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Calculus/Complex analysis

Complex analysis is the study of functions of complex variables. Complex analysis is a widely used and powerful tool in certain areas of electrical engineering, and others.

Before we begin, you may want to review Complex numbers

Complex Numbers
Complex Numbers

Complex Functions
A function of a complex variable is a function that can take on complex values, as well as strictly real ones. For example, suppose f(z) = z2. This function sets up a correspondence between the complex number z and its square, z2, just like a function of a real variable, but with complex numbers. Note that, for f(z) = z2, f(z) will be strictly real if z is strictly real.

Generally we can write a function f(z) in the form f(z) = f(x+iy) = a(x,y) + ib(x,y), where a and b are real-valued functions.

Limits and continuity
As with real-valued functions, we have concepts of limits and continuity with complex-valued functions also – our usual delta-epsilon limit definition:

 * $$\lim_{z\to w}f(z)=L$$ iff for each $$\epsilon>0$$, there is a $$\delta>0$$ such that $$|f(z)-L|<\epsilon$$ for all $$z$$ such that $$0<|z-w|<\delta$$.

Note that ε and δ are real values. This is implicit in the use of inequalities: only real values are "greater than zero".

One difference between this definition of limit and the definition for real-valued functions is the meaning of the absolute value. Here we mean the complex absolute value instead of the real-valued one. Another difference is that of how z approaches w. For real-valued functions, we would only be concerned about z approaching w from the left, or from the right. In a complex setting, z can approach w from any direction in the two-dimensional complex plane: along any line passing through w, along a spiral centered at w, etc.

For example, let $$f(z)=z^2$$. Suppose we want to show that the $$\lim_{z\to i}f(z)=-1$$. We can write z as $$i+\gamma$$ where we think of γ being a small complex quantity. Note then that $$z-i=\gamma$$. Then, with L in our definition being -1, and w being i, we have
 * $$| f(z) - L | = | z^2 + 1 | = | (i + \gamma)^2 + 1 | = | 2i\gamma + \gamma;^2 |$$

By the triangle inequality, this last expression is less than
 * $$2 | \gamma | + | \gamma |^2$$

In order for this to be less than ε, we can require that
 * $$| \gamma | < \frac{1}{2} \min( \frac{\epsilon}{2}, \sqrt{\epsilon})$$

Thus, for any $$\epsilon > 0$$, if $$\delta = \frac{1}{2} \min( \frac{\epsilon}{2}, \sqrt{\epsilon})$$, and $$| z - i |<\delta$$, then $$| f(z) - ( - 1) | < \epsilon$$. Hence, the limit of $$f(z)=z^2$$ as z approaches i is -1.

Differentiation and Holomorphic Functions
Since we have limits defined, we can go ahead to define the derivative of a complex function, in the usual way:
 * $$ \lim_{\Delta z \rightarrow 0} {f(z+\Delta z)-f(z) \over \Delta z}$$

provided that the limit is the same no matter how Δz approaches zero (since we are working now in the complex plane, we have more freedom!).

If such a limit exists for some value z, or some set of values - a region, we call the function holomorphic at that point or region. Continuity and being single-valued are necessary for being analytic; however, continuity and being single-valued are not sufficient for being analytic.

Many elementary functions of complex values have the same derivatives as those for real functions: for example D z2 = 2z.

Problem set
Given the above, answer the following questions.
 * 1) Find the derivative of z3 from the limit definition.
 * 2) Write ez in the form a(x, y)+b(x, y)i

Answers
1. $$ \lim_{\Delta z \rightarrow 0} {(z+\Delta z)^3-z^3 \over \Delta z} = \lim_{\Delta z \rightarrow 0} 3z^2+3z\Delta z +{\Delta z}^2 = 3 z^2 ,$$

2. $$\ e^z = e^{x+yi} = e^xe^{yi} = e^x(\cos(y)+i \sin(y)) = e^x \cos(y) + e^x \sin(y) i\,$$

Cauchy-Riemann Equations
We might wonder which sorts of complex functions are in fact differentiable. It would appear that the criterion for holomorphicity is much stricter than that of differentiability for real functions, and this is indeed the case. Suppose we have a complex function
 * $$ f(z)=f(x+iy)=u(x,y)+i\; v(x,y)$$,

where u and v are real functions. Assume furthermore that u and v are differentiable functions in the real sense. Then we can let $$\Delta z$$ in the definition of differentiability approach 0 by varying only x or only y. Therefore f can only be differentiable in the complex sense if
 * $$\begin{cases} \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} \\ \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} = -\frac{\partial v}{\partial x}.\end{cases}$$

In fact, if u and v are differentiable in the real sense and satisfy these two equations, then f is holomorphic. These two equations are known as the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Integration
In single variable Calculus, integrals are typically evaluated between two real numbers

 * $$\int_{x_1}^{x_2} f(x) dx$$

On the real line, there is one way to get from $$x_1$$ to $$x_2$$. In the complex plane, however, there are infinitely many different paths which can be taken between two points, $$z_0$$ and $$z_1$$. For this reason, complex integration is always done over a path, rather than between two points.

Let $$\gamma$$ be a path in the complex plane parametrized by $$z: [a,b] \to \mathbb{C}$$, and let $$f(z)$$ be a complex-valued function. Then the contour integral is defined analogously to the line integral from multivariable calculus:

 * $$\int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = \int_a^b f(z(t)) z'(t) dt $$

Example Let $$f(z) = z$$, and let $$\gamma$$ be a line from 0 to 1+i. This curve can be parametrized by $$z(t) = t(1+i)$$, with $$t$$ ranging from 0 to 1. Now we can compute

 * $$\int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = \int_0^1 (t(1+i)) (1+i) dt = \frac{(1+i)^2}{2} = i $$

Note that we also have

 * $$\int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = \frac{(1+i)^2}{2} - \frac{0^2}{2} = i $$

This indicates that complex antiderivatives can be used to simplify the evaluation of integrals, just as real antiderivatives are used to evaluate real integrals.

Cauchy's Theorem
Cauchy's theorem states that if a function $$f$$ is holomorphic in the closure of an open set $$\Omega$$, and $$\gamma$$ is a simple closed curve in $$\Omega$$, then

 * $$ \int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = 0 $$

This can be understood in terms of Green's theorem, though this does not readily lead to a proof, since Green's theorem only applies under the assumption that f has continuous first partial derivatives...

Contour Integration

Cauchy's theorem allows for the evaluation of many improper real integrals (improper here means that one of the limits of integration is infinite). As an example, consider

 * $$ \int_0^{\infty} \frac{\sin x}{x} dx = \lim_{\epsilon \to 0, R \to \infty} \int_{\epsilon}^R \frac{\sin x}{x} dx $$

Since

 * $$ \Im(e^{i z}) = \sin z$$

we consider

 * $$ f(z) = \frac{e^{i z}}{z} $$

We now integrate over the indented semicircle contour, pictured above. We parametrize each segment of the contour as follows

 * $$ \gamma_1(t) = t $$, $$ t \in [-R, -\epsilon] $$
 * $$ \gamma_2(t) = t $$, $$ t \in [\epsilon, R] $$
 * $$ \gamma_3(t) = \epsilon e^{i t} $$, $$t \in [0, \pi] $$
 * $$ \gamma_4(t) = R e^{i t} $$, $$t \in [0, \pi] $$

By Cauchy's Theorem, the integral over the whole contour is zero. So,

 * $$ 0 = \int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = \int_{\gamma_1} f(z) dz + \int_{\gamma_2} f(z) dz - \int_{\gamma_3} f(z) dz + \int_{\gamma_4} f(z) dz $$

We now handle each of these integrals separately.

 * $$ \int_{\gamma_1} f(z) dz = \int_{-R}^{-\epsilon} \frac{e^{i z}}{z} dz = -\int_{\epsilon}^R \frac{e^{-i z}}{z} dz $$
 * $$ \int_{\gamma_2} f(z) dz = \int_{\epsilon}^{R} \frac{e^{i z}}{z} dz $$

Recalling the definition of the sine of a complex number,

 * $$ \int_{\gamma_1} f(z) dz + \int_{\gamma_2} f(z) dz = \int_{\epsilon}^R \frac{e^{i z} - e^{-i z}}{z} dz = 2i \int_{\epsilon}^R \frac{\sin x}{x} dx $$

Now we evaluate the other two integrals

 * $$ \int_{\gamma_3} f(z) dz = \int_0^{\pi} \frac{e^{- \epsilon e^{it}} i \epsilon e^{i t}}{\epsilon e^{i t}} dt = i \int_0^{\pi} e^{- \epsilon e^{it}} dt $$

As $$ \epsilon \to 0 $$, the integrand approaches one, so

 * $$ \lim_{\epsilon \to 0} \int_{\gamma_3} f(z) dz = i \int_0^{\pi} dt = \pi i $$

The fourth integral is equal to zero, but this is somewhat more difficult to show. Its form is similar to that of the third segment:

 * $$ \int_{\gamma_4} f(z) dz = \int_0^{\pi} e^{-R e^{it}} dt $$

This integrand is more difficult, since it need not approach zero everywhere. This difficulty can be overcome by splitting up the integral, but here we simply assume it to be zero.

Combining everything, we now have

 * $$ \int_{\gamma} f(z) dz = 0 = 2 i \int_0^{\infty} \frac{\sin x}{x} dx - \pi i $$

Hence,

 * $$ \int_0^{\infty} \frac{\sin x}{x} dx = \frac{\pi}{2} $$

Cauchy's Integral Formula
Cauchy's integral formula characterizes the behavior of holomorphics functions on a set based on their behavior on the boundary of that set. If $$\Omega$$ is an open set with a piecewise smooth boundary and $$f$$ is holomorphic in $$\bar{\Omega}$$, then

 * $$ f(z) = \frac{1}{2 \pi i} \int_{\partial \Omega} \frac{f(\zeta) d\zeta}{\zeta-z} \ \ \ \forall z \in \Omega $$

This is a remarkable fact which has no counterpart in multivariable calculus. It says that if we know the values of a holomorphic function along a closed curve, then we know its values everywhere in the interior of the curve.

Because $$z \in \Omega$$, an open set, it follows that $$\zeta-z \neq 0$$ for all $$\zeta \in \partial \Omega$$. Hence the integrand in Cauchy's integral formula is infinitely differentiable with respect to z, and by repeatedly taking derivatives of both sides, we get

 * $$f^{(n)} (z) = \frac{n!}{2 \pi i} \int_{\partial\Omega} \frac{f(\zeta) d\zeta}{(\zeta-z)^{n+1}} \ \ \ \forall z \in \Omega, n \in \mathbb{N} $$

This result shows that holomorphicity is a much stronger requirement than differentiability. In the complex plane, if a function has just a single derivative in an open set, then it has infinitely many derivatives in that set.

