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User:DrunkBicyclist/sandbox

Rocket propellant, colloquially known as rocket fuel, is the reaction mass expelled by a rocket at high speed in order to produce a thrust. This is an application of Newton's third law; the action of rapidly venting the propellant's mass in the opposite direction causes a reaction on the rocket that propels it forward. Propellant achieves high velocities either from combusting with itself, as in a chemical rocket engine, or by receiving energy externally from a more exotic engine, such as with the ion thruster, thermal rocket, resistojet rocket, and others.

Unlike jet fuel, which requires atmospheric oxygen fed into the engine to provide a portion of the reaction mass, rocket propellant is stored entirely within the vehicle. This makes rockets perfectly suited for the vacuum of space. Although commonly associated with space travel, rocket propellant sees a plethora of applications including ejection seats, rocket-powered aircraft, and rocket cars.

History
The earliest rockets, and therefore earliest rocket propellant, appeared in 13th century China. These simple, solid-fueled rockets were powered by gunpowder and used as unguided artillery. Rockets of similar designs were adopted by nations across Asia and then Europe, but it wasn't until the early 20th century that propellant evolved further. In 1923, Robert H. Goddard tested the first liquid-fueled rocket, powered by gasoline and liquid oxygen. Liquid propellant offers several advantages that allowed rockets a more diverse use than simple unguided munitions; rocket engines could now be easily throttled, restarted, and refueled.

Properties
Propellants have three primary attributes that determine their usefulness: Thrust, specific impulse, and ease of implementation. Rockets must be balanced between these three properties depending on their needs.

Thrust is a measure of how much force is applied on the vehicle by the expulsion of its reaction mass. According to Newton's second law, force is the change of momentum over time. Thrust force can therefore be written as

 * $$F_T$$ = mdot x $$V_e$$

where mdot is the mass flow rate and $$V_e$$ is the propellant's exhaust velocity as it leaves the rocket engine. Improving thrust is possible by increasing either the exhaust velocity or the mass flow rate. Mass flow rate is largely governed by the properties of the rocket engine, not propellant. Both combustion chamber size and turbopump flow regulate mass flow rate, however certain propellant characteristics can allow these components to function more efficiently. Propellant density and viscosity can determine how rapidly the fuel can be pumped into a combustion chamber, and in solid rockets the shape of the propellant itself determines the combustion chamber size.

The other element effecting thrust, exhaust velocity, is also the element that determines specific impulse. The specific impulse of a rocket is the measure of the change in momentum (impulse) for every unit of mass expelled. It is a mertic for the overall efficiency of a rocket, and is directly proportional to exhaust velocity. The more quickly a mass is expelled, the more efficiently it is being used. Exhaust velocity is somewhat valuable for thrust and is highly valuable for specific impulse. Exhaust velocity is determined by the exhaust's molecular mass and specific energy.

High thrust and high specific impulse, while not necessarily mutually exclusive, are often at odds in rocket design. They must be carefully balanced and optimized for each different situation. High thrust is most crucial in circumstances where there are forces that counteract the vehicle's motion, such as on the surface of the Earth. Here, there is a strong gravitational pull that the rocket must constantly fight against to stay airborne, as well as a thick atmosphere that dampens motion. A rocket must contend with gravitational and atmospheric drag using a large amount of thrust. In frictionless environments, such as the vacuum of space, thrust is only a major concern when the payload must be moved in a short period of time or when the payload is prohibitively massive. Typically, the chief consideration in this environment is specific impulse. There is often little available mass that can be transported into space, so it must be used efficiently to maximize the vehicle's delta-v.

Ease of use
There are a number of miscellaneous characteristics that do not directly effect a propellant's performance within an engine but do effect how easy they are to implement in certain designs. These characteristics range from density, stability, toxicity, availability, cost, and others.

For example, although liquid hydrogen has a large Isp and thrust, its low density is a significant disadvantage. Hydrogen occupies significantly more volume per kilogram than dense fuels such as kerosene. This not only increases the weight of the fuel tanks, but also the pipes and fuel pumps leading from the tank. The low density makes the vehicle's dry mass much higher, so the use of liquid hydrogen is not always as advantageous as the higher specific impulse might suggest. Indeed, some dense hydrocarbon/LOX propellant combinations have higher performance when the dry mass penalties are included.

Another property effecting ease of use is stability. Many liquid fuels are cryogenic, which is to say they must be stored significantly below room temperature to be kept in a liquid state. This allows for the propellant to have a much higher density than it would as a gas, but requires constant cooling to maintain a liquid state. As the ambient temperature heats up the fuel tank, the propellant will undergo a process called "boil-off" as it reverts into a gas, and must be slowly released from the tank. While this is not a major issue if the fuel is being used immediately after fueling, it can become a problem for longer duration missions.

Other chemical properties can negatively impact a propellant's stability. The extremely small molecular size of hydrogen allows it to seep out of fuel tanks through microscopic gaps over time, regardless of temperature. Some potential rocket propellants are corrosive, which prevents them from being stored within a fuel tank for very long before there is a rupture.

The level of difficulty involved in igniting a propellant will help determine which situations it is optimal for. If a propellant is being stored indefinitely, it is ideal for it to have an ignition procedure that is somewhat complicated so that it may not ignite by accident. Inert propellant does not ignite at all, and for this reason is often safe to use over long periods. Simple ignition processes are not always a disadvantage. Indeed, the autoignition of hypergolic propellant is desirable when multiple engine burns are needed without the use of a complex ignition mechanism.

Many reaction masses that are otherwise well-suited in all areas, bear the disadvantage of being hazardous for humans to handle. Hydrazine is frequently used as a propellant, but can sicken or kill a person exposed to it. The hypergolic propellant used in the Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System is carcinogenic. Technicians had to wait to approach the shuttle after it landed to allow for any deadly fumes to aerate away from the recently fired thrusters.

Chemical propellant
Chemical rocket propellants draw their energy from combustion. Extremely high mass flow rates are possible with chemical propulsion, which results in immense thrust. This quality makes chemical propellant the most commonly used propellant on the surface of the Earth. Its best possible specific impulse, however, is inferior to that possible with inert propellant. Part of the reason why is that the products of chemical reactions have relatively high molecular mass. The other factor is the low specific energy available. Combustion, while generating a great deal of energy at little cost in vehicle mass, does not generate nearly as much energy per unit of propellant as an ion thruster or nuclear thermal rocket.

Liquid
Liquid-fueled rockets have higher specific impulse than solid rockets and are capable of being throttled, shut down, and restarted. Only the combustion chamber of a liquid-fueled rocket needs to withstand high combustion pressures and temperatures and they can be regeneratively cooled by the liquid propellant. On vehicles employing turbopumps, the propellant tanks are at very much lower pressure than the combustion chamber. For these reasons, most orbital launch vehicles use liquid propellants.

The primary performance advantage of liquid propellants is due to the oxidizer. Several practical liquid oxidizers (liquid oxygen, nitrogen tetroxide, and hydrogen peroxide) are available which have better specific impulse than the ammonium perchlorate used in most solid rockets, when paired with comparable fuels.

While liquid propellants are cheaper than solid propellants, for orbital launchers, the cost savings do not, and historically have not mattered; the cost of the propellant is a very small portion of the overall cost of the rocket. Some propellants, notably Oxygen and Nitrogen, may be able to be collected from the upper atmosphere, and transferred up to low-Earth orbit for use in propellant depots at substantially reduced cost.

The main difficulties with liquid propellants are also with the oxidizers. These are generally at least moderately difficult to store and handle due to their high reactivity with common materials, may have extreme toxicity (nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide), require moderately cryogenic storage (liquid oxygen), or both (liquid fluorine, FLOX- a fluorine/LOX mix). Several exotic oxidizers have been proposed: liquid ozone (O3), ClF3, and ClF5, all of which are unstable, energetic, and toxic.

Liquid-fueled rockets also require potentially troublesome valves and seals and thermally stressed combustion chambers, which increase the cost of the rocket. Many employ specially designed turbopumps which raise the cost enormously due to difficult fluid flow patterns that exist within the casings.

