons. Don't really click any of the buttons on the programs yet. You'll learn that soon enough...

Task Bar
There are a few more things you should know that you can do with the task bar to customize its appearance and behavior:

 * 1) You can lock it (preventing other alterations listed below)
 * 2) * To check if the task bar is locked, hover the mouse over some part of the task bar not occupied by an icon, then click the right mouse button. A pop-up menu will appear, with an item "Lock the Taskbar" on it (among others).  It can either have a checkmark next to it on the left, or not.  If there is a check mark, the task bar is locked.  If not, then it's not locked.
 * 3) * To change the locked state of the task bar, click on the "Lock the Taskbar" menu item, and the state will change to its opposite - if it was locked before, clicking unlocks it; if it was not locked, clicking locks it.
 * 4) You can resize it (made larger, smaller, or even concealed, vertically)
 * 5) * To do this, the task bar must be unlocked (see immediately above)
 * 6) * Click and hold the thin border immediately above the task bar (you should see the cursor change to an up-and-down arrow), and "drag" it upward. You'll see that the task bar becomes fatter, giving it more room for program and quick-launch icons.  Dragging it downward does the opposite.  If you drag it all the way to the bottom of the screen, the task bar vanishes (except for its sizing border, which you can drag upward again to bring back the task bar.)
 * 7) You can also move it to the top, right, or left edge of the screen
 * 8) * To do this, hover the mouse over some part of the task bar with no icon, then click the left mouse button and hold it down. Then move the mouse up, to the left, or to the right, and observe that the task bar will vanish from the bottom of the screen and reappear at the left, top, or right (according to which direction you dragged it.)  When you release the mouse, the task bar will stay where you placed it.
 * 9) You can select which of its component tool bars are displayed on it
 * 10) * (how-to goes here)
 * 11) You can resize (horizontally) the visible tool bars
 * 12) * (how-to goes here)
 * 13) You can set other properties of the task bar, such as whether the clock appears on it, or whether the task bar auto-hides itself
 * 14) * (how-to goes here)

Menu Bar

 * 1) Open Notepad.
 * 2) * Right under the titlebar, there will be a menu bar. There will be File, Edit, Help, and more.
 * 3) Put your mouse over the word File and click.
 * 4) * A menu will pop up under the word and some choices will appear.
 * 5) Click Open.
 * 6) * This will open up a dialog to open an existing text file. You don't have to open anything yet but you may if you want.
 * 7) Click Exit.
 * 8) * This will close the program. It's another way of pressing X.
 * 9) Open up Notepad and explore the menus.
 * 10) * Nothing will break. If you see something confusing, press cancel. Remember that a great way to learn about the computer is to do stuff on your own. Try opening up other programs from the menu and see what they do. Just try to get comfortable with using the computer.

Common Menu Bar Features
Most programs share at least some similar menu bar items. Below is an overview of basic buttons found in the menu bar. It is broken down the same way that the menu bar is. Try these out.
 * File - Basic tasks like saving, opening, printing, and quitting are in the File menu.
 * Edit - The Edit menu can do a number of things:
 * Cut, Copy, Paste - This is the same thing as right clicking where the curser is and pressing cut, copy, or paste. That means also that it's the same thing as Ctrl-x, Ctrl-c, and Ctrl-v, respectively. To learn more about cutting, copying, and pasting, click here.
 * Undo/Redo - If you ever make a mistake that's hard to fix, like deleting your 10 page paper, a great thing to try is Undo. Most of the time, programs will let you undo numerous times. Redo redoes what you undid with the Undo button. It's like pressing Back and Forward in a web browser. Also, Ctrl-z and Ctrl-y are for Undo and Redo.
 * Find/Replace - Find and Replace are very useful tools, and they are incorporated into many programs. One example below will show how to use find, and the other will show how to use replace.
 * Let's say that a woman is on a webpage about muffins, but the only thing that she cares about are blueberry muffins. In order to save time, she goes to Edit -> Find. Then, she types "blueberry". The computer shows her every time that the word "blueberry" is on the page. This also works on other things such as word processors.
 * Another person writes a 5-page essay that was supposed to be in third-person. However, he has a whole bunch of "you"s in his paper. In order to fix that, the person goes to Edit -> Find/Replace. In Find What, he puts "you" (without quotes), and in Replace With, he puts "one" (without quotes). After clicking "find" and "replace" enough, all the instances of "you" were changed to "one", and whoever wrote the essay got an A+.
 * View - Options in here can change the appearance of a program. Most of it depends on the program you're using.
 * Toolbars - This lets you decide what toolbars to display if the program has a lot of them. An example of a toolbar is the one with the Save, Open, and New buttons.
 * Help
 * If you are wondering how to do something in a program, a good place to look is in Help. After opening the Help menu, you can find help by choosing "Contents" or "Help Contents" or "Online Help".
 * About - A general description of the program you are using is in here. Another useful thing found in here is the version number of the program.
 * Preferences
 * Many options for customizing a program can be found in Preferences. It is a window that comes up and is usually organized with tabs. Preferences can usually be found in Edit -> Preferences or Tools -> Options.

Scroll Bar
When there is too much stuff in a program to be displayed on the screen, a scroll bar appears in the right hand side of the window. Using this scroll bar, one can go up or down through the text or whatever needs scrolling. Scroll bars can also appear on the bottom of a window to scroll left and right. You scroll by using the following methods:

 * Click the squares with the arrow icons. Up is for up, and down is for down. Every time you click the arrows, the bar between them (known as the "scroll bar") goes up or down automatically.
 * Click and hold the scroll bar and drag it. Dragging it down scrolls down the text, and dragging up scrolls up. Release the mouse when finished.
 * There may be a small wheel on your mouse. This is called a "scroll wheel". It will most likely be between the two mouse buttons. You can use this to scroll up and down.
 * The Page Up and Page Down buttons on the keyboard will scroll up and down in large increments.
 * The arrow keys on your keyboard can sometimes be used for scrolling.