Corollaries of Cauchy's Theorem
Cauchy's Theorem and integral formula have a number of powerful corollaries:

 * Convergence of power series If a function is holomorphic in a disc, then its Taylor series converges in this disc.
 * Liouville's Theorem If a function is bounded and holomorphic in all of $$\mathbb{C}$$ then it is equal to a constant.
 * Fundamental Theorem of Algebra All polynomials of degree greater than zero with complex coefficients have a complex root. This is a simple corollary of Liouville's theorem.
 * Equality of functions If two functions $$f$$ and $$g$$ are holomorphic on a connected, open set $$\Omega$$, and $$f(z)=g(z)$$ on any disc in this set, then $$f(z)=g(z)$$ for all $$z \in \Omega$$.

title: Calculus/Complex analysis


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2020 United States Postal Service crisis

The 2020 United States Postal Service crisis was a series of events that caused backlogs and delays in the delivery of mail by the United States Postal Service (USPS). The crisis stems primarily from changes implemented by Postmaster General Louis DeJoy shortly after taking office in June 2020. The delays have had substantial legal, political, economic, and health repercussions.

On August 18, 2020, under heavy political and legal pressure, DeJoy announced that he would be "suspending" the policy changes until after the November 2020 election. He testified to the Senate on August 21, and to the House of Representatives on August 24, concerning the changes and their effects.

Financial relief later arrived in the Postal Service Reform Act of 2022, signed by President Joe Biden.

Background
The USPS has had a history of budget deficits dating back to a 2006 law requiring it to prepay retiree health benefits 75 years in advance, a provision to which no other government agency or private corporation is subject. This law, the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act, was passed during a lame-duck session, and shepherded through the Senate by Senator Susan Collins of Maine. According to Tom Davis (the bill's sponsor), the Bush administration threatened to veto the legislation unless they added the provision regarding funding the employee benefits in advance with the objective of using that money to reduce the federal deficit. The agency's struggles were compounded by the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and subsequent recession, which caused overall mail volume to fall by one-third, and again by the COVID-19 pandemic and its economic effects.

Changes
Louis DeJoy was sworn in as postmaster general on June 15, 2020; he is the first person since 1992 to assume the position without any previous experience in the United States Postal Service.

Hundreds of high-speed mail sorting machines were dismantled and removed from postal facilities, raising concerns that mailed ballots for the November 3 election might not reach election offices on time. It was later explained that such machines are taken offline every year in response to diminishing volumes of letter mail, and that 671 of the machines (about 10 percent of the total) in 49 states had been slated for removal this year, 618 of them by August 1. After DeJoy's announcement that he would suspend his changes, the Postal Service's director of maintenance instructed employees that "they are not to reconnect/reinstall machines that have previously been disconnected without approval from HQ Maintenance, no matter what direction they are getting from their plant manager."

Mail collection boxes were removed from the streets in many cities. However, the Postal Service has been removing mail collection boxes as a cost-cutting measure for years — between 1985 and 2011, the number of mail collection boxes was reduced by 60% — so it remains unclear if the removals are connected to DeJoy's changes. After photos of boxes being removed were spread on social media, a Postal Service spokesman said they were being moved to higher-traffic areas but that the removals would stop until after the election.

On August 18, after weeks of heavy criticism and the day after lawsuits against the Postal Service and DeJoy personally were filed in federal court by several individuals, DeJoy announced that he would suspend all the changes until after the November election, "to avoid even the appearance of any impact on election mail." He said he would reinstate overtime hours, roll back service reductions, and halt the removal of mail sorting machines and collection boxes. However, 95 percent of the mail sorting machines that were planned for removal had already been removed, and in testimony to the Senate, DeJoy expressed that he had no intention of replacing them.

Legal issues
Federal law prohibits any employee of the Postal Service from delaying mail. The Postal Service inspector general has opened an investigation into the changes made by DeJoy, including any possible conflicts of interest stemming from his $30 million ownership stake in XPO Logistics, which processes mail for the USPS.

Several state attorneys general are also beginning investigations to determine if DeJoy violated state election laws and are coordinating their efforts. As of August 18, 2020, attorneys general from at least twenty states have filed federal lawsuits against the USPS and DeJoy. One lawsuit is being led by Washington state, joined by Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin; a second is being led by Pennsylvania, joined by California, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, and North Carolina. All of the participating attorneys general are Democrats. The state lawsuits were filed in spite of DeJoy's announcement that he would be suspending the changes. On September 17, 2020, federal judge Stanley Bastian, in response to the lawsuit led by Washington state, issued a temporary injunction barring the Postal Service from proceeding with the planned changes, describing them as "a politically motivated attack on the efficiency of the postal service."

U.S. representative Bill Pascrell requested the New Jersey attorney general to empanel a grand jury to investigate whether any state election laws were violated; the AG declined comment. Arizona secretary of state Katie Hobbs said, "In Arizona, it's against the law to 'delay the delivery of a ballot.' I've asked Attorney General Brnovich to investigate recent changes at USPS."

A number of individuals, including candidates for public office, have filed lawsuits in federal court against the Postal Service

Questions have been raised by observers and journalists about a possible conflict of interest involving DeJoy's connections to XPO Logistics. The company received $14 million in contracts in ten weeks between June and September 2020. The figure for the corresponding period in 2019 was $3.4 million.

On November 4, 2020, federal judge Emmet G. Sullivan ordered DeJoy to ″sweep″ USPS facilities for undelivered mail-in ballots, and to immediately deliver any they find. DeJoy failed to comply, and Judge Sullivan announced that DeJoy "should" be deposed.

Political issues
Voting by mail has become an increasingly common practice in the United States. The share of voters nationwide who submit their ballots by mail has grown from about 8 percent in 1996 to about 21 percent in 2016. Members of the military, their families, and military contractors are able to vote by mail if they are not currently stationed in their permanent home location; more than 600,000 such ballots were cast in the 2016 election. The coronavirus pandemic of 2020 was anticipated to cause a large increase in mail voting because of the possible danger of congregating at polling places. For the 2020 election, a state-by-state analysis concluded that 76 percent of Americans were eligible to vote by mail in 2020, a record number. The analysis predicted that 80 million ballots could be cast by mail in 2020, more than double the number in 2016.

In July 2020 the Postal Service sent letters to 46 U.S. states, warning each state that in anticipation of a sizable increase in postal voting caused by the coronavirus pandemic, the service might not be able to meet that state's deadlines for requesting and casting absentee ballots. In the majority of the letters, the Postal Service encouraged voters to mail their ballots no later than seven days before the general election. These letters were drafted before the implementation of operational changes that caused delays in mail delivery.

Ultimately, a record number of voters, in excess of 65.6 million, would cast postal votes. A March 2021 report from the Postal Service's inspector general found that the vast majority of mail-in ballots and registration materials in the 2020 election were delivered to the relevant authorities on time. The Postal Service handled approximately 135 million pieces of election-related mail between September 1st and November 3rd, delivering 97.9% of ballots from voters to election officials within three days, and 99.89% of ballots within seven days.

Economic issues
Some companies have complained that the delays are hurting their business, since their reputation is dependent on being able to deliver their wares reliably and promptly. A Wisconsin businessman said that with the recent changes, some shipments that might once have been no more than a day late now go missing for weeks, and Priority Mail and Express Mail can now take a week or more. The problems are especially severe for small businesses.

Individuals are also reporting serious economic problems due to delayed or missing mail: not receiving checks or important papers that they are expecting, or having their bill payments arrive at the company late so that they are charged a penalty. In some cities people report getting no mail at all for two or three weeks, and standing in line at the post office to see if it is there.

Health issues
Most prescribed medications from the Veterans Administration are sent by mail. Those medications are supposed to arrive within three to five days of being mailed. Since the operational changes imposed by DeJoy, veterans complain that such prescription deliveries have been delayed, often by weeks. Other health essentials such as oxygen tubes are also reportedly being delayed for weeks. A letter to DeJoy from 31 U.S. senators asked him to reassess the effect of his changes on veterans.

Animal deaths and food spoilage
Maine farmers reported that thousands of baby chicks had died in the mail after delays at the processing center in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts. After overtime was cut at a South Los Angeles sorting facility, packages piled up and blocked machines, rodents were swarming around containers of rotted fruit and meat, baby chicks were found dead inside their boxes, and the building filled with gnats.

Postal workers' reactions
DeJoy ordered changes with little input from Postal Service workers or their labor unions. In multiple states, postal workers and union leaders reported that the changes resulted in low worker morale.

Some postal workers, aiming to prevent adverse effects on the election and on customer service, resisted the changes ordered by DeJoy. For example, in New York, some mechanics disregarded an order to dismantle and remove a mail-sorting machine; in Michigan, some letter carriers disregarded an order to leave election mail behind; and in Ohio, some postal workers took steps to ensure that delayed prescriptions and benefit payments were delivered. Workers in at least two plants in Washington state reassembled their letter-sorting machines in the week that DeJoy announced he would suspend his changes, despite the Postal Service's national order not to reinstall the machines.

Mark Dimondstein, president of the American Postal Workers Union, criticized the DeJoy orders. Asked in August 2020 whether he believed DeJoy was attempting "to sabotage the election by making cuts that slow down the flow of mail," Dimondstein said: "I can't really judge the motivation. We just have to look at the deeds and the deeds thus far is the new Postmaster General has instituted a number of policies that are truly slowing down mail. The customers see it. We're hearing from customers all over the country. The postal workers see it. Mail is getting backed up."

Protests
The crisis precipitated protests against the changes made by DeJoy, with protesters calling for the postmaster general's resignation. One protest took place on August 15 outside of DeJoy's home in Washington, D.C.; a second took place on August 16 at his home in Greensboro, North Carolina.

Congressional response
On August 16, 2020, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi ended a recess of the House of Representatives that had been scheduled to last until the week of September 14, calling lawmakers back to Washington to address the crisis. She proposed an early vote on a bill to roll back the changes introduced by DeJoy, which Democrats have described as "a grave threat to the integrity of the election." Pelosi said that "Lives, livelihoods and the life of our American democracy are under threat from the president."

Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer demanded that Majority Leader Mitch McConnell bring the Senate back into session also, to consider ways to "undo the extensive damage Mr. DeJoy has done at the Postal Service," but there was no indication McConnell would do so. Some Republican senators have also called for reversing the changes, pointing out the importance of the Postal Service to rural residents; they include both senators from Montana and Senator Susan Collins of Maine.

On August 17, 2020, DeJoy agreed to testify before the House Committee on Oversight and Reform on August 24, and the next day he agreed to testify before the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs on August 21. USPS Board of Governors chairman Mike Duncan also agreed to testify at the House hearing.

Despite DeJoy's announcement that he would be suspending the operational changes until after the election, Pelosi stated that she did not trust DeJoy, and called the suspension "a necessary but insufficient step in ending the president’s election sabotage campaign."

On August 21, 2020, DeJoy testified before the U.S. Senate that he votes by mail. He committed to senators at the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee that voters should be "extremely highly confident" that even mail-in ballots sent close to Election Day would be delivered on time, and promised that the USPS would respect its "sacred duty" to deliver election mail in the fall of 2020. Senator Jacky Rosen asked DeJoy to provide the sources of data collected, data analyses, and considerations of consequences—specifically on veterans dependent on the mail for their prescriptions—that DeJoy had undertaken before implementing the removal of mail sorting machines, "reduction, elimination of overtime and late trips". He said he was unable to do so.

On August 22, 2020, the House passed a bill approving $25 billion in emergency funding for the USPS that would reverse DeJoy's changes and ban mail delays before the election. The vote was 257-150 as Democrats approved it unanimously and 26 Republicans joined them. The White House threatened a veto. The bill was introduced in the Senate by Susan Collins, but never reached the floor for a vote.

Congresswoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz, a member of the House Committee on Oversight and Reform, was denied access to two post offices in Florida when she tried to conduct an inspection on September 3. The United States Postal Service cited possible Hatch Act violations and internal ethics guidelines that stipulate any candidate for political office cannot tour a post office within 45 days of an election as its reasons for turning Wasserman Schultz away.

Holiday shipping delays
In December 2020, a combination of the cost-cutting measures instituted by Postmaster General Louis DeJoy and increased holiday season shipping volume resulted in widespread package shipping delays and "buckling" of the Postal system. USPS facilities became overwhelmed with packages: A supervisor at an Indianapolis distribution center reported that for the sake of expediency, workers were "just throwing [packages] in the trucks without scanning them" into the system; in Allentown, Pennsylvania, mail pieces sat in the parking lot because there was no room to unload them, and a clerk in Philadelphia told the Philadelphia Inquirer, "Don’t be using the post office right now, because we can’t deliver the mail". In an interview with the Baltimore Sun, a postal clerk in Linthicum, Maryland, summed up the situation as a “logistical nightmare," and added that USPS should have known based on the events of the preceding year there would be a holiday shipping crisis, but despite this failed to warn customers. A postal worker who anonymously spoke to the Washington Post summed it up, "“As bad as you think it is, it’s worse.” Late in December, USPS acknowledged the delays on its website citing COVID-19 issues and a labor shortage and encouraging early mailing of packages, but for many with packages already trapped at distribution centers across the country it was expected to be too late to make a difference.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:JWSchmidt/history

Much of the early discussion about the Wikipedia-related textbook project can be found in the archives of the Textbook email list. Wikibooks was launched as a project on July 10, 2003. The Wikiversity page at Wikibooks goes back to at least 21 August 2003. The idea behind Wikiversity was to create "a free, open learning environment and community." There was some debate about how best to incorporate an explicitly education-oriented "learning community" into a Wikipedia-daughter project. One idea involved re-naming the textbooks project to Wikiuniversity. In early discussions of the name and scope of the new "textbook" project, the idea was advanced that Wikibooks could be the "book store" for a more general education-oriented project: Wikiversity. However, the name selected for the new project was "Wikibooks". Wikibooks was given a narrow mission and the "open learning environment" became an appendage to the central textbooks project.

see also: History of Wikibooks/Notes
 * Early Wikiversity page, see also the history of Some ideas about Wikiversity.

The first Wikiversity website
How was the German language Wikiversity website started? Apparently someone asked Brion and he just set it up.

Wikiversity mentioned in Wikimedia Quarto.

The website is noticed. According to the stats page, the German Wikiversity was started in March 2005 (the Wikiversity page on German Wikibooks goes back to February 2005).

A request was made by Aya for an English language Wikiversity website (29 July 2005), but the Wikiversität page at the meta-wiki started in September 2004.

Wikiversity at Wikibooks put up for deletion
The effort to remove Wikiversity from Wikibooks was started by User:Aya who claimed an interest in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. Starting in November 2005 there was much debate about what kinds of books should be included at Wikibooks. By March 2006 the decision had been made to remove some video game related materials out of Wikimedia Foundation projects. The Grand Theft Auto material was removed in April of 2006, however, Aya never showed great interest in editing at Wikibooks and had already left the project (see below).

After joining the Wikibooks project in the middle of June, Aya requested bureaucratship on July 28 and became an administrator and a bureaucrat a few days later(10:03, 30 July 2005 Datrio changed group membership for User:Aya@enwikibooks from (none) to sysop, bureaucrat), prompting a comment: "I think that before asking for a status, it would be interesting to get informed on what you can precisely do with that status :) As a bureaucrat, you appear to me very little informed." - Anthere 07:25, 31 July 2005 (see)

On August 3, 2005, Aya declared Wikiversity an unauthorized project, prompting Angela's email about Aya's comments on the wikiversity page (Aug 4, 2005). A week later, Aya initiated the deletion vote to remove Wikiversity content from Wikibooks (started Aug 11, 2005).

The discussion about deleting the Wikiversity pages from the Wikibooks project can be found on a dedicated page for the deletion discussion. It included strong calls for deletion from people with very few edits on Wikibooks. On August 14, Jimbo made the removal of Wikiversity from Wikibooks official, apparently with the intention that the Wikiversity-related pages at Wikibooks be moved to a new wiki where that content would not be in conflict with the stated mission and could be in line with his call that we "free the curriculum". On August 16 a proposal to make Wikiversity a stand-alone project was advanced (see mail list post).

The community vote on the proposed independent Wikiversity project ended on 1 November 2005, with the project being approved by the community. Aya made only one minor edit after November 1. The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees objected to the original Wikiversity project proposal and called upon the Wikiversity community to modify the proposal so as to remove any indication that Wikiversity would deal with credentials while describing an achievable plan for the Wikiversity online learning model (see: History of Wikiversity).

Quote from Colloquium
Hi JW

When I stumbled on the following quote in the Colloquium I felt it might clarify the thinking going into the Wikiversity's formation. There's a lot of bits and pieces all over the place regarding the formation. It would be good to gather this stuff up before memories fade and the links become lost.

I'm adding a link to the "History of Wikiversity" page on the Newcomers page.

 * "That the Wikiversity evolve a structure that supports two kinds of students — those that are mature and quite comfortable in directing their own education independently; and those who seek a structured environment with clarity of roles, procedures and expectations." <-- Based on our previous exchanges, I wonder if "those who seek a structured environment", is a reference to the traditional educational structure that has grown up around bricks-and-mortar educational institutions. In my opinion, wiki technology is not best suited to traditional educational structures and that is why the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees refused to approve the Wikiversity project until a different type of educational structure was proposed for this project. No matter what kind of structures Wikiversity can eventally support, here at the start of the project we need participants who can help create Wikiversity's educational content by editing wiki pages. Towards that goal, I think we can, "run small experiments, tests, see what works, what doesn't, and be prepared to be flexible and change, and not be too locked into stone about how things should work." We need to discover the best ways to use wiki technology to grow and support learning communities. — JWSchmidt 10October2006

Kind regards,

morley 16:26, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

It might be constructive to make a short list of questions that could be sent to the Board members who rejected the original Wikiversity proposal. I have no great confidence in the accuracy of my personal guesses about the basis of the Board's choices and possible reasoning behind those choices. Maybe this would be a good "living history" project for the Wikiversity School of History. --JWSchmidt 17:11, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

2007 meeting

 * IRC meeting: What is Wikiversity? will be 8 December 2007
 * Main meeting page

title: User:JWSchmidt/history


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File:SBTDS OpeningShotFront.jpg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to draw thumbnail storyboards with ArtRage2 free version.

title: File:SBTDS OpeningShotFront.jpg


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Shawn Myers

Shawn Myers (born 26 May 1969) is a Trinidadian-American-British former professional basketball player. After playing college basketball between 1987 and 1991, Myers had an extensive professional career playing in Europe while also having stints in Australia and New Zealand.

Between 1997 and 2001, Myers played in Lithuania, Finland and Iceland before moving to Britain where he began a long-term career in the British Basketball League (BBL). Between 2001 and 2013, he appeared in every BBL season for various teams including the Chester Jets and the Cheshire Jets. After beginning the 2013–14 season with the Cheshire Phoenix, he parted ways with the club by mutual consent on 31 October and subsequently retired from basketball at the age of 44.

In addition to his lucrative European career, Myers played nine games in the New Zealand National Basketball League in 2002 for the Harbour Heat (one game) and the Hawke's Bay Hawks (eight games), and spent three seasons with the Geelong Supercats of the SEABL between 2006 and 2008, playing in 73 games and winning a national title in 2006.

title: Shawn Myers


text:
Nowbahar, Nishapur

Nowbahar (, also Romanized as Nowbahār and Now Bahār) is a village in Darbqazi Rural District, in the Central District of Nishapur County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 72, in 21 families.

title: Nowbahar, Nishapur


text:
Puzzles

Foreword
There are many books in the market nowadays that have written about the puzzles BUT most of the books only dealt with narrow scope of that particular puzzles only.

For this Wikibook, it is the intention of the contributors to give the readers some tidbits/history and examples related to that puzzles mentioned and of course there are some puzzles which provided entertainment / interactive question for readers themselves at the end of the page. If you got stuck after trying, it wouldn't hurt to take a peek on how to solve the puzzles itself (after all puzzles is supposed to be fun).

Hence all said, please enjoy these puzzle collection, avoid any frustration, and fight boredom.