Some common liquid propellants in use today include:

 * Liquid oxygen (LOX): This sees use as the bipropellant mixture's oxidizer on a vast number of launch vehicles and surface rockets. Liquid oxygen provides an extremely low atomic mass, which helps to maximize exhaust velocity, making it a boon to both thrust and specific impulse. LOX's status as a cryogenic fuel, however, makes it less common in deep space missions, during which it is often substituted for a hypergolic oxidizer. Liquid oxygen is used in the Indian GSLV, the Atlas series, the Soyuz series, Space Shuttle, and many others.
 * RP-1: A highly refined form of kerosene, RP-1 is a non-cryogenic liquid fuel that is relatively cheap to produce due to its similarity to jet fuel. This fuel's extreme thrust combined with its high density and relative ease-of-use make it an ideal bipropellant fuel for the lower stages of rockets. RP-1 can be seen in use on the Saturn V's lower stage, the Zenit series' lower stages, and all stages of the Falcon series of rockets.
 * Liquid hydrogen] (LH2): LH2 Liquid hydrogen was used in the [[Space Shuttle orbiter, Saturn V upper stages, the Delta IV rocket, the H-IIA rocket, and most stages of the European Ariane 5 rocket.
 * Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and hydrazine (N2H4), MMH, or UDMH. Used in military, orbital, and deep space rockets because both liquids are storable for long periods at reasonable temperatures and pressures. N2O4/UDMH is the main fuel for the Proton rocket, older Long March rockets (LM 1-4), PSLV, and Fregat and Briz-M upper stages. This combination is hypergolic, making for attractively simple ignition sequences. The major inconvenience is that these propellants are highly toxic, hence they require careful handling.
 * Monopropellants such as hydrogen peroxide, hydrazine, and nitrous oxide are primarily used for attitude control and spacecraft station-keeping where their long-term storability, simplicity of use, and ability to provide the tiny impulses needed, outweighs their lower specific impulse as compared to bipropellants. Hydrogen peroxide is also used to drive the turbopumps on the first stage of the Soyuz launch vehicle.

Mixture ratio
The theoretical exhaust velocity of a given propellant chemistry is a function of the energy released per unit of propellant mass (specific energy). Unburned fuel or oxidizer drags down the specific energy, but is inevitable during combustion. For this reason, bipropellant is sometimes burned in either a fuel-rich or oxidizer-rich mixture, to maximize the oxidizer or fuel that is reacted, respectively.

The usual explanation for fuel-rich mixtures is that fuel-rich mixtures have lower molecular weight exhaust, which by reducing $$M$$ increases the ratio $$\frac{\sqrt{T_c}}{M}$$ which is approximately equal to the theoretical exhaust velocity. Fuel-rich mixtures actually have lower theoretical exhaust velocities, because $$\sqrt{T_c}$$ decreases as fast or faster than $$M$$.

The nozzle of the rocket converts the thermal energy of the propellants into directed kinetic energy. This conversion happens in a short time, on the order of one millisecond. During the conversion, energy must transfer very quickly from the rotational and vibrational states of the exhaust molecules into translation. Molecules with fewer atoms (like CO and H2) store less energy in vibration and rotation than molecules with more atoms (like CO2 and H2O). These smaller molecules transfer more of their rotational and vibrational energy to translation energy than larger molecules, and the resulting improvement in nozzle efficiency is large enough that real rocket engines improve their actual exhaust velocity by running rich mixtures with somewhat lower theoretical exhaust velocities.

The effect of exhaust molecular weight on nozzle efficiency is most important for nozzles operating near sea level. High expansion rockets operating in a vacuum see a much smaller effect, and so are run less rich. The Saturn-II stage (a LOX/LH2 rocket) varied its mixture ratio during flight to optimize performance.

LOX/hydrocarbon rockets are run only somewhat rich (O/F mass ratio of 3 rather than stoichiometric of 3.4 to 4), because the energy release per unit mass drops off quickly as the mixture ratio deviates from stoichiometric. LOX/LH2 rockets are run very rich (O/F mass ratio of 4 rather than stoichiometric 8) because hydrogen is so light that the energy release per unit mass of propellant drops very slowly with extra hydrogen. In fact, LOX/LH2 rockets are generally limited in how rich they run by the performance penalty of the mass of the extra hydrogen tankage, rather than the mass of the hydrogen itself.

Another reason for running rich is that off-stoichiometric mixtures burn cooler than stoichiometric mixtures, which makes engine cooling easier. Because fuel-rich combustion products are less chemically reactive (corrosive) than oxygenated products, vast majority of rocket engines are designed to run fuel-rich, with at least one exception for the Russian RD-180 preburner, which burns LOX and RP-1 at a ratio of 2.72.

Additionally, mixture ratios can be dynamic during launch. This can be exploited with designs that adjust the oxidizer to fuel ratio (along with overall thrust) during the flight to maximize overall system performance. For instance, during lift-off thrust is a premium while specific impulse is less so. As such, the system can be optimized by carefully adjusting the O/F ratio so the engine runs cooler at higher thrust levels. This also allows for the engine to be designed slightly more compactly, improving its overall thrust to weight performance.

Solid
Solid propellants are either "composites" composed mostly of large, distinct macroscopic particles or single-, double-, or triple-bases (depending on the number of primary ingredients), which are homogeneous mixtures of one or more primary ingredients. Composites typically consist of a mixture of granules of solid oxidizer (examples: ammonium nitrate, ammonium perchlorate, potassium nitrate) in a polymer binder (binding agent) with flakes or powders of energetic compounds (examples: RDX, HMX), metallic additives (examples: aluminium, beryllium), plasticizers, stabilizers, and/or burn rate modifiers (iron oxide, copper oxide). Single-, double-, or triple-bases are mixtures of the fuel, oxidizer, binders, and plasticizers that are macroscopically indistinguishable and often blended as liquids and cured in a single batch. Often, the ingredients of a double-base propellant have multiple roles. For example, RDX is both a fuel and oxidizer while nitrocellulose is a fuel, oxidizer, and plasticizer. Further complicating categorization, there are many propellants that contain elements of double-base and composite propellants, which often contain some amount of energetic additives homogeneously mixed into the binder. In the case of gunpowder (a pressed composite without a polymeric binder) the fuel is charcoal, the oxidizer is potassium nitrate, and sulphur serves as a catalyst. (Note: sulphur is not a true catalyst in gunpowder as it is consumed to a great extent into a variety of reaction products such as K2S.) During the 1950s and 60s researchers in the United States developed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP). This mixture is typically 69-70% finely ground ammonium perchlorate (an oxidizer), combined with 16-20% fine aluminium powder (a fuel), held together in a base of 11-14% polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN) or Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (polybutadiene rubber fuel). The mixture is formed as a thickened liquid and then cast into the correct shape and cured into a firm but flexible load-bearing solid. Historically the tally of APCP solid propellants is relatively small. The military, however, uses a wide variety of different types of solid propellants some of which exceed the performance of APCP. A comparison of the highest specific impulses achieved with the various solid and liquid propellant combinations used in current launch vehicles is given in the article on solid-fuel rockets.

Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant rockets. High propellant density makes for compact size as well. These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for military applications. In the 1970s and 1980s the U.S. switched entirely to solid-fueled ICBMs: the LGM-30 Minuteman and LG-118A Peacekeeper (MX). In the 1980s and 1990s, the USSR/Russia also deployed solid-fueled ICBMs (RT-23, RT-2PM, and RT-2UTTH), but retains two liquid-fueled ICBMs (R-36 and UR-100N). All solid-fueled ICBMs on both sides had three initial solid stages, and those with multiple independently targeted warheads had a precision maneuverable bus used to fine tune the trajectory of the re-entry vehicles. U.S. Minuteman III ICBMs were reduced to a single warhead by 2011 in accordance with the START treaty leaving only the Navy's Trident sub-launched ICBMs with multiple warheads.

Their simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are needed and cost is an issue. The Space Shuttle and many other orbital launch vehicles use solid-fueled rockets in their boost stages (solid rocket boosters) for this reason.

Relative to liquid fuel rockets, solid fuel rockets have lower specific impulse, a measure of propellant efficiency. The propellant mass ratios of solid propellant upper stages is usually in the .91 to .93 range which is as good as or better than that of most liquid propellant upper stages but overall performance is less than for liquid stages because of the solids' lower exhaust velocities. The high mass ratios possible with (unsegmented) solids is a result of high propellant density and very high strength-to-weight ratio filament-wound motor casings. A drawback to solid rockets is that they cannot be throttled in real time, although a programmed thrust schedule can be created by adjusting the interior propellant geometry. Solid rockets can be vented to extinguish combustion or reverse thrust as a means of controlling range or accommodating warhead separation. Casting large amounts of propellant requires consistency and repeatability which is assured by computer control. Casting voids in propellant can adversely affect burn rate so the blending and casting takes place under vacuum and the propellant blend is spread thin and scanned to assure no large gas bubbles are introduced into the motor. Solid fuel rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids and often require post-processing such as x-ray scans to identify faults. Since the combustion process is dependent on the surface area of the fuel; voids and cracks represent local increases in burning surface area. This increases the local temperature, system pressure and radiative heat flux to the surface. This positive feedback loop further increases burn rate and can easily lead to catastrophic failure typically due to case failure or nozzle system damage.