On some occasions, there will be scroll bars inside of scroll bars. This may be confusing, but you'll get the hang of it.

=Linux=

Linux is an operating system, much like Windows is. The word "Linux" comes from the name of its kernel, which was originally created by Linus Torvalds, while he was still in college. There are other important parts which define the operating system (at least in the sense of the term in which user’s programs are part of an operating system), so you may find other names for the same thing: "GNU/Linux" and "GNU". In its early stages, it had a command interface (that's where you HAVE to type exactly what you want the computer to do), but has now grown into fully featured OS used by enterprises, developers, and power-users at home.

Known worldwide as the core of the Open Source world, Linux is "free" (as in "freedom") by allowing the average user to observe and make changes to the source code of Linux as needed. That means if YOU want some kind of special functionality, YOU can implement it. You can also make copies of GNU/Linux and other free (as in freedom) programs, and give them to other people, while sharing a copy of Windows or Mac OS X is illegal in some countries. For that reason, Linux is as diverse as the humans that inhabit the Earth. Unlike Windows, where there are only a few choices of the OS, there exist literally hundreds of variations of Linux, each of which is created and maintained to perform a specific function for a community of users.

Installing an operating system
A computer needs an operating system to start running, like a car needs an engine to start moving. But installing an operating system is not for beginners, like installing a car engine is not for beginners. Many excellent car drivers have never installed a car engine.

Recent versions of Linux are widely considered the easiest-to-install operating system so far—some people say "a chicken could install Linux". However, installing any operating system is not recommended for beginners, and so is outside the scope of this book. After you finish this book, you may be ready to go on to a book that discusses booting a LiveCD or even installing an operating system, for example A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Linux.

K Desktop (KDE)
KDE is a Desktop Environment which basically is a style of your GUI for your open source operating system. The project was founded on the 14th of October 1996. It has many, many tools such as K3B, Koffice, and Kile. KDE is very user friendly. Some snapshots of KDE and some of its applications:

title: Computers for Beginners/The Basics


text:
Talk:Dan Griffey

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title: Talk:Dan Griffey


text:
Alibali

Alibali is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Ferial Alibali (1933–2011), Albanian actress
 * Martha W. Alibali, American psychologist

title: Alibali


text:
Prayer of Manasseh

Proper noun

 * 1)  A book of the Apocrypha of the Bible.

Translations

 * German: Gebet Manasses
 * Romanian: Rugăciunea lui Manase

title: Prayer of Manasseh


text:
Talk:Gradur

Contested deletion
This page should not be speedily deleted because this is a charting artist with a majour album release and a number of singles. References from reliable sources will be provided -- werldwayd (talk) 15:50, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Speedy deletion unwarranted at all. Now provided adequate references from reliable sources including a number of widespread rap magazines in France and Jeune Afrique, a respected international publication. werldwayd (talk) 16:16, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Gradur


text:
Hlaing Hteik Khaung Tin

Thiri Thu Myatswa Yadana Dewi (သီရိသုမြတ်စွာရတနာဒေဝီ, Sīrisuမြတ်စွာratanādevī; born Ma Phwar; 1833 – 1875), commonly known as the Princess of Hlaing (လှိုင်မင်းသမီး) or Hlaing Hteik Khaung Tin (လှိုင်ထိပ်ခေါင်တင်), was a crown princess of Burma during the late Konbaung dynasty.

She was a poet and musician as well as being known for her beauty. She created a style of popular song known as the bawle and wrote court dramas such as Vijayakārī and Indavaṃsa.

Early life
Ma Phwar was born in 1833 to the future King Tharrawaddy and Anauk Nanmadaw Ma Mya Lay. When her father ascended the throne, her mother became the Queen of the Western Palace, and Phwar was granted the appanage of Hlaing. She then became known as the Princess of Hlaing. At the Rajabiseka Consecration of her father in 1840, she received the title of Thiri Thu Myatswa Yadana Dewi from him.

She was said to have inherited her artistic skill from her mother, who was also a poet. When Anauk Nanmadaw Ma Mya Lay was executed by King Tharrawaddy in 1845, their daughter was adopted by Setkya Dewi, who later became the Chief Queen of King Mindon.

Later years
The Princess of Hlaing married Crown Prince Kanaung on 11 July 1853, at the age of 20, and gave birth to a son known as the Prince of Htantabin. Her husband was assassinated during the unsuccessful Myingun Myinkhondaing rebellion of 1866, and her son was executed in 1878. She died on 31 December 1875.

Bawle and patpyoe
The Princess of Hlaing is regarded as the first composer of a kind of plaintive song known as the bawle. Popular bawles include "Seinchu Kya-nyaung", "Naga Saddan" and "Pandusela". She also composed a type of classical music set to drums called the patpyoe. "Yayyamone", a combination of three traditional lullabies, is her best known patpyoe.

Court drama
The Princess of Hlaing wrote two court dramas: Vijayakārī and Indavaṃsa. The full script of Vijayakārī is no longer available; only the fourth volume has survived.

title: Hlaing Hteik Khaung Tin


text:
Wikiversity:Threaded discussions with NavFrames with subst/grafteasy1

Grafting /
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 * Comment: Grafting a comment by at the time
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