Games & Graphical Puzzles

 * /Two-player games/
 * /Chess puzzles/
 * /Tower of Hanoi/
 * /Seven Bridges of Königsberg/
 * /Four colour map/
 * /Bongard problems/
 * /Subdivisions/

Grid Puzzles

 * /Symbols/
 * /Shading/
 * /Segregation/
 * /Stripe/

Language puzzles

 * /Analogies/
 * /Odd-one-out/
 * /Rebus/
 * /Riddles/
 * /Word-In-Word/

Mathematical puzzles

 * /Action sequences/
 * /Analytical puzzles/
 * /Arithmetical puzzles/
 * /Bertrand’s Box/
 * /Decision puzzles/
 * Geometric puzzles
 * /Luoshu Squares/
 * /Number sequences/
 * /Set theory puzzles/
 * Statistical & combinatorics puzzles

Logic puzzles

 * /Logic puzzles/
 * /River Crossing/
 * Rubik's cube (3x3x3)

Real life problems

 * How do you ... ?
 * Lateral puzzles
 * Non-scientific puzzles
 * Physics puzzles

About puzzles

 * /Puzzles in science/
 * /Solving puzzles/

Puzzle resources

 * Jim Loy's Puzzle Pages
 * Riddles–Wu:Riddles
 * Aha! Puzzles - Original creative puzzles by Lloyd King
 * Puzzles from the Princeton undergraduate mathematics student society.
 * rec.puzzles Archive
 * ResultsAbout Riddles: Collection of links to other riddle web sites.
 * Mathpuzzle: Puzzle blog of Ed Pegg Jr.
 * PuzzlePicnic: Hundreds of deduction puzzles.
 * Puzzles.com

Puzzles

title: Puzzles


text:
Wikipedia talk:Featured article candidates/Kosmoceratops/archive1

TFA blurb review
Kosmoceratops was a ceratopsid dinosaur that lived in what is now the U.S. state of Utah about 76.4–75.5 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous. Specimens of the genus were discovered in Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in 2006 and 2007. It had an estimated length of 4.5 m and weight of 1.2 MT. Kosmoceratops (from Greek for "ornate horned face") was named for its skull, the most ornamented of any known dinosaur, with fifteen well-developed horns and horn-like structures. It had a triangular beak with a pointed tip, a blade-like nasal horn, and two horns that pointed up and to the sides, then downwards. The neck frill was short from front to back, with eight hook-like processes on the hind margin curving forwards, and two curving to the sides. Kosmoceratops grew rapidly and, like modern birds and mammals, had an elevated metabolism. Its teeth were adapted to chewing fibrous plants.

Just a suggested blurb ... thoughts and edits are welcome. - Dank (push to talk) 22:47, 21 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Looks good to me. FunkMonk (talk) 22:51, 21 September 2019 (UTC)


text:
User:Thubtran92/sandbox

Chinese Exclusion Act Draft 1
The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers. The act followed the Angell Treaty of 1880, a set of revisions to the US–China Burlingame Treaty of 1868 that allowed the US to suspend Chinese immigration. The act was initially intended to last for 10 years, but was renewed in 1892 with the Geary Act and made permanent in 1902. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first law implemented to prevent a specific ethnic group from immigrating to the United States. It was repealed by the Magnuson Act on December 17, 1943.

Contents
[[null hide] ]
 * 1Background
 * 2Content
 * 3Repeal and current status
 * 4See also
 * 5References
 * 6Further reading
 * 6.1Primary sources
 * 7External links

Background[edit]
Main article: History of Chinese Americans This "Official Map of Chinatown 1885" was published as part of an official report of a Special Committee established by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors "on the Condition of the Chinese Quarter". Chinese immigrant workers building the Transcontinental Railroad

The first significant Chinese immigration to North America began with the California Gold Rush of 1848–1855 and it continued with subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. During the early stages of the gold rush, when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were tolerated, if not well received. As gold became harder to find and competition increased, animosity toward the Chinese and other foreigners increased. After being forcibly driven from the mines, most Chinese settled in enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low-wage labor, such as restaurant and laundry work. With the post-Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader Denis Kearney and his Workingman's Party as well as by California Governor John Bigler, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels. Another significant anti-Chinese group organized in California during this same era was the Supreme Order of Caucasians, with some 60 chapters statewide.[citation needed]

In the early 1850s, there was resistance to the idea of excluding Chinese migrant workers from immigration, because they provided essential tax revenue which helped fill the fiscal gap of California. But toward the end of the decade, the financial situation improved and subsequently, attempts to legislate Chinese exclusion became successful on the state level. In 1858, the California Legislature passed a law that made it illegal for any person "of the Chinese or Mongolian races" to enter the state; however, this law was struck down by an unpublished opinion of the State Supreme Court in 1862. The Chinese immigrant workers provided cheap labor and did not use any of the government infrastructure (schools, hospitals, etc.) because the Chinese migrant population was predominantly made up of healthy male adults. As time passed and more and more Chinese migrants arrived in California, violence would often break out in cities such as Los Angeles. By 1878 Congress decided to act and passed legislation excluding the Chinese, but this was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes. 1879, California adopted a new Constitution, which explicitly authorized the state government to determine which individuals were allowed to reside in the state, and banned the Chinese from employment by corporations and state, county or municipal governments. Once the Chinese Exclusion Act was finally passed in 1882, California went further by passing various laws that were later held to be unconstitutional. After the act was passed, most Chinese families were faced with a dilemma: stay in the United States alone or go back to China to reunite with their families. Although there was widespread dislike for the Chinese, some capitalists and entrepreneurs resisted their exclusion because they accepted lower wages.

Content[edit]
For the first time, federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. (The earlier Page Act of 1875 had prohibited immigration of Asian forced laborers and sex workers, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 prohibited naturalization of non-white subjects.) The Act excluded Chinese laborers, meaning "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining," from entering the country for ten years under penalty of imprisonment and deportation. Front page of The San Francisco Call -November 20th 1901, Chinese Exclusion Convention The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few nonlaborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to emigrate. However, this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined excludables as “skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining.” Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law. Diplomatic officials and other officers on business, along with their house servants, for the Chinese government were also allowed entry as long as they had the proper certification verifying their credentials.

The Act also affected the Chinese who had already settled in the United States. Any Chinese who left the United States had to obtain certifications for reentry, and the Act made Chinese immigrants permanent aliens by excluding them from U.S. citizenship. After the Act's passage, Chinese men in the U.S. had little chance of ever reuniting with their wives, or of starting families in their new abodes.

Amendments made in 1884 tightened the provisions that allowed previous immigrants to leave and return, and clarified that the law applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of their country of origin. The Scott Act (1888) expanded upon the Chinese Exclusion Act, prohibiting reentry after leaving the U.S. Constitutionality of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Scott Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in Chae Chan Ping v. United States (1889); the Supreme Court declared that "the power of exclusion of foreigners [is] an incident of sovereignty belonging to the government of the United States as a part of those sovereign powers delegated by the constitution." The Act was renewed for ten years by the 1892 Geary Act, and again with no terminal date in 1902. When the act was extended in 1902, it required "each Chinese resident to register and obtain a certificate of residence. Without a certificate, he or she faced deportation."

Between 1882 and 1905, about 10,000 Chinese appealed against negative immigration decisions to federal court, usually via a petition for habeas corpus. In most of these cases, the courts ruled in favor of the petitioner. Except in cases of bias or negligence, these petitions were barred by an act that passed Congress in 1894 and was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in U.S. vs Lem Moon Sing (1895). In U.S. vs Ju Toy (1905), the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed that the port inspectors and the Secretary of Commerce had final authority on who could be admitted. Ju Toy's petition was thus barred despite the fact that the district court found that he was an American citizen. The Supreme Court determined that refusing entry at a port does not require due process and is legally equivalent to refusing entry at a land crossing. All these developments, along with the extension of the act in 1902, triggered a boycott of U.S. goods in China between 1904 and 1906. There was one 1885 case in San Francisco, however, in which Treasury Department officials in Washington overturned a decision to deny entry to two Chinese students.

One of the critics of the Chinese Exclusion Act was the anti-slavery/anti-imperialist Republican Senator George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts who described the Act as "nothing less than the legalization of racial discrimination."

The laws were driven largely by racial concerns; immigration of persons of other races was unlimited during this period.

On the other hand, many people strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act, including the Knights of Labor, a labor union, who supported it because it believed that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge to keep wages low. Among labor and leftist organizations, the Industrial Workers of the World were the sole exception to this pattern. The IWW openly opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act from its inception in 1905. A political cartoon from 1882, showing a Chinese man being barred entry to the "Golden Gate of Liberty". The caption reads, "We must draw the line somewhere, you know."

Certificate of identity issued to Yee Wee Thing certifying that he is the son of a US citizen, issued Nov. 21, 1916. This was necessary for his immigration from China to the United States.

For all practical purposes, the Exclusion Act, along with the restrictions that followed it, froze the Chinese community in place in 1882. Limited immigration from China continued until the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943. From 1910 to 1940, the Angel Island Immigration Station on what is now Angel Island State Park in San Francisco Bay served as the processing center for most of the 56,113 Chinese immigrants who are recorded as immigrating or returning from China; upwards of 30% more who showed up were returned to China. Furthermore, after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed City Hall and the Hall of Records, many immigrants (known as "paper sons") claimed that they had familial ties to resident Chinese-American citizens. Whether these were true or not cannot be proven.

The Chinese Exclusion Act gave rise to the first great wave of commercial human smuggling, an activity that later spread to include other national and ethnic groups.

The Chinese Exclusion Act also led to an expansion of the power of U.S. immigration law through its influence on Canada's policies on Chinese exclusion during this time because of the need for greater vigilance at the U.S.-Canada border. Shortly after the U.S. Chinese Exclusion Act, Canada established the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 which imposed a head tax on Chinese migrants entering Canada. After increasing pressure from the U.S. government, Canada finally established the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 which banned most forms of immigration by the Chinese to Canada. There was also a need for this kind of border control along the U.S-Mexico border, however, efforts to control the border went along a different path because Mexico was fearful of expanding imperial power of the U.S. and did not want U.S. interference in Mexico. Not only this, but Chinese immigration to Mexico was welcomed because the Chinese immigrants filled Mexico's labor needs. The Chinese Exclusion Act actually led to heightened Chinese immigration to Mexico because of exclusion by the U.S. Therefore, the U.S. resorted to heavily policing the border along Mexico.