Hybrid
A hybrid rocket usually has a solid fuel and a liquid or NEMA oxidizer. The fluid oxidizer can make it possible to throttle and restart the motor just like a liquid-fueled rocket. Hybrid rockets can also be environmentally safer than solid rockets since some high-performance solid-phase oxidizers contain chlorine (specifically composites with ammonium perchlorate), versus the more benign liquid oxygen or nitrous oxide often used in hybrids. This is only true for specific hybrid systems. There have been hybrids which have used chlorine or fluorine compounds as oxidizers and hazardous materials such as beryllium compounds mixed into the solid fuel grain. Because just one constituent is a fluid, hybrids can be simpler than liquid rockets depending motive force used to transport the fluid into the combustion chamber. Fewer fluids typically means fewer and smaller piping systems, valves and pumps (if utilized).

Hybrid motors suffer two major drawbacks. The first, shared with solid rocket motors, is that the casing around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure and often extreme temperatures as well. However, modern composite structures handle this problem well, and when used with nitrous oxide and a solid rubber propellant (HTPB), relatively small percentage of fuel is needed anyway, so the combustion chamber is not especially large.

The primary remaining difficulty with hybrids is with mixing the propellants during the combustion process. In solid propellants, the oxidizer and fuel are mixed in a factory in carefully controlled conditions. Liquid propellants are generally mixed by the injector at the top of the combustion chamber, which directs many small swift-moving streams of fuel and oxidizer into one another. Liquid-fueled rocket injector design has been studied at great length and still resists reliable performance prediction. In a hybrid motor, the mixing happens at the melting or evaporating surface of the fuel. The mixing is not a well-controlled process and generally quite a lot of propellant is left unburned, which limits the efficiency of the motor. The combustion rate of the fuel is largely determined by the oxidizer flux and exposed fuel surface area. This combustion rate is not usually sufficient for high power operations such as boost stages unless the surface area or oxidizer flux is high. Too high of oxidizer flux can lead to flooding and loss of flame holding that locally extinguishes the combustion. Surface area can be increased, typically by longer grains or multiple ports, but this can increase combustion chamber size, reduce grain strength and/or reduce volumetric loading. Additionally, as the burn continues, the hole down the center of the grain (the 'port') widens and the mixture ratio tends to become more oxidizer rich.

There has been much less development of hybrid motors than solid and liquid motors. For military use, ease of handling and maintenance have driven the use of solid rockets. For orbital work, liquid fuels are more efficient than hybrids and most development has concentrated there. There has recently been an increase in hybrid motor development for nonmilitary suborbital work:
 * Several universities have recently experimented with hybrid rockets. Brigham Young University, the University of Utah and Utah State University launched a student-designed rocket called Unity IV in 1995 which burned the solid fuel hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) with an oxidizer of gaseous oxygen, and in 2003 launched a larger version which burned HTPB with nitrous oxide.. Stanford University researches nitrous-oxide/paraffin wax hybrid motors. UCLA has launched hybrid rockets through an undergraduate student group since 2009 using HTPB.
 * The Rochester Institute of Technology was building a HTPB hybrid rocket to launch small payloads into space and to several near Earth objects. Its first launch was in the Summer of 2007.
 * Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne, the first private manned spacecraft, was powered by a hybrid rocket burning HTPB with nitrous oxide: RocketMotorOne. The hybrid rocket engine was manufactured by SpaceDev. SpaceDev partially based its motors on experimental data collected from the testing of AMROC's (American Rocket Company) motors at NASA's Stennis Space Center's E1 test stand.
 * The Dream Chaser spaceplane intends to use twin hybrid engines of similar design to SpaceShipOne for orbit raising, deorbiting, and emergency escape system.

Gas
A gas propellant usually involves some sort of compressed gas. However, due to the low density of the gas and high weight of the pressure vessel required to contain it, gases see little current use, but are sometimes used for vernier engines, particularly with inert propellants like nitrogen.

GOX (gaseous oxygen) was used as the oxidizer for the Buran program's orbital maneuvering system.

Gel
Some work has been done on gelling liquid propellants to give a propellant with low vapor pressure to reduce the risk of an accidental fireball. Gelled propellant behaves like a solid propellant in storage and like a liquid propellant in use.

Inert propellants
Some rocket designs have their propellants obtain energy from non-combustive sources. For example, water rockets use compressed gas, typically air, to force the water out of the rocket.

Solar thermal rockets and Nuclear thermal rockets typically propose to use liquid hydrogen for an Isp (Specific Impulse) of around 600–900 seconds, or in some cases water that is exhausted as steam for an Isp of about 190 seconds.

Additionally for low performance requirements such as attitude control jets, inert gases such as nitrogen have been employed.

Nuclear thermal rockets pass a propellant over a central reactor, heating the propellant and causing it to expand rapidly out a rocket nozzle, pushing the craft forward. The propellant itself is not directly interacting with the interior of the reactor, so the propellant is not irradiated.

Solar thermal rockets use concentrated sunlight to heat a propellant, rather than using a nuclear reactor.

Tripropellant rockets designs often try to use an optimum mix of propellants for launch vehicles. These use mainly dense fuel while at low altitude and switch across to hydrogen at higher altitude. Studies by Robert Salkeld in the 1960s proposed SSTO using this technique. The Space Shuttle approximated this by using dense solid rocket boosters for the majority of the thrust for the first 120 seconds, the main engines, burning a fuel-rich hydrogen and oxygen mixture operate continuously throughout the launch but only provide the majority of thrust at higher altitudes after SRB burnout.

title: User:DrunkBicyclist/sandbox


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Instructional design/Interpersonal behaviors/Introduction

Back to Topic: Instructional Design

Back to Interpersonal Behaviors

Introduction
The interpersonal domain is one of four domains, the other three being cognitive, affective and psychomotor. This unit will introduce you to this domain by providing definitions, list the types of interpersonal skills and give you an opportunity to test your understanding.

 * This unit is broken into six sections:
 * An Overview
 * A chart of types of interpersonal skills with examples
 * Best Practices
 * Assessments
 * A Summary
 * Self Assessment

Objective
Given a list of definitions, explanations and examples, the learner will be able to identify the interpersonal domain and skills.

 * At the end of this lesson you should:
 * Be able to define the interpersonal domain
 * Be able to give examples for each category
 * Identify examples belonging to the interpersonal domain

Overview
Let's get started with some of the basics.

The interpersonal domain and interpersonal skills centers around building relationships, interacting positively with others, working cooperatively in teams, having empathy for others, and being able to listen while others are speaking then subsequently presenting their own ideas respectfully and responsibly in relation to their fellow teammates, colleagues or fellow students.

A primary requirement in both the educational environment and workplace is the ability to work cooperatively/collaboratively and effectively as part of a team or group. The development and refinement of interpersonal skills can be a pivotal point for the success of individuals in these arenas.

Students should be provided the opportunity to exhibit their skills as they are developing. Positive reinforcement in a supportive setting allows the student to grow and build on the feedback given. For example, teaching a student to become an active listener benefits the student by encouraging them to concentrate on what is being said not what they have to say in rebuttal. This is an important interpersonal skill to develop in order to work effectively as part of a team or group.

Here is an activity intended to provide more information about active listening. You will want to get paper and pencil ready, and take a few notes as you listen and watch the video about active listening. The video is about 16 minutes. Click here to watch the video

Interpersonal Skills - Best Practices
Interpersonal skills are best learned in a face-to-face situation. In addition, with the abundance of videos available on-demand the student has opportunities to view the self-help type videos as needed. However,these videos can never replace the immediate feedback and critique a student needs from a qualified instructor while trying to perform the skill. Videos can only provide one half of the equation at best.

Although as virtual environments evolve and communication through these environments improve there is still something to be learned from direct face-to-face communication that cannot be replaced at this point in time. For example, it is far easier to teach a person how to shake a hand in person than it is by watching a video, reading text, or listening to someone describe it. When the student actually practices shaking hands with an instructor the feedback is immediate. If it is done incorrectly the instructor can demonstrate how to do it correctly then have the student try to duplicate the hand shake correctly. In American culture this is a form of greeting in both casual and business settings. It is an important interpersonal skill to learn to do correctly.