Later, the Immigration Act of 1924 restricted immigration even further, excluding all classes of Chinese immigrants and extending restrictions to other Asian immigrant groups. Until these restrictions were relaxed in the middle of the twentieth century, Chinese immigrants were forced to live a life separated from their families, and to build ethnic enclaves in which they could survive on their own (Chinatown). The Chinese Exclusion Act did not address the problems that whites were facing; in fact, the Chinese were quickly and eagerly replaced by the Japanese, who assumed the role of the Chinese in society. Unlike the Chinese, some Japanese were even able to climb the rungs of society by setting up businesses or becoming truck farmers. However, the Japanese were later targeted in the National Origins Act of 1924, which banned immigration from east Asia entirely.

In 1891 the Government of China refused to accept the U.S. Senator Mr. Henry W. Blair as U.S. Minister to China due to his abusive remarks regarding China during negotiation of the Chinese Exclusion Act.

The American Christian Rev. Dr. George F. Pentecost spoke out against western imperialism in China, saying: ''I personally feel convinced that it would be a good thing for America if the embargo on Chinese immigration were removed. I think that the annual admission of 100,000 into this country would be a good thing for the country. And if the same thing were done in the Philippines those islands would be a veritable Garden of Eden in twenty-five years. The presence of Chinese workmen in this country would, in my opinion, do a very great deal toward solving our labor problems. There is no comparison between the Chinaman, even of the lowest coolie class, and the man who comes here from Southeastern Europe, from Russia, or from Southern Italy. The Chinese are thoroughly good workers. That is why the laborers here hate them. I think, too, that the emigration to America would help the Chinese. At least he would come into contact with some real Christian people in America. The Chinaman lives in squalor because he is poor. If he had some prosperity his squalor would cease.''

The "Driving Out" Period
Following the passed legislation of the Chinese Exclusion Act, a period known as the "Driving Out" era was born. In this period, many anti-Chinese Americans sought out to physically force the Chinese communities to flee to other areas. Many of these outbreaks occurred in the Western states. The Rock Springs Chinese Massacre and the Snake River Massacre of 1887 are two notable events in history.

Rock Springs Massacre of 1885
In 1885, many angry white miners felt threatened by the Chinese and blamed them for their unemployment. As a result of the job competition, white miners expressed their frustration in physical violence where they robbed, shot, and stabbed at Chinese in Chinatown. The Chinese quickly tried to flee but in doing so, many ended up being burned alive in their homes, starved to death in hidden refuge, or exposed to animal predators of the mountains. Some were successfully rescued by the passing train and by the end of the event, at least twenty-eight lives were sacrificed.

In an attempt to appease the situation, the government intervened by sending federal troops to protect the Chinese. However, following the event, only compensations for destroyed property were paid. No-one was arrested nor held accountable for the atrocities committed during the riot.

Snake River Massacre of 1887
The massacre itself gained its name due to its location along the Snake River in Hells Canyon by Deep creek. The Snake River Massacre of 1887 was also recently named the Chinese Massacre Cove in 2005. The area inhabited many rocky cliffs and soaring white rapids that all pose as dangerous threats to humans who ventured into the area. Thirty-four Chinese miners who were employed by Sam Yong company, one of the six largest Chinese companies at the time, worked in this area since October of 1886. An accurate account of the event is still unclear to this day secondary to unreliable law enforcement at the time, biased news reporting, and lack of serious official investigations. However, it is speculated that the dead Chinese miners were not victims of natural causes but rather victims of gun shot wounds and robbery from seven armed horse thieves. An amount of gold worth $4,000-$5,000 was estimated to be stolen from the miners. The whereabouts of the gold were never recovered nor further investigated. Recently, attempts to formulate an accurate picture of the event were drawn from hidden copies of trial documents that contained grand jury indictment, depositions given by the accused, notes from the trial, and historical accounts of Wallowa County by J. Harland Horner and H. Ross Findley.

Horner and Findley Accounts
Horner and Findley were both schoolboys at the time of the massacre but their accounts had glaring discrepancies. Findley believed the massacre was a planned event with more than just a motive to steal gold from the Chinese miners. He believed the arrested culprits wanted to eliminate the Chinese miners from the area as well, which they successfully accomplished. In contrast to most accounts, Findley only recalled 31 confirmed victims and there was no mention of a trial. On the other hand, Horner believed that the event was a spur of the moment event and affected 34 confirmed victims. The school boys initially only had intentions to steal horses but experienced difficulty crossing the river with the stolen horses. When the Chinese miners refused to loan their boats, the boys decided to take the boats by force.

The Bodies
Other disagreements on the motives could also be attributed to the fact that the bodies of the Chinese miners were only found downstream after two weeks. It is unclear if the mangled bodies found were due to human manslaughter or the aftermath of being thrown into turbulent waters. The rapids and brute force of the current could have mangled the bodies against the rocks. However, it is confirmed that the Chinese men were shot at secondary to the gunshot wounds found on the bodies. Only ten bodies were identified on February 16, 1888: Chea-po, Chea-Sun, Chea-Yow, Chea-Shun, Chea Cheong, Chea Ling, Chea Chow, Chea Lin Chung, Kong Mun Kow, and Kong Ngan. Little are known about these identified men.

The Aftermath
Shortly following the incident, Sam Yup company of San Francisco hired Lee Loi who later hired Joseph K. Vincent, then U.S. Commissioner, to lead an investigation. Vincent submitted his investigation report to the Chinese consulate who unsuccessfully obtained justice for the Chinese miners. At around the same time, other compensation reports were also unsuccessfully filed for earlier crimes inflicted on the Chinese. In the end, on October 19th, 1888, Congress agreed to greatly under-compensate for the massacre and ignore the claims for the earlier crimes. Even though the amount was greatly underpaid, it was still a small victory to the Chinese who had low expectations for relief or acknowledgement.

Current Updates
As aforementioned, the US Board on Geographic Names officially named the Deep Creek massacre site to the Chinese Massacre Cove. This served as the first ever official recognition of the crime. Additionally in June 2012, a memorial was established with private funds and donations for the Chinese miners that were murdered.

Repeal and current status[edit]

The Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by the 1943 Magnuson Act, during a time when China had become an ally of the U.S. against Japan in World War II. This repeal also occurred in the context of World War II, during which the U.S. fought against German Nazism and needed to embody an image of fairness and justice, and also during a time when the Japanese were becoming vilified. The Magnuson Act permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become naturalized citizens and stop hiding from the threat of deportation. While the Magnuson Act overturned the discriminatory Chinese Exclusion Act, it only allowed a national quota of 105 Chinese immigrants per year, and did not repeal the restrictions on immigration from the other Asian countries. Large scale Chinese immigration did not occur until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. The crackdown on Chinese immigrants reached a new level in its last decade, from 1956–1965, with the Chinese Confession Program launched by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, that encouraged Chinese who had committed immigration fraud to confess, so as to be eligible for some leniency in treatment.

Despite the fact that the exclusion act was repealed in 1943, the law in California prohibiting non-whites from marrying whites was not struck down until 1948, in which the California Supreme Court ruled the ban of interracial marriage within the state unconstitutional in Perez v. Sharp. Other states had such laws until 1967, when the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws across the nation are unconstitutional.

Even today, although all its constituent sections have long been repealed, Chapter 7 of Title 8 of the United States Code is headed "Exclusion of Chinese." It is the only chapter of the 15 chapters in Title 8 (Aliens and Nationality) that is completely focused on a specific nationality or ethnic group. Like the following Chapter 8, "The Cooly Trade", it consists entirely of statutes that are noted as "Repealed" or "Omitted."

On June 18, 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution which had been introduced by Congresswoman Judy Chu, that formally expresses the regret of the House of Representatives for the Chinese Exclusion Act, an act which imposed almost total restrictions on Chinese immigration and naturalization and denied Chinese-Americans basic freedoms because of their ethnicity. The resolution had been approved by the U.S. Senate in October 2011.

In 2014, the California Legislature took formal action to pass measures that formally recognize the many proud accomplishments of Chinese-Americans in California and to call upon Congress to formally apologize for the 1882 adoption of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Senate Republican Leader Bob Huff (R-Diamond Bar) and incoming Senate President pro-Tem Kevin de León (D-Los Angeles) served as Joint Authors for Senate Joint Resolution (SJR) 23 and Senate Concurrent Resolution (SCR) 122.

SJR 23 acknowledges and celebrates the history and contributions of Chinese Americans in California. The resolution also formally calls on Congress to apologize for laws which resulted in the persecution of Chinese Americans, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act.

Perhaps most importantly is the sociological implications for understanding ethnic/race relations in the context of American history: there is a tendency for minorities to be punished in times of economic, political and/or geopolitical crises. Times of social and sytemic stability, however, tend to mute whatever underlying tensions exist between different groups. In times of societal crisis—whether perceived or real—patterns or retractability of American identities have erupted to the forefront of America's political landscape, often generating institutional and civil society backlash against workers from other nations, a pattern documented by Fong's research into how crises drastically alter social relationships.

Resources List for Chinese Exclusion Act
Nokes, R. Gregory (Fall 2006). "A Most Daring Outrage: Murders at Chinese Massacre Cove, 1887". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 107 (3). Archived from the original on 28 January 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2007.

https://oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/chinese_massacre_at_deep_creek/#.WgaAFhNSzOQ

Judy Yung, Unbound Feet, p. 21; R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, Land without Ghosts, p. 57; Tzu-Kuei Yen, pp. 153-62;

Craig Stori, Incident at Bitter Creek: The Story of the Rock Springs Chinese Massacre (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1991).

David H. Stratton, “The Snake River Massacre of Chinese Miners, 1887,” in Duane A. Smith, ed., A Taste of the West: Essays in Honor of Robert Athearn, p. 124, as cited in Roger Daniels, Asian America, p. 64.

the secretary of war dispatched troops to Seattle: Doug Chin, “The Anti-Chinese Movement,” The International Examiner, January 6, 1982.

“special tax”: Ruthanne Lum McCunn, p. 51.

beating up several Chinese: Ibid.

Information about the second Seattle riot: Harper’s Weekly, March 6, 1886; Lorraine Barker Hildebrand, pp. 69-74

Chang, Iris (2004). ''The Chinese in America. A Narrative History''. Penguin.

Chinese Exclusion Act article evaluation
My contribution to this article will be to expand more on the consequences/events following the Chinese Exclusion Act known as the "Driving Out" period. Specifically within this period, I would like to highlight two main massacres, Seattle and Snake River.

Bibliography List Review for Catherine Opie
https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/catherine-opie

http://www.npr.org/2016/02/03/464882995/i-do-like-to-stare-catherine-opie-on-her-portraits-of-modern-america

Article Evaluation
My contribution to Catherine Opie's site will be to further section up the "Works" section into more detailed sections such as "methods", "selected works", and " activism".

title: User:Thubtran92/sandbox


text:
-vore

Etymology
From the.