Types of Assessment
Assessing student performance of interpersonal skills and behaviors can take many forms:
 * Face-to-face evaluation
 * Team or group assessment by members of the group
 * Recorded video of student's performance
 * Recorded audio of student's performance for verbal skills
 * Self-assessment; checklist

Summary
The interpersonal domain concerns itself with interpersonal relations, the way people interact with one another, the way individuals work in groups or teams. The skills are focused on individuals acquiring the ability to work effectively with each other and to be able to relate to one another.

The interpersonal skills can be broken down into six categories:
 * Seeking or giving information
 * Proposing
 * Building and Supporting
 * Shutting out and Bringing in
 * Disagreeing
 * Summarizing

As stated by Heinich, Molenda & Russell (1989) "Most learned capabilities actually contain elements of all domains..." (p. 41) This may cause you to pause and consider how would you know which domain a skill belongs. Consider the example mentioned under the Best Practices section - hand shaking. The objective is to shake hands. It requires the student to have knowledge of the proper series of motions it takes to shake a hand (cognitive), the student will want to shake hands (affective), the student will need to physically have the capability to raise an arm, extend a hand, grasp the other individual's hand and perform the final pump to complete the hand shake (psychomotor). In the American culture this is part of a person to person relationship which is performed millions of times daily as part of doing business, greeting each other, the start and close of a meeting, or the close of an agreed upon deal by people of all ages (interpersonal). Although elements from all domains are included in this one skill the instructor would have in mind the domain where the most emphasis is placed. (Heinich et al., 1989) In this case, a hand shake falls in the interpersonal domain.

What have you learned?
Here is a brief assessment to help you with this unit and to think about how you might design instructional material for interpersonal skills.

Interpersonal Domain Introduction Assessment

References and Resources

 * Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D. (1989). Instructional Media and the New Technologies of Instruction (pp 44,440). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
 * Romiszowski, A. (1999). The Development of Physical Skills: Instruction in the Psychomotor Domain. (pp 462-463) In Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed). Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol II). Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Links used in this lesson

 * Active listening
 * Active listening video
 * Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

What's next?
Move to the next lesson Topics, Issues and Resources to Spark your Imagination

Back to Interpersonal Behaviors

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Inova Software

The result was delete. Jo-Jo Eumerus (talk, contributions) 19:10, 11 October 2017 (UTC)

Inova Software

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Fails WP:NCORP. Sources appear to be press releases or mentions of this company as a supplier for Biotechnology Innovation Organization. PGWG (talk) 04:43, 19 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Companies-related deletion discussions. ʍaɦʋɛօtʍ (talk) 11:18, 19 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Technology-related deletion discussions. ʍaɦʋɛօtʍ (talk) 11:18, 19 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Computing-related deletion discussions. ʍaɦʋɛօtʍ (talk) 11:18, 19 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of France-related deletion discussions. ʍaɦʋɛօtʍ (talk) 11:18, 19 September 2017 (UTC)

 Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion and clearer consensus.

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks,  MBisanz  talk 02:24, 27 September 2017 (UTC)  Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion and clearer consensus.
 * Delete No indications of notability, fails GNG. References fail WP:CORPDEPTH and/or WP:ORGIND and fail the criteria for establishing notability. -- HighKing ++ 13:06, 2 October 2017 (UTC)

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, Optakeover (U)(T)(C) 04:51, 4 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Delete as ordinary sales marketing press releases repurposed as news articles which is an instant factor of deletion, which is not what we consider significance. Ⓩⓟⓟⓘⓧ Talk 16:15, 7 October 2017 (UTC)


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Abstract Algebra/Ideals

Motivation
In ../Rings/ we saw that the set of even integers $$2 \mathbb{Z} \subset \mathbb{Z}$$ was a subring of the integers.

We can also see very easily that the integers $$ \mathbb{Z} \subset \mathbb{Q} $$ are a subring of the rational numbers under the usual operations of addition and multiplication.

The even integers, when taken as a subring of the integers have a property that the integers when taken as a subring of the rationals do not. The even integers taken as a subring of the rationals also lack this property.

The property is that the even integers, taken as a subring of the integers, absorb multiplication. Let's call the even integers $$I = 2 \mathbb{Z} $$ for ease of notation.

Consider the following: For all $$i \in I$$, we can see by the definition of $$I$$ that $$i = 2k$$ for some $$k \in \mathbb{Z}$$.

For all $$a \in \mathbb{Z}$$ see that $$ai = a(2k) = 2ak \in I$$.

In Math, regardless of which even integer is chosen, multiplying it by any integer will give us a different even integer.

Definition of an Ideal
Definition: Given a ring $$R$$, a subset $$I \subseteq R$$ is said to be a left ideal of $$R$$ if it absorbs multiplication from the left; that is, if $$\forall i \in I, \forall r \in R, ri \in I$$.

Definition: Given a ring $$R$$, a subset $$I \subseteq R$$ is said to be a right ideal of $$R$$ if it absorbs multiplication from the right; that is, if $$\forall i \in I, \forall r \in R, ir \in I$$.

Definition: We define an ideal $$I$$ to be something that is both a left ideal and a right ideal. We also require that $$(I, +)$$ is a subgroup of $$(R, +)$$.

We write $$I \triangleleft R$$ as shorthand for this.

To verify that a subset of a ring is an ideal, it is only necessary to check that it is closed under subtraction and that it absorbs multiplication; this is because of the subgroup criterion from Abstract Algebra/Group Theory/Subgroup.

Definition: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is proper if $$I \subsetneq R$$.

Definition: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is trivial if $$I=\{0\}$$.

Lemma: An ideal $$I$$ is proper if and only if $$1 \notin I$$.

Proof: If $$1 \in I$$ then $$r = r1 \in I$$ so $$I = R$$.

The converse is obvious.

Theorem: In a division ring, the only proper ideal is trivial.

Proof: Suppose we have an ideal in a division with a nonzero element a. Take any element b in our division ring. Then a−1b is in the division ring as well, and aa−1b = b is in the ideal. Therefore, it is not a proper ideal.

Definition: Let S be a nonempty subset of a ring R. Then the ideal generated S is defined to be the smallest ideal in R containing S, which would be the intersection of all such ideals. We can characterize this ideal by the collection of all finite sums

$$\left \{ \sum_{i=1}^n r_{i1}s_ir_{i2}|r_{i1},r_{i2} \in R, s_i \in S \right \} $$

And one can easily verify that this is an ideal, and that all ideals containing S must contain this ideal. If it is commutative, then one can simply characterize it as

$$\left \{ \sum_{i=1}^n r_i1s_i|r_i \in R, s_i \in S \right \}$$

The ideal generated by a single element a is called a principal ideal. If the ring is commutative, it consists of all elements of the ring of the form ra where r is any element in the ring.

Example: Let $$R = \mathbb{Z}$$ be the ring of integers. The principal ideal $$(n)$$ is the subset of $$\mathbb{Z}$$ consisting of positive and negative multiples of $$n$$. For example $$(2)$$ is the subset of even integers. Then one can view the factor ring $$\mathbb{Z} / (n)$$ simply as the set $$\{0, 1, \ldots, n - 1 \}$$ under addition and multiplication modulo $$n$$.

Operations on Ideals
Given a collection of ideals we can generate other ideals. For instance it is easy to check that the intersection of any family of ideals is again an ideal. We write this simply as $$\bigcap_{j \in J} I_j$$.

Given any set $$S \subset R$$ we can construct the smallest ideal of $$R$$ containing $$S$$ which we denote by $$\langle S \rangle$$. It is determined by $$\langle S \rangle = \bigcap_{S \subset I \triangleleft R} I$$, though often we can be more explicit than this.

If $$I_{j \in J}$$ is a collection of ideals we can determine the sum, written $$\sum_{j \in J} I_j$$, as the smallest ideal containing all the ideals $$I_j$$. One can check explicitly that its elements are finite sums of the form $$\sum_{j \in J} x_j$$.