Suffix

 * 1) An organism, usually animal, identified by its kind of diet.

Derived terms

 * - meat only
 * - plants only
 * - plants and meat

 * - corals
 * - decomposing material
 * , - leaves
 * , - fruit
 * - grass
 * - seeds
 * - dark brown part of soil that consists of decomposed plants and animals (compost).
 * - insects
 * - mud
 * - rocks and minerals
 * - molluscs
 * - plant juices
 * - fungi
 * - nectar
 * - pollen
 * - fish
 * - dead or decaying matter
 * - blood
 * - sea sponges
 * - Cytoplasma (Cellular)

Translations

 * Arabic: آكِل
 * Catalan: -vor
 * Greek: ,
 * Hungarian:
 * Old English: -ǣta
 * Portuguese: -voro
 * Swedish:

Etymology
.

Suffix

 * 1) -vorous
 * 1) -vorous

title: -vore


text:
Talk:Deborah Mollison

Neutrality
The fourth paragraph of this article doesn't seem very neutral. There are a lot of subjective viewpoints. The Average Wikipedian (talk) 14:45, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Deborah Mollison


text:
File talk:hr-anđeo.ogg

This pronunciation is wrong - it should be ȃnđeo not ànđeo. I'm unlinking it from anđeo until this is fixed. --Ivan Štambuk 22:35, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

title: File talk:hr-anđeo.ogg


text:
Llyn y Tri Greyenyn

Llyn y Tri Greyenyn was a small lake not far from Cadair Idris in the old parish of Tal-y-llyn, Merionethshire (now Gwynedd) in north Wales. It was located at the head of the valley of Cwm Rhwyddfor (or Cwm Rhwyddor) on the pass called Bwlch Llyn Bach between Minffordd and Cross Foxes; Llyn y Tri Greyenyn is the 'llyn bach’’ (‘little lake’) in the pass’s name. Most of the lake has now been infilled in order to improve the road (which formerly skirted the lake). The name means 'the lake of the three grains or pebbles'. Today, the A487 passes through the site. There is also a small car park on the location of part of the lake (on the northwest side of the road). Some of the remains of the old lake can be seen on the south-east side. As the car park is a convenient place to watch military aircraft on the so-called 'Mach Loop’, the car park is sometimes called the ‘Mach Loop' car park.

Names and Traditions
One of the earliest references to the lake dates from around 1700 when Edward Lhuyd sent a questionnaire to every parish in Wales to inquire about geographical features, place names, local traditions and the like (his ‘Parochialia’). The reply from Tal-y-llyn includes the following:

"Lhyn pen Morva als [alias] Lhyn y tri Grayenyn ym mlaen K. Rhwydhor ar dervun pl. Dol Gelhey."

(‘Llyn Pen Morfa alias Llyn y Tri Greyenyn at the head of Cwm Rhwyddfor on the border of the parish of Dolgellau.’)

The name of the lake is associated with a legend of Idris Gawr. Idris was said to have noticed three little stones or pebbles in his shoe. He removed his shoe and threw them away. But as Idris was a giant of enormous proportions, the three little stones were themselves the size of huge boulders. The three stones landed near the lake thus explaining the name. At least one of these stones is visible today on the side of the A487.

A version of the tale is recorded by Thomas Pennant in the second volume of his work A Tour of Wales (1781):

"On the left, is the rugged height of Cader Idris, pass near a small lake called, Llyn y tri Graienyn, or of the three grains; which are three vast rocks, the ruins of the neighbouring mountain, which sometime or other had fallen into the water. These, say the peasants, were the three grains which had fallen into the shoe of the great Idris, which he threw out here, as soon as he felt them hurting his foot."

A tradition about how the lake was filled is mentioned by Lewis Morris in a poem that describes his journey from Ceredigion in 1750 to visit William Vaughan of Nannau. He says that the lake – if the tale is true– was filled by the urine of a giantess or witch:

Galw ym Minffordd yn frau

i olchi trwm feddyliau

yfodd y tafarnwr y gorau

rhoes y gwaetha i ninnau

oddiyno dan graig ddibyn

trwy fwlch y tri graienyn

a rhyfedd Iawn (os gwir hyn)

lle pisodd gwiddon lonaid llyn

(‘We called readily at Minffordd / to wash our heavy thoughts. / The innkeeper drank the best / and gave us the worst. / From there under the steep crag / through Bwlch y Tri Greyenyn / and, very strange (if it’s true), / where a giantess pissed a lakeful.’)

On the edge of the 1842 Dolgellau tithe map the name of the lake is noted as ‘Llyn Tri Graienyn'. But later Ordnance Survey maps call it 'Llyn Bach'.

title: Llyn y Tri Greyenyn


text:
Talk:ActionScript/Introduction

Questions and Concerns
Many people seem to have problems starting a new language or just didn't evolve into AS 2 from AS 1. I'm taking any questions or programing errors that need tweaking and I'm checking them out. Feel free to post! Cow_monkey111 06:08, 1 January 2007 (UTC) (The preceding unsigned comment was added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk • contribs) .)

Creator
Just wanted to mention that I am the original creator of this page, and the two first edits in the history were made by myself. --Ravenstorm 21:27, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:ActionScript/Introduction


text:
Alasdair Kent

Alasdair Kent is a British-Australian operatic tenor, principally known for his interpretations of the Italian bel canto of Rossini and Bellini, and Mozart. In 2016, Richard Bonynge presented him with the Joan Sutherland & Richard Bonynge Foundation Bel Canto Award. After his European debut with the Rossini Opera Festival in 2017, his international career has seen debut performances around Europe and the United States, usually in the roles of Rossini and Mozart.

Early life and education
Alasdair Kent was born in Perth, Western Australia. He studied music and performance at the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts and the University of Western Australia with mezzo-soprano Megan Sutton, as well as English literature, and Italian, French and German languages. He sang with the West Australian Opera Chorus for several seasons in various repertoire, and also took part in the Lisa Gasteen National Opera Program. In 2017, he received an Artist Diploma from the Academy of Vocal Arts in Philadelphia, where he studied with Bill Schuman and sang performances of Lindoro (L'italiana in Algeri), Ferrando (Così fan tutte), Don Ottavio (Don Giovanni) and Rinuccio (Gianni Schicchi). He was an Emerging Artist with Opera Philadelphia, and a Filene Young Artist with Wolf Trap Opera, where he performed as Ritornello in Florian Leopold Gassmann's L'opera seria, and Giocondo in Rossini's La pietra del paragone. He also took part in the Martina Arroyo Foundation's Prelude to Performance and the Merola Opera Program.

Career
Kent made his professional debut in Australia at the age of 25, as Don Ramiro in La Cenerentola with Opera Queensland in 2013. While at AVA, he made his US concert debut with The Dallas Opera in 2015, and his US operatic debut in 2016 with Opera Philadelphia in Cold Mountain, an operatic adaptation of Charles Frazier's novel composed by Grammy Award and Pulitzer Prize winner Jennifer Higdon. His European debut followed in 2017, as Cavaliere Belfiore in Il viaggio a Reims for the Rossini Opera Festival in Pesaro, marking the beginning of his international career. He has since been engaged at many of the most important international theatres and concert venues, including the Bayerische Staatsoper, the Vienna State Opera, Opernhaus Zürich, the Teatro di San Carlo, the Royal Concertgebouw, Konzerthaus Berlin, the Elbphilharmonie and the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.

A tenore di grazia frequently associated with bel canto,  his principal repertoire includes roles of Rossini, Mozart, Donizetti, Bellini, Bizet, and Verdi. However, he has also performed works by composers as diverse as Tchaikovsky and Stravinsky. Of these composers, he has sung most frequently:

 * The Barber of Seville, debuted with the Martina Arroyo Foundation’s Prelude to Performance, further performances with Opernhaus Zürich, Bavarian State Opera, The Dallas Opera, the Norwegian National Opera and Ballet, Oper Köln, Theater Basel the Orchestra Sinfonica G. Rossini.
 * L'italiana in Algeri, debuted with the Academy of Vocal Arts, further performances with the Hungarian State Opera in Budapest, Opéra de Toulon, Opéra national de Montpellier, The Israeli Opera, and the Royal Concertgebouw.
 * Così fan tutte, debuted with the Academy of Vocal Arts, further performances with Opera Australia on tour to the Royal Opera House Muscat, the Lyric Opera of Kansas City, The Israeli Opera, the Rete Lirica delle Marche, and performances with the Opéra national de Bordeaux that were ultimately cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Other notable operatic performances include Paolino in Cimarosa's Il matrimonio segreto, in Pier Luigi Pizzi's new production with the Festival della Valle d'Itria and the Teatro Regio di Torino,  Tamino in Die Zauberflöte for the Royal Opera House Muscat,  Argirio in Rossini's Tancredi with the Teatro Petruzzelli, and his debut as Arturo in I puritani with Ópera de Oviedo in 2020. In concert and recital, the tenor's performances include various repertoire, ranging from Rossini's virtuoso Messa di Gloria to Lili Boulanger's song cycle Clairières dans le ciel.

Personal life
Kent is currently in a relationship with Benedikt Schobel, principal bassoonist of Sinfonieorchester Basel. The two have performed in concert together. The tenor enjoys weightlifting and is a champagne enthusiast. He has frequently cited fellow Australian Joan Sutherland as a vocal inspiration,  and lists Jascha Heifetz, Martha Argerich and Vladimir Horowitz as non-operatic artistic heroes. He is also a polyglot, speaking multiple European languages.