Finally if $$I,J$$ are two ideals in $$R$$ one can determine the ideal-theoretic product as the smallest ideal containing the set-theoretic product $$\{ i j \mid i \in I, j \in J \}$$. Note that the ideal-theoretic product is in general strictly larger than the set-theoretic product, and that it simply consists of finite sums of the form $$\sum i_r j_r$$ where $$i_r \in I \; j_r \in J $$

Example: Let $$(m)$$ and $$(n)$$ the principal ideals in $$\mathbb{Z}$$ just given. Then one can check explicitly that $$(m) \cap (n) = (r)$$, where r is the lcm of m and n. Moreover $$ (m)(n) = (mn)$$, and $$(m) + (n) = (s)$$ where s is the hcf of m and n. Observe that $$(m)(n) = (m) \cap (n)$$ if and only if s = mn if and only if m and n are co-prime if and only if $$(m) + (n) = (1)$$.

Homomorphisms and Ideals
Rings, like groups, have factor objects that are kernels of homomorphisms. Let $$f:R\to S$$ be a ring homomorphism. Let us determine the structure of the kernel of f which is defined to be all elements which map to the identity.

If a and b are in the kernel of f, i.e. $$f(a)=f(b)=0$$, and r is any element of R, then
 * $$f(a-b)=f(a)-f(b)=0$$,
 * $$f(ar)=f(a)f(r)=0$$,
 * $$f(ra)=f(r)f(a)=0$$.

Therefore $$\ker(f)$$ is an ideal of R.

Also note that the homomorphism will be a monomorphism i. e. it is injective or one-to-one when the kernel consists only of the identity element.

We also have the following

Theorem: If the only proper ideal of R is the trivial ideal {0}, then if f is a homomorphism from R to S, and it does not map all elements of R to the identity in S, then it is injective.

Proof: The kernel of the homomorphism must be an ideal, and since the only ideals are R and the trivial ideal, one of these two must be the kernel. However, since not all elements of R map to the identity of S, R is not the kernel, so the trivial ideal must be.

Since this condition is satisfied for all division rings, it is true for all division rings.

The construction of factor rings in the next section will prove that there exists a homomorphism with I as its kernel for any ideal I.

Factor Rings
Definition: Given a ring $$R$$ and an ideal $$I \subseteq R$$, the ring of cosets of $$R$$, r+I where r is within R, is written $$R/I$$, where each coset is defined to be the set {r+i|i is an element of I}, and by Lagrange's theorem, it partitions R. This set of cosets, called the factor ring (or quotient ring) of $$R$$ modulo $$I$$ is a ring with addition defined the same way as one would define it for groups (since the ring is a group under addition), and with multiplication defined as follows:
 * $$(a + I)(b + I) = ab + I$$.

To show that this is independent of the choice of a and b (or, the operations are well-defined), suppose that a' and b' are elements of the same respective coset. Then a'=a+j and b'=b+k for some element j,k within I. Then a'b'=ab+ak+jb+jk and since ak, jb, and jk are elements of I, a'b' and ab must belong to the same coset, so ab+I=a'b'+I. Obviously the cosets form a group under addition because of what was proved earlier about factor groups, and furthermore the factor ring forms an abelian group under addition because the ring forms an abelian group under addition. Since the product rs+I is analogous to the multiplication in the ring, it obviously has all the properties of a ring. Furthermore, if the ring is commutative, then the factor ring will also be commutative.

Observe that there is a canonical ring homomorphism $$\pi : R \rightarrow R / I$$ determined by $$\pi(r) = r+I$$, called the projection map. We record some properties of this homomorphism in the next section of the isomorphism theorems.

Ring Isomorphism Theorems
We have already proved the isomorphism theorems for groups. Now we can use analogous arguments to prove the isomorphism theorems for rings, substitution the notion of "normal subgroups" with ideals.

Factor Theorem
Let I be an ideal of a ring R, Let $$\pi(x)=x+I$$ be the usual homomorphism from R to R/I. Now let f be a homomorphism from R to S. Observe that if $$\tilde{\phi} : R/I \rightarrow S$$ is a ring homomorphism, then the composition $$\phi = \tilde{\phi} \circ \pi : R \rightarrow R/I \rightarrow S$$ is a ring homomorphism such that $$I \subset \ker{\phi}$$ (because $$x \in I \Rightarrow \phi(x) = \tilde{\phi} \circ \pi(x) = \tilde{\phi}(0_{R/I}) = 0_S$$). This characterizes all such morphisms in the following sense

Factor Theorem: Let $$\phi : R \rightarrow S$$ be a ring homomorphism such that $$I \subset \ker{\phi}$$. Then there is a unique homomorphism $$\tilde{\phi} : R /I \rightarrow S$$ such that $$\phi = \tilde{\phi} \circ \pi$$. Furthermore, $$\tilde{\phi}$$ is an epimorphism if and only if $$\phi$$ is an epimorphism, $$\tilde{\phi}$$ is a monomorphism if and only if its kernel is I.

Proof We prove it the same way we did for groups. Define $$\tilde{\phi}(x+I)$$ to be $$\phi(x)$$. To see that this is well-defined, let a+I=b+I, and so that a-b is an element of I, so that $$\phi(a-b)=0_S$$ so that $$\phi(a)=\phi(b)$$. Now $$\phi$$ is a homomorphism, implying that $$\tilde{\phi}$$ is also. The proofs of the additional statements can be carried over from the proofs of the additional statements of the factor theorem from groups.

First Isomorphism Theorem
Let R be a ring, and let f be a homomorphism from R to S with kernel K. Then the image of f is isomorphic to R/K.

Proof

Using the factor theorem, we can find a homomorphism from R/K to S, and since the kernel is the same as the ideal used in forming the quotient group, and since the f is an epimorphism over its image, this homomorphism is an isomorphism.

Second Isomorphism Theorem
Let R be a ring, let I be an ideal, and let S be a subring.
 * S+I, the set of all s+i with s within S and i within I, is a subring of R.
 * 1) I is an ideal of S+I.
 * 2) The intersection of S and I is an ideal of S.
 * 3) (S+I)/I is isomorphic to $$S/(S\cap I)$$.

Proof
 * 1) It can be verified that it contains 1, and is closed under multiplication.
 * 2) Of course, since I is an ideal of R, then it must be an ideal under any subring.
 * 3) From a similar argument for groups, it can only contain elements of I, but restricted to S, so it must be an ideal of S.
 * 4) Let $$f: R \rightarrow R/I$$ be a function restricted to the domain S, and define $$f(x)=x+I$$. It is obvious that its kernel is $$S\cap I$$ and that its image is (S+I)/I.

Third Isomorphism Theorem
Let I be an ideal of a ring R, and let J be an ideal of the same ring R that contains I. J/I is an ideal of R/I, and R/J is isomorphic to (R/I)/(J/I).

Proof Define the function $$f: R/I \rightarrow R/J$$ to be $$f(a+I)=a+J$$ which is well-defined because since I is an ideal that is within J. This is also obviously a homomorphism. Its kernel is all elements that map onto J, and is thus all a+I such that a is within J, or J/I. Moreover, its image is R/J, and so we can use the first isomorphism theorem to prove the result.

Correspondence Theorem
Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Define the function $$\pi$$ to map the set of rings and ideals containing I to the set of rings and ideals of R/I, where $$\pi (X)$$ = the set of all cosets x+I where x is an element of X. This function is one-to-one, and the image of rings or ideals containing I are rings or ideals within R/I.

Proof Define the function f from rings or ideals containing I to the rings or ideals of R/I, by f(A)=A/I. We have already proved the correspondence for addition because rings form an abelian group under addition. Thus, we need only to check for multiplication. Suppose S is a subring of R containing I. S/I is obviously closed under addition and subtraction. For multiplication, suppose that x and y are elements of S. Then (x+I)(y+I)=xy+I which is also an element of S/I, proving that it is closed under multiplication. The identity 1 is within S, and we have it that 1+I is also within S/I. Thus, S/I is a subring of R/I. Now suppose that S/I is a subring of R/I. Then it is also obvious that S is closed under addition and subtraction and multiplication, proving that S is a subring of R. Now suppose that J is an ideal of R containing I. Then by the third isomorphism theorem, J/I is an ideal of R/I. Now suppose that J/I is an ideal of R/I. Let r be any element of R, and let j be any element of J. Then since J/I is an ideal of R/I, (r+I)(j+I)=rj+I must be an element of J/I. This indicates that rj must be an element of J, proving that J is an ideal of R.

Definitions
Definition: Two elements $$a, b$$ are said to be congruent in an ideal $$I$$ if and only if they belong to the same coset in R/I. This is true when a-b is within I. Write $$a = b \bmod{I}$$ to mean that $$a$$ is congruent to $$b$$ modulo $$I$$.

Lemma: Given an ideal $$I \subseteq R$$, a subset of a ring $$R$$, the congruence class $$[r]$$ modulo $$I$$ of an element $$r \in R$$ is $$[0]$$ if and only if $$r \in I$$. To see this, simply note that $$a = b \bmod{I}$$ means $$a-b\in I$$; plugging in gives $$r-0\in I$$.

Definition: Two natural numbers are relatively prime when ax+by=1 for integers x and y. We do the same for rings - two ideals I and J are relatively prime when ai+bj=1 for ring elements a, b, and for an element i within I and an element j within J. In other words, two ideals are relatively prime if their sum contains the identity element i. e. if I+J is the whole ring R.

We will now prove the

Chinese Remainder Theorem
Let R be a ring, and let $$I_n$$ be n pairwise (i. e. when considering any two pairs) relatively prime ideals.
 * 1) Let a be a number from 1 to n. There exists an element r within R that is within all ideals $$I_n$$ such that $$n \neq a$$, and such that $$r = 1 \bmod{I_a}$$
 * 2) Let $$r_1, r_2, ..., r_n$$ be elements of R. Then there exists an element r within R such that $$r = r_i \bmod{I_i}$$ for all i=1,2,3,...,n.
 * 3) Let I be the intersection of the ideals. Another element of R, s satisfies $$s = r_i \bmod{I_i}$$ for all i=1,2,3,...,n if and only if $$r=s \bmod{I}$$.
 * 4) R/I is isomorphic to the product ring $$\Pi_{i=1}^n R/I_i$$

Proof
 * 1) Since $$I_1$$ and $$I_i$$ (i>1) are relatively prime, there will exist an elements $$b_i\in I_1$$ and $$c_i\in I_i$$ (i>1) such that $$b_i+c_i=1$$. This implies that $$\Pi_{i=2}^n (b_i+c_i)=1$$. Now we expand this product on the left side. All terms of the product other than $$c_2c_3c_4...c_n$$ belong to $$I_1$$ while $$c_2c_3c_4...c_n$$ itself belongs the set S of all finite sums of products $$x_2x_3x_4...x_n$$ with $$x_i\in I_i$$. Thus, it can be written in the form b+a=1, where b is an element of $$I_1$$, and where a is an element of S. Then $$a\equiv 1 \pmod{I_1}$$ and $$a\equiv 0 \pmod{I_i}$$ for i>1.

Prime and Maximal Ideals
There are two important classes of ideals in a ring - Prime and Maximal.

Definition: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is prime if it satisfies:

for any ideals A and B such that AB is a subset of I, implies A is in I or B is in I.

Definition: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is maximal if it is proper (i.e. $$I \subsetneq R$$ and it satisfies:

$$I \subset J \triangleleft R \implies I = J \text{ or } J = R$$

That is, there are no proper ideals between $$I$$ and $$R$$.

The following Lemma is important for many results, and it makes essential use of Zorn's Lemma (or equivalently the Axiom of Choice)

Lemma: Every non-invertible element of a ring is contained in some maximal ideal

Proof: Suppose $$x$$ is the non-invertible element. Then the first observation is that $$(x)$$ is a proper ideal, for if $$(x) = R$$, then in particular $$1 \in (x)$$ so $$1 = ax$$ contradiction the assumption. Let $$\mathcal{S}$$ be the set of proper ideals in $$R$$ containing $$x$$ ordered by inclusion. The first observation implies that $$\mathcal{S}$$ is non-empty, so to apply Zorn's Lemma we need only show that every increasing set of ideals contains an upper-bound. Suppose $$\{ I_j \}_j$$ is such an increasing set, then the least upper bound is $$\sum_{j \in j} I_j$$ as this is the smallest ideal containing each ideal. If one checks that the union $$\cup_{j \in J} I_j$$ is an ideal, then this must be $$\sum_{j \in J} I_j$$. To show it's proper, we need only show $$1 \notin \cup_{j \in J} I_j$$ for all $$j$$. But this follows precisely because each $$I_j$$ is proper.

Therefore by Zorn's Lemma there is a maximal element $$J$$ of $$\mathcal{S}$$. It is clearly maximal for if $$J'$$ were any ideal satisfying $$J \subset J^\prime \subsetneq R$$ then $$J^\prime$$ would be an element of $$\mathcal{S}$$, and by maximality of $$J$$ we would have $$J^\prime \subset J$$ whence $$J = J^\prime$$.

Properties of rings may be naturally restated in terms of the ideal structure. For instance

Proposition: A commutative ring $$R$$ is an Integral Domain if and only if $$(0)$$ is a prime ideal.

Proof: This follows simply because $$x = 0 \iff x \in (0)$$.

This explains why an Integral Domain is also referred to as a Prime Ring. Similarly, we may give a necessary and sufficient condition for a ring to be a field :

Proposition: A commutative ring $$R$$ is a Field if and only if $$(0)$$ is a maximal ideal (that is there are no proper ideals)

Proof: We only need to show that every element $$0 \neq x \in R$$ is invertible. Suppose not then by Lemma ... $$x$$ is contained in some (proper) maximal ideal, a contradiction.

Corollary: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is maximal if and only if $$R / I$$ is a field.

Proof: By the previous Proposition we know $$R / I$$ is a field if and only if its only proper ideal is $$(0)$$. By the correspondence theorem (...) this happens if and only if there are no proper ideals containing $$I$$.

Corollary: The kernel of a homomorphism f from R to S is a maximal ideal when S is a field. The proof of this follows from the first isomorphism theorem because S is isomorphic to R/ker f.

It's also clear that

Lemma: An ideal $$I \triangleleft R$$ is prime if and only if $$R / I$$ is an integral domain.

Proof: Write $$\bar{x}$$ for the element of $$R / I$$ corresponding to the equivalence class $$[x]$$. Clearly every element of $$R / I$$ can be written in this form.

$$\Rightarrow)$$ $$\bar{xy} = 0 \iff xy \in I \iff x \in I \text{ or } y \in I \iff \bar{x} = 0 \text{ or } \bar{y} = 0$$ where the second equivalence follows directly because $$I$$ is prime.

$$\Leftarrow)$$ This follows in exactly the same way.

Corollary: The kernel of a homomorphism f from R to S is a prime ideal when S is an integral domain. The proof of this follows from the first isomorphism theorem because S is isomorphic to R/ker f.

Lemma: A maximal ideal is also prime.

Proof: Suppose $$I \triangleleft R$$ is a maximal ideal, and $$xy \in I$$. Suppose further that $$x \notin I$$. Then the ideal $$I + (x)$$ is an ideal containing $$I$$ and $$x$$, so is strictly larger than $$I$$. By maximality $$I + (x) = R \ni 1$$. So $$1 = i + rx \implies y = iy + rxy \in I$$.

Alternatively, we can use the above two results, and the fact that all fields are integral domains to prove this.

Glossary
Please see the extensive Glossary of ring theory.

title: Abstract Algebra/Ideals


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Router M to 1

Comments

 * The difference between the Selector and Router is that when you change the Selector to a new position, it sends whatever value was last received there (even if it's not currently being received) - while changing the position on the Router only "opens that pathway" to allow something new to pass though (nothing is sent until new values arrive at that input).

title: Reaktor/Modules/Router M to 1


text:
Musical transcription

Learning project on musical transcription. On this page, we are experimenting on how to build a community to perform musical transcriptions on request.

Current challenges
Here, we pick a musical clip: Image:CQ music.ogg. We will be transcribing "The Wiki Wiki way" part. This is in the first 2 minutes of the clip.

Chords
A good key signature seems to be either E major or A major. Choose E major, assuming the final chord ends on the tonic.

title: Musical transcription


text:
Alingsås VBK

Alingsås VBK is a volleyball club in Alingsås, Sweden. Established on 1 June 1961, it joined the Swedish Volleyball Federation on 19 December the same year. The club won the Swedish women's national championship in 1971.

title: Alingsås VBK


text:
Talk:Dogge Doggelito

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20111003042942/http://filipstad.ifolkmun.se/2010/11/29/dogge-el-primo-och-en-kung-av-tylosand/ to http://filipstad.ifolkmun.se/2010/11/29/dogge-el-primo-och-en-kung-av-tylosand/

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 04:30, 14 February 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dogge Doggelito


text:
scatenare

Verb

 * 1)  to unchain, to unshackle
 * 2) to suddenly give rise to (an intense or violent feeling); to unleash (a feeling)
 * 3) to unleash
 * 4) to incite; to instigate violence
 * 1) to incite; to instigate violence
 * 1) to incite; to instigate violence

title: scatenare


text:
Confederation of Trade Unions of Burundi

The Confederation of Trade Unions of Burundi (Confédération des Syndicats du Burundi, COSYBU) is the larger of the two national trades union federations active in Burundi. It is distinct from the Trade Union Confederation of Burundi (Confédération syndicale du Burundi, CSB). Both the COSYBU and CSB are affiliated to the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC).