Repertoire

 * Bellini: I puritani – Lord Arturo Talbot
 * Bizet: Don Procopio – Don Odoardo
 * Cimarosa: Il matrimonio segreto – Paolino
 * Donizetti
 * Deux hommes et une femme – Pepé
 * Don Pasquale – Ernesto
 * Gassmann: L'opera seria – Ritornello
 * Gluck
 * Iphigénie en Aulide – Achille
 * Iphigénie en Tauride – Pylade
 * Haydn: Orlando paladino – Orlando
 * Mozart
 * Die Zauberflöte – Tamino
 * Così fan tutte – Ferrando
 * Die Entführung aus dem Serail – Belmonte
 * Don Giovanni – Don Ottavio
 * Mitridate, re di Ponto – Marzio
 * Puccini: Gianni Schicchi – Rinuccio
 * Rameau: Platée – Thespis
 * Rossini
 * Il barbiere di Siviglia – Il Conte di Almaviva
 * La Cenerentola – Don Ramiro
 * Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra – Norfolk
 * L'italiana in Algeri – Lindoro
 * La pietra del paragone – Il Cavaliere Giocondo
 * Semiramide – Idreno
 * Tancredi – Argirio
 * Il turco in Italia – Narciso
 * Il viaggio a Reims – Il Cavaliere Belfiore
 * Salieri: Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari – Timur
 * Verdi: Falstaff – Fenton

Awards

 * 2017 Gerda Lissner Foundation International Vocal Competition First Prize
 * 2017 Loren L. Zachary Society National Vocal Competition First Prize
 * 2017 The Marten Bequest, prize for Singing
 * 2017 Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions National Semifinalist
 * 2016 Joan Sutherland & Richard Bonynge Foundation Bel Canto Award, Georg Solti Accademia Prize
 * 2016 Licia Albanese-Puccini Foundation International Vocal Competition Second Prize
 * 2016 Academy of Vocal Arts Giargiari Bel Canto Competition First Prize & Audience Prize
 * 2016 Mildred Miller International Voice Competition First Prize
 * 2015 Violetta DuPont Vocal Competition First Prize

Discography

 * Poul Ruders' The Thirteenth Child—Sarah Shafer (Princess Lyra), Tamara Mumford (Queen Gertrude), Ashraf Sewailam (Drokan), Matt Boehler (King Hjarne), Alasdair Kent (Prince Frederic), David Portillo (Benjamin), Alex Rosen (Corbin), Bridge Academy Singers & Odense Symfoniorkester, Benjamin Shwartz & David Starobin (conductors), Bridge Records, 2019.
 * The Exquisite Hour—Alasdair Kent (tenor), David Wickham (pianist), 2021.

title: Alasdair Kent


text:
Talk:Deng Pufang

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title: Talk:Deng Pufang


text:
Python Programming/Operators

Basics
Python math works as expected:

Note that Python adheres to the PEMDAS order of operations.

Powers
There is a built in exponentiation operator **, which can take either integers, floating point or complex numbers. This occupies its proper place in the order of operations.

Floor Division and True Division
In Python 3.x, slash operator ("/") does true division for all types including integers, and therefore, e.g.  . The result is of a floating-point type even if both inputs are integers: 4 / 2 yields 2.0.

In Python 3.x and latest 2.x, floor division for both integer arguments and floating-point arguments is achieved by using the double slash ("//") operator. For negative results, this is unlike the integer division in the C language since -3 // 2 == -2 in Python while -3 / 2 == -1 in C: C rounds the negative result toward zero while Python toward negative infinity.

Beware that due to the limitations of floating point arithmetic, rounding errors can cause unexpected results. For example:

>>> print(0.6/0.2) 3.0 >>> print(0.6//0.2) 2.0

For Python 2.x, dividing two integers or longs using the slash operator ("/") uses floor division (applying the floor function after division) and results in an integer or long. Thus, 5 / 2 == 2 and -3 / 2 == -2. Using "/" to do division this way is deprecated; if you want floor division, use "//" (available in Python 2.2 and later). Dividing by or into a floating point number will cause Python to use true division. Thus, to ensure true division in Python 2.x:.

Links:
 * 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations, in The Python Language Reference, docs.python.org
 * Python-style integer division & modulus in C, stackoverflow.com
 * Integer division rounding with negatives in C++, stackoverflow.com
 * In Python, what is a good way to round towards zero in integer division?, stackoverflow.com
 * Why Python's Integer Division Floors, python-history.blogspot.com

Modulus
The modulus (remainder of the division of the two operands, rather than the quotient) can be found using the % operator, or by the divmod builtin function. The divmod function returns a tuple containing the quotient and remainder. Note that -10 % 7 is equal to +4 while in the C language it is equal to -3. That is because Python floors towards negative infinity not zero. As a result, remainders add towards positive infinity. Consequently, since -10 / 7 = -1.4286 becomes floored to -2.0 the remainder becomes x such that -14 + x = -10.

Links:
 * 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations, in The Python Language Reference, docs.python.org

Negation
Unlike some other languages, variables can be negated directly:

Comparison
Numbers, strings and other types can be compared for equality/inequality and ordering:

Identity
The operators  and   test for object identity and stand in contrast to == (equals):   is true if and only if x and y are references to the same object in memory. yields the inverse truth value. Note that an identity test is more stringent than an equality test since two distinct objects may have the same value.

For the built-in immutable data types (like int, str and tuple) Python uses caching mechanisms to improve performance, i.e., the interpreter may decide to reuse an existing immutable object instead of generating a new one with the same value. The details of object caching are subject to changes between different Python versions and are not guaranteed to be system-independent, so identity checks on immutable objects like,  ,   may give different results on different machines.

In some Python implementations, the following results are applicable:

Links:
 * 3. Data model, python.org
 * 2. Built-in Functions # id, python.org
 * 5. Expressions # is, python.org

Augmented Assignment
There is shorthand for assigning the output of an operation to one of the inputs:

Logical Operators
Logical operators are operators that act on booleans.

or
The or operator returns true if any one of the booleans involved are true. If none of them are true (in other words, they are all false), the or operator returns false.

and
The and operator only returns true if all of the booleans are true. If any one of them is false, the and operator returns false.

not
The not operator only acts on one boolean and simply returns its opposite. So, true turns into false and false into true. The order of operations here is: not first, and second, or third. In particular, "True or True and False or False" becomes "True or False or False" which is True.

Warning, logical operators can act on things other than booleans. For instance "1 and 6" will return 6. Specifically, "and" returns either the first value considered to be false, or the last value if all are considered true. "or" returns the first true value, or the last value if all are considered false. In Python the number zero and empty strings, lists, sets, etc. are considered false. You may use  to check whether a thing is considered to be true or false in Python. For instance,  and   both return.

Bitwise Operators
Python operators for bitwise arithmetic are like those in the C language. They include & (bitwise and), | (bitwise or), ^ (exclusive or AKA xor), << (shift left), >> (shift right), and ~ (complement). Augmented assignment operators (AKA compound assignment operators) for the bitwise operations include &=, |=, ^=, <<=, and >>=. Bitwise operators apply to integers, even negative ones and very large ones; for the shift operators, the second operand must be non-negative. In the Python internal help, this is covered under the topics of EXPRESSIONS and BITWISE.

Examples:
 * 0b1101 & 0b111 == 0b101
 * Note: 0b starts a binary literal, just like 0x starts a hexadecimal literal.
 * 0b1 | 0b100 == 0b101
 * 0b111 ^ 0b101 == 0b10
 * 1 << 4 == 16
 * 7 >> 1 == 3
 * 1 << 100 == 0x10000000000000000000000000
 * Large results are supported.
 * 1 << -1
 * An error: the 2nd operand must be non-negative.
 * -2 & 15 == 14
 * For bitwise operations, negative integers are treated as if represented using two's complement with an infinite sequence of leading ones. Thus -2 is as if 0x...FFFFFFFFFE, which ANDed with 15 (0xF) yields 0xE, which is 14.
 * format(-2 % (1 << 32), "032b")
 * Determines a string showing the last 32 bits of the implied two's complement representation of -2.
 * ~-2 == 1
 * The above note about treatment of negative integers applies. For the complement (~), this treatment yields ~x == -1 * (x + 1). This can be verified: min((~x == -1 * (x + 1) for x in range(-10 ** 6, 10 ** 6))) == True.
 * ~1 == -2
 * The formula ~x == -1 * (x + 1) mentioned above applies. In the bitwise complement interpretation, all the imaginary leading leading zeros of 1 are toggled to leading ones, which is then interpreted as two's complement representation of -2, which is as if 0x...FFFFFFFFFE.
 * x = 0b11110101; x &= ~(0xF << 1); x == 0b11100001
 * A common idiom clears the least significant bits 5 to 2 using complement, showing the usefulness of the infinite-leading-ones two's complement implied representation of negative numbers for bitwise operations. Works for arbitrarily large x.
 * ~2 & 0xFFFFFFFF == 0xFFFFFFFD
 * We can emulate bitwise complement on 32-bit integers by ANDing the complement with the maximum unsigned 32-bit integer, 0xFFFFFFFF. We can proceed similarly for 8-bit complement, 16-bit complement, etc., by ANDing the complement with 0xFF, 0xFFFF, etc.
 * 2 ^ 0xFFFFFFFF == 0xFFFFFFFD
 * Another way to emulate fixed-size bitwise complement is by XORing with all Fs for the size.
 * v = 2.0 & 2
 * Yields an error: no automatic conversion of floats to ints, and no operation on the underlying representation of the float.
 * int.bit_length(0x8000) == 16
 * Determines how many bits are needed to represent the integer. Therefore, min((int.bit_length(1 << x) == x + 1 for x in range(100000))) == True.

Examples of augmented assignment operators:
 * a = 0b1101; a &= 0b111; a == 0b101
 * a = 0b1; a |= 0b100; a == 0b101
 * a = 0b111; a ^= 0b101; a == 0b10
 * a = 1; a <<= 4; a == 16
 * a = 7; a >>= 1; a == 3

Class definitions can overload the operators for the instances of the class; thus, for instance, sets overload the pipe (|) operator to mean set union: {1,2} | {3,4} == {1,2,3,4}. The names of the override methods are __and__ for &, __or__ for |, __xor__ for ^, __invert__ for ~, __lshift__ for <<, __rshift__ for >>, __iand__ for &=, __ior_ for |=, __ixor__ for ^=, __ilshift__ for <<=, and __irshift__ for >>=.

Examples of use of bitwise operations include calculation of CRC and MD5. Admittedly, these would usually be implemented in C rather than Python for maximum speed; indeed, Python has libraries for these written in C. Nonetheless, implementations in Python are possible and are shown in the links to Rosetta Code below.

Links:
 * BitwiseOperators, wiki.python.org
 * BitManipulation, wiki.python.org
 * Bitwise Operations on Integer Types in Library Reference, docs.python.org
 * 2.5. Operators in The Python Language Reference, docs.python.org
 * 6. Expressions in The Python Language Reference, docs.python.org
 * 3. Data model in in The Python Language Reference, docs.python.org
 * "Integers (int) [...] For the purpose of shift and mask operations, a binary representation is assumed, and negative numbers are represented in a variant of 2’s complement which gives the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits extending to the left."
 * , wikipedia.org
 * , wikipedia.org
 * PEP 203 – Augmented Assignments, python.org
 * Bitwise operation and usage, stackoverflow.com
 * CRC-32 # Python, rosettacode.org
 * MD5/Implementation # Python, rosettacode.org
 * longobject.c at python/cpython, github.com - functions long_bitwise, long_rshift, long_lshift, and long_invert

title: Python Programming/Operators


text:
Talk:Organic chemistry/Acid–base chemistry

This page is weak and should be revised. TX.