COSYBU was formed in 1995 when it split from the recently-established CSB. Although separate, the two organisations maintain good relations and frequently collaborate. The COSYBU reformed its structure in 2013 and its confederal governing body includes representatives from its affiliated unions as well as membership from the national provinces.

In total, 31 of the 59 officially recognised trade unions in Burundi are affiliated to the COSYBU. The two largest, representing teachers (STEB) and transport workers (SYPROTAVEBU), together constitute about 75 percent of the confederation's total membership. In total, COSYBU had 53,611 affiliated members in 2014. However, only a minority pay fees to affiliate to the union.

According to ITUC reports, labor rights are frequently violated in Burundi and the right to strike is limited. Most Burundians work in the informal economy and members of certain unions have been harassed for their affiliations. It is estimated that only 1.3 percent of the labour force are members of trade unions. Several collective bargaining agreements are known to be in force for workers within particular sectors covered by the COSYBU.


text:
User:RichardFord79/sandbox

Highfield Qualifications
Highfield Awarding Body for Compliance, trading as Highfield Qualifications is an awarding organisations and regulated by the Office of the Qualifications and Examinations Regulator (Ofqual) in England, Qualifications Wales in Wales, Scottish Qualification Authority (SQA) Accreditation, and the Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment in Northern Ireland.

As an awarding organisation (or examination board), Highfield Qualifications designs, develops and certificates regulated qualifications that are both nationally and internationally recognised.

Highfield Qualifications also became an Education Skills Funding Agency (ESFA) recognised End-Point Assessment Organisation in 2016.

History

Highfield Qualifications was formed in 2008 by the Sprenger family following on from the success of their training materials business Highfield.co.uk Ltd (now known as Highfield Products Ltd).

In 2010 Highfield Qualifications expanded its operations to the middle east, opening an office in Dubai. This development was brought about as a result of the Dubai Municipality contacting the company Chairman, Richard Sprenger, a renowned food safety expert, following the death of two young children from food poisoning from a local restaurant.

Sprenger was invited to work closely with the Dubai Municipality to introduce a new Person in Charge initiative across the emirate. This initiative required all food establishments, with either one (or more) qualified person in charge being accountable to their employer and the government for making sure that they and the employees on their shift are following established policies and procedures for food safety.

Awards

Highfield won the Doncaster Chamber Large Business of the Year Award in 2013.

Highfield received the Queen’s Award for Enterprise for International Trade in 2016.

Highfield was named the 2018 awarding organisation of the year by the Federation of Awarding Bodies.

Qualifications

Highfield currently offers qualifications ranging from entry level through to level 5.

 * Business Administration
 * Health and Science
 * Management and Team Leading
 * Social Care
 * Food Safety
 * Security
 * Health and Safety
 * Hospitality and Catering
 * Logistics
 * Retail
 * Public Transport

title: User:RichardFord79/sandbox


text:
spacciare

Etymology
From archaic (modern ), from  or  (modern 🇨🇬).

Verb

 * 1) to traffic in (drugs, etc.)
 * 2) to peddle, push (drugs)
 * 3) to pass off (something)
 * 4) to utter (nonsense, lies, etc.)

title: spacciare


text:
captation

Etymology
Borrowed from, from. Compare 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1)  A courting of favor or applause, by flattery or address; a captivating quality; an attraction

Derived terms

 * hypercaptation
 * hypocaptation
 * normocaptation

Etymology
.

Noun

 * 1)  inveiglement,

title: captation


text:
Stanford Andress

Stanford E. "Andy" Andress is a Colorado author and political candidate.

Andress is the author of the 1996 book, The Civil War: The Sound of Thunder (ISBN 0-9656257-1-0), which he co-authored with his wife, Irene M. Deasy.

In 2002, Andress ran as a write-in candidate for Colorado Congressional Delegation in the 108th United States Congress with a slogan of "Andress for Congress: Honesty". He placed 6th with 109 votes. Republican Bob Beauprez won the seat in a close election over Democrat Mike Feeley by a margin of 101 votes after a recount.

In 2004, he ran on the ballot in Colorado as an Independent for United States President with his wife as his running mate. They received 804 votes, which while a small number compared to the millions both George W. Bush and John Kerry received, was still more than some of the party-affiliated candidates received in Colorado. In particular, the Socialist Workers Party, Socialist Equality Party, Socialist Party, as well as the combined two competing tickets of the Prohibition Party all received a smaller number of votes.

title: Stanford Andress


text:
Nakamatsu Station

Nakamatsu Station (中松駅) is a railway station in Minamiaso, Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. It is on the Takamori Line, operated by the Minamiaso Railway.

History

 * 12 February, 1928 - Station opened for business.
 * 1 April 1986, - the station was converted from the Takamori Line of the Japanese National Railways to Minamiaso Railway.
 * 1 April 1987, - Start of use of new station building.
 * 1 August 1989, - Set up a train exchange facility, The station platform will have two platforms and two tracks
 * 14–16 April 2016, - the Kumamoto earthquakes caused damage to bridges and tunnels on the Takamori line, and operations have since been suspended.
 * 31 July 2016, - Operation resumed between Nakamatsu and Takamori.
 * 15 July 2023, - Minami Aso Railway Takamori Line between Tateno and Nakamatsu has been restored and all lines have resumed operation.

title: Nakamatsu Station


text:
Animal Behavior/The Correlation Between Bird Song and Human Speech

Bird Song and Human Speech
To learn their language, humans and white crowned sparrows follow similar steps, recognition, practice, and clarity. The best time for a human to learn their language is from toddler to twelve years old (Macdonald) and the best time for a white crowned sparrow to learn its song is between 10–50 days from when they were born. Both genes and environment play roles in determining the way each communicate (Alcock 25).

The first step for humans and white crowned species in learning their language can be considered recognition. White crowned sparrows and humans listen to a tutor before they begin to communicate their language. The tutor teaches the language and the particular dialect, according to the area. Just like humans, the sparrows also have a dialect depending on where they live. A white crowned sparrow has certain genes that only allow them to learn its own species’ songs. Experiments have been performed in which the sparrow was kept in isolation and played tapes of other song sparrows, the white crowned sparrow will not imitate the other species’ song, but will sing an odd song unlike either species’ song (Alcock 24-25). Humans also cannot communicate with each other using a different species’ language. A study was done in Avignon, France that observed children who were brought up by wolves. It was observed that the children spoke no language at all. Before studies of this kind were done it was thought that the children might learn to communicate with the wolves, just like the Tarzan story. This is not true, the children could not speak the human language nor the language of the wolves (Macdonald). It is a combination of environment and genes that tell white crowned sparrows and humans to learn their proper language. Genes tell the species to only learn the language of their own species and environment plays a factor in determining which dialect each will use.

Once the white crowned sparrow or infant has recognized its species, song, they can begin to practice the language. Infants first communicate by making sounds. The sounds can range from grunts to sounds that mimic their surrounding environments. For example, before babies can say words, they might say moo- moo when looking at a cow. After sounds come words. By the time the infant reaches one year, they should be making sentences out of words (Macdonald). The white crowned sparrow also does not immediately master its song. The sparrow will first sing a short subsong derived from the tutor’s full song. The sparrows keep practicing their subsong just as infants practice their words. After the sparrow has mastered its subsong it can start to form a full song. In both species it is necessary for them to hear themselves in order to vocalize their language correctly (Alcock 26).

In conclusion, both white crowned sparrows first listen and recognize their particular species’ language. A white crowned sparrow has a tutor to teach the song. Infants usually have parents that teach them their verbal language. Then they must practice the language, starting off slow with sounds and building up. Both species will continue to improve and clarify their language throughout their lives.


text:
Serenade (1927 film)

Serenade is a lost 1927 American drama silent film directed by Harry d'Abbadie d'Arrast and written by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Ernest Vajda. The film stars Adolphe Menjou, Kathryn Carver, Lawrence Grant, Lina Basquette and Martha Franklin. The film was released on December 24, 1927, by Paramount Pictures.