A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a species capable of "donating" a proton; a base is capable of "accepting" a proton (via a lone pair of electrons.) Hydroxyl groups actually tend to make a molecule acidic, while heteroatoms such as Oxygen or Nitrogen make a species basic. The Brønsted-Lowry acid/base theory is one of two major theories of acid/base reactions in Organic chemistry. Lewis acids and bases are the other major kinds of acids and bases considered in an Organic chemistry class. A lewis acid is any electron-deficient species capable of accepting a bond with a lone pair of electrons. A Lewis base is any species capable of donating an electron pair. A Lewis base is capable of acting as a Brønsted-Lowry base by "donating" it's lone pair of electrons to a proton (hydrogen ion). The molecule that results as from a Lewis acid-base reaction is called a Lewis adduct. If the Lewis acid in the reaction was a hydrogen ion, the Lewis adduct can also be a Brønsted-Lowry acid.

The above text should replace part of the current article.
 * Acid/Base chemistry began with the Lewis model of acids and bases. This model states molecules accapting electron pair are acids, while molecules donating electon pair are bases.--Abbatai 19:12, 13 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
Talk:German/Grammar/Alphabet and Pronunciation

How to Play Audios
The Sample audio, what program to i need to listin to it? Andrewcool
 * Good question. I'll need to research that.  It just plays "automatically" when I click on it, so I think any PC media player ? - marsh

When i open it, it doesn't open automatic. It wants me to choose the program to open it but so far i have not found one that works.
 * Yes, Windows does give me that "choice" too. My computer has AudioCentral by Roxio and that plays the file just fine, but I seem to recall that the default Windows media player also worked ok. - marsh 17:47, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Well we can covert the .ogg and make them into .wav for people who are having problems with this. -Andrewcool
 * Sounds good to me. I've got to admit, I know nothing about sound files - marsh 03:53, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Well wiki only wants .ogg so that means we will need somebody else to host it.--Andrewcool 23:54, 30 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Foobar works well. google it. -thisdude415

 * Get the OGG codec. Google that.

The Description Of Sounds
The long and short 'a' sounds are not very different. For example, I would say the 'a' in father and the 'o' in pot are about the same, only the first (father) is strung out a bit more (ahhhh vs ah). When I try this in German I see about the same difference: haben = ahhhh, acht = ah. In English, these would both be short vowel sounds. Am I missing something, or is that all there is to it? Is there a better way to differentiate the long and short 'a' in German? Is it really correct to call these long and short vowel sounds? -- Marsh 18:30, 5 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Hey Marsh! I'd say, you got it completely right. But there is a third sound in German sometimes discriped as an "a"-sound. It's the sound of "-er" at the ending of a word (e.g. Keller = Basement). This sound is somewhere between kell-ea and Kell-a. Think of how it's pronounced in rap slang (kill-a) or of the way Bob Marley pronounced Rast-a. -- Guido

 * Hi, I've to say, taht is not right. It's maybe a bit slang, but someone speaking real good german would say kell-er and not kella. I do it myself, but I know that's because of my accent. -louisana

The Ö-Laut
Hey to all out there. What do you think: does the short Ö (as in 'Köln') sound like the 'ear' in a (British pronounced) "heard". To me it does.

 * British "ear" in "heard" is IMHO more similar to a long Ö (as in 'hören'); but in general, "heard" should be mentioned as a guideline for pronouncing 'ö'. The existing explanation is good however (I was not aware that the 'Ö' from my native country's name had anything to do with whistling or the sound in 'late', but following those instructions works!).

Examples not useful
is to my mind a bit poor. I know, English textbooks for German explain sounds that way. And they will not break a habit. Result: an unacceptable pronunciation. Let us see how the German "e" is explained: as in lay with no movement. What movement? Movement of the tongue. Okay. But is there any English speaking person aware of that movement? The result would be better if a sound like in "get" is made long. And that would exactly be what it is: a German e.

 * I think that means no movement in the sound (not physical movement), although obviously to move or alter a sound there must be some subtle movement of the speech apparatus. Making the "e" in "get" long would sound like "e" in "week". A "long" e in English is not a long "e" in German or even close. Coming from the English speaking perspective, the explanations are pefectly sensible. - marsh

I fully agree that the German e is, in fact, the same sound as the e in "get" made long; just keep your mouth and tongue in the same position and keep the air going. The "e" in "week" has nothing to do with the "e" in "get", that's just an artifact of English orthography. The description based on "lay" might be good because it explicitly warns about the most common pronounciation mistake that English speaking people make; on the other hand, it is far less useful to people who already speak other languages besides English.

 * I disagree, that the German long "e" is the "e" in "get" made long, and I am myself a German native speaker. Actually, the "e" sound in "get" ([ɛ] in IPA) pronounced as long vowel [ɛː] is closer to the German long "ä" than to the long "e" ([eː]). Unfortunately, also many German native speakers don't use or know the [ɛː] sound and pronounce the long "ä" just like the long German "e", especially in the north of Germany. --Tobulax 07:51, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Austrian Pronunciation
There are two important differences in how German is pronounced in Austria from what is described here. I'm not talking about dialects, just the most important basic differences, analogous to the differences in British and American English. For one, the "s" in Austrian is not pronounced as a 'z' at the start of a word, e.g. in "Sonne". AFAICT, it may only be pronounced 'z' when it is between two vowels, e.g. "Rose". Also, "ig" as in richtig is NOT pronounced as an ich-sound, but rather as "i"+"g". Would it be more appropriate to mention these differences in the text where the letters are described (as is already done to describe the absence of "ß" in Switzerland), or should a separate short section outlining the differences be added at the end, in order to keep things simpler for people who just want to learn the "dominant" form of German?
 * I agree it is a good idea to bring up these differences and I would think that mentioning it where specifically appropriate (as with the Swiss example) would be best - marsh 04:37, 31 May 2005 (UTC)

Done. WolfgangThaller 03:56, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Pronunciation of German alphabet
The one thing that is always ailing me is that almost all german textbooks present the sound of german alphabets by means of using similiar english words, like "bay", "ah". Many of those descriptions are pretty vague actually like "Slightly more dental" for L and some are absent like Ü. I suggest presenting those alphabets with IPA which is more convenient for linguistically more advanced users.

 * Not to mention that this pronunciation system is just plain wrong in many cases. I'd be willing to help IPA it. - <IP_ADDRESS> 08:59, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

The German Alphabet - oggfile
I think the ogg-file is not that good. I would speak it again, if you need it. Just contact me on meta. I also could speak more, if you want to. m:User:Louisana
 * If you can create a better one, by all means please do. I have not the technical skills to create sound files - marsh 05:05, 10 August 2005 (UTC)

Done. For further request please use my meta talk page! Also spoke something here m:User:Louisana

Syllable stress: It's not that easy!
It's not generally correct that always the first syllable is stressed. For words with prefix or suffix syllables, it becomes more complex. A a native German, I never learnt formal rules for that, but in most cases the first syllable of the stem of the word (without pre- and suffixes) is stressed, but there are lots of exceptions. Those who know German, confer Wortakzent, with the example of umfahren (to knock over) vs. umfahren (to drive round). --Langec 20:56, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

First alphabet audio file appears to be bogus
After the table showing the alphabet there are two audio files which are fine.

But in the title for the table, where you see "German Dialogue • Alphabet • audio", the audio link is to a file "German Dialogue - The alphabet.ogg".

This file was uploaded in November 2006 by Paulaburesh who is no longer a registered user.

The history page for this file is.

This file is not an OGG file (I've looked at the binary data and it does not start with the sequence "OggS" as it should).

I suggest it be deleted.

Pronunciation of the alphabet in the German language
I have noticed some weird ideas on the pronunciation of the alphabet in the German language. The letter b is never pronounced as a 'p' unless one hails from "Payern" (= Bayern/Bavaria). The letter g is not really pronounced as a 'k' at the end of a word, but like in English as a hard 'g', or softened to a German 'ch' like in Bach or ich. One should always be aware -especially as a non-German- that the German pronunciation has a tremendous variation dependent on the region; Austrian or Swiss German is certainly not the standard. PS I myself am a 'Grenzer' from the Netherlands with a severe German accent, which I was born with.

More sound examples please
A lot of discussion could be made moot if the page would include sound examples of individual words to illustrate how it is really pronounced. This prevent a lot of confusion. E.g. the page says that short i is pronounced as the i in English pit. To my ears -Dutch ones- that is not really true. German mit and English Mitt are not the same. Sound files please.

Jcwf (discuss • contribs) 17:56, 19 May 2015 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Beecher, Illinois

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French/Grammar/Tenses/Pluperfect subjunctive

Usage of the Pluperfect Subjunctive
The French pluperfect subjunctive is the least common literary tense - it's the literary equivalent of the past subjunctive.

Like all literary tenses, the pluperfect subjunctive is used only in literature, historical writings, and other very formal writing, so it is important to be able to recognize it but chances are that you will never in your life need to conjugate it.

Formation of the Pluperfect Subjunctive

 * The pluperfect subjunctive is a compound tense- it consists of two verbs, the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the verb one seeks to use in this tense.
 * The auxiliary verb is conjugated as if it were being used in the imperfect subjunctive.
 * The past participle is added immediately after the auxiliary verb.
 * A negative structure such as ne ... pas is always placed around the auxiliary verb, immediately before the past participle.


text:
User:Maester mensch

Computer

Coding

There should be very meaningful text right here, but there isn't. Maybe there will be something here soon...

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 * Freeway (software)
 * Kingdom of Loathing
 * KoLMafia

title: User:Maester mensch


text:
User:Somwanshi dilip/todo

Doraemon's Short Films:

 * What Am I for Momotaro*
 * Tokimeki Solar Kurumaniyon
 * The Sun Is Our Friend: Hold Out, the Soraemon!
 * Doraemon Comes Back*
 * Ganbare! Gian!!
 * The Day When I Was Born*
 * Doraemon's 25th Anniversary

title: User:Somwanshi dilip/todo