Cast

 * Adolphe Menjou as Franz Rossi
 * Kathryn Carver as Gretchen
 * Lawrence Grant as Josef Bruckner
 * Lina Basquette as The Dancer
 * Martha Franklin as Gretchen's Mother

title: Serenade (1927 film)


text:
The Blue Potato and Other Outrages...

The Blue Potato and Other Outrages... is an album of solo piano performances by the American jazz pianist Ran Blake recorded in 1969 and released on the Milestone label.

Reception
Scott Yanow in his review for AllMusic stated, "A very emotional improviser (whose unexpected explosions of sound sometimes punctuate otherwise introspective performances), Blake is a true original. This Milestone LP, only his third recording in eight years, shows Ran Blake really finding unusual things to say on a variety of standards... On this solo piano date, Blake makes political (if nonverbal) statements on many of these pieces, improvising off of the titles rather than the chord changes".

Track listing
All compositions by Ran Blake except as indicated
 * 1) "God Bless the Child" (Billie Holiday, Arthur Herzog, Jr.) - 3:47
 * 2) "Three Seeds (A Suite): Regis Debray/Che Guevara/Malcolm X" - 7:27
 * 3) "The Blue Potato" - 2:36
 * 4) "All or Nothing at All" (Arthur Altman, Jack Lawrence) - 4:25
 * 5) "Fables of Faubus" (Charles Mingus) - 3:27
 * 6) "Chicago" (Fred Fisher) - 3:45
 * 7) "Never On Sunday" (Manos Hadjidakis) - 2:49
 * 8) "Soul On Ice" - 3:08
 * 9) "Vradiazi" - 3:17
 * 10) "Garvey`s Ghost" - 2:16
 * 11) "Bella Ciao" - 2:27
 * 12) "Stars Fell on Alabama" (Frank Perkins, Mitchell Parish) - 2:18

Personnel

 * Ran Blake – piano

title: The Blue Potato and Other Outrages...


text:
Sigbjørn Mustad

Sigbjørn Mustad (19 April 1897 – 30 October 1970) was a Norwegian lawyer and politician for the Conservative Party.

Mustad was born in Vardal as a son of Kristian Mauritz Mustad (1848–1913) and Maren Haugsrud (1860–1917). He was elected to the Storting during the period 1937–1945. During the German occupation of Norway he was assigned with the Norwegian governmental administration in London. From 1946, he was appointed presiding judge in Agder Court of Appeal. He chaired the board of A/S Union from 1947 to 1963. He published the book Utenlands i krigsårene in 1958, and Union i 17 år.

title: Sigbjørn Mustad


text:
AfroBasket 2015 qualification

AfroBasket 2015 Qualification occurred on various dates between 21 September 2014 and 8 March 2015. It was used to determine which African national basketball teams would qualify for the 2015 FIBA Africa Championship. Teams competed with other teams in their respective "zones" for a spot in the Championship tournament.

Qualified Teams
Four teams qualified for the tournament before the qualification round took place. Twelve more teams claimed spots in the tournament through Zonal Qualifying.

Qualified as the host nation: From qualification: Selected as wild cards:

Zone 1
Zone 1 was played from January 6 to February 15 2015 in Algiers, Algeria and Salé, Morocco.

 * }

Zone 2
Zone 2 was played from February 12 to February 25 2015 in Bamako, Mali and Dakar, Senegal from 1 group and Praia, Cape Verde from group 2.

Group B

 * }

Group C

 * }

Zone 3
Zone 3 was played from February 7 to February 8 2015 in Cotonou, Benin.

Group D

 * }

Group E

 * }

Group F

 * }

Group G

 * }

Zone 5
Zone 5 was played from September 21 to September 28 2014 in Kampala, Uganda.

 * }

Group I

 * }

Group J

 * }

Wild cards
Seven countries applied for three wild card berths. These include, , , , , and. After its meeting in March, the FIBA Africa Central Board announced that the announcement of the wild cards was postponed up to the end of April.

On early May, it was announced that, and  were chosen by the Africa Board as the wild cards.

title: AfroBasket 2015 qualification


text:
Talk:Man in the Mirror: The Michael Jackson Story

Untitled discussion
Nothing links here and I'm not sure that this needs to be its own article. Can it just be put into the Michael Jackson entry? -- Davetron5000 16:59, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes it should. C  a  rm  el  apple  18:09, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Title in strange font??
why is this title in this strange font with this J like an strange character not known to me? I thinks thats quite disturbing...

https://imgur.com/a/IVbnYB1 []

the talk and edit pages are in the normal font, why that?

https://imgur.com/a/i1B8jaz []

i would prefer having the page title the font every normal article dose, thanks --2001:16B8:6099:FD00:1843:53BC:DC7C:C347 (talk) 09:13, 15 November 2020 (UTC)
 * i fiddled around a bit with editing source/preview mode and found out that its because the embedded infobox thingy, ive forwareded my request there: Template_talk:Infobox_television --2001:16B8:6099:FD00:1843:53BC:DC7C:C347 (talk) 09:35, 15 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't see a connection between the infobox and the title. And I also don't see the issue on my computer. --Gonnym (talk) 09:38, 15 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Same; I see a normal J. This might be a client side/css/fonts thing. Primefac (talk) 13:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I also see a normal J. - Favre1fan93 (talk) 14:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
Points, lines, and planes

Hello, and welcome to the first lesson of this geometry course!

Congruency

 * Two things are congruent if they are the same. Okay, onto next topic...
 * Wait a second; we didn't define that very well! That's okay. Congruency is a thing that is defined for everything that is used in geometry. For example, congruency can be defined for peanut butter jars

 * Two jars of peanut butter are congruent if they have jars of the same shape, are filled to the same height with peanut butter, and the peanut butter tastes the same for both jars.

 * You could do a similar thing for gumballs, but that wouldn't be relevant to geometry, unlike peanut butter jars. Every element of geometry has its own definition of congruence.

 * This is the symbol of congruence.

 * $$\cong$$

Points
Example of a point is period

 * This is the definition of a point

 * A point is something

 * Wait, hey, that doesn't make any sense! Let's try again.

 * A point is a point that is somewhere

 * Yes, a point is a point. Third time is the charm?

 * A point is an infinitesimally small point that is somewhere

 * Yes, we know. A point is a point! Where is this thing's definition?
 * Actually, points have a definition.

 * A point is an infinitesimally small location; something having position but no spatial extent. In other words, a point is a dimensionless object! An example of this would be an intersection of two lines. It has neither a length, nor a breadth, nor a height. That's why it is called dimensionless. Sometimes points are represented graphically with a dot, which of course is a gross over-representation of its infinite smallness.

 * [[Image:Point A.svg|40 px]]

 * Every point is represented with the dot, and the letter that labels it. All labels are uppercase for points. This is important because the opposite is true for lines.

Hands-On Examples of Points

 * Take a very small ball/sphere (grain of sand, small marble) and a pencil or other straight object that is thicker than the ball and demonstrate how the pencil can take an infinite number of orientations and still intersect ALL of the ball.  This demonstrates that a point is dimensionless since any object can take any orientation (i.e. can have any set of values for it's dimensions) and still intersect the ENTIRE point.  In this example, a pencil represents a line with only one dimension (length).

Lines

 * Let's not attempt to define the line, for it is impossible. However, it has some properties. A line is infinitely long; it goes forever in both directions. A line is infinitely thin, and also infinitely straight (so, it is also called a straight line). Lines also have a lot of points on them, in fact an infinite number of points, to be precise.

 * Actually, on the other hand, let's define the line, for it is possible. A straight line can be defined in a number of ways, mathematically - but this will depend on the coordinate system being used. However, no matter which coordinate system is chosen, a straight line can be defined by specifying two distinct points through which it passes.

 * If we don't go into mathematics, a line can also be defined in plain English as a collection of an infinite number of points, all placed side by side. Since a point has no dimensions, we would expect a line to have no dimensions, since it is a mere collection of points. However, when a number of points lie side by side, they do give rise to one dimension - that of length. Thus we see, line is a one-dimensional object. A line is denoted using small letters.

 * On a Cartesian coordinate system, a line is defined as a set of all points whose range (i.e. y-coordinates) is the solutions of a function involving one domain (i.e. set of x-coordinates) that can be simplified to a first-degree trinomial with two variables (x and y).

 * So far, we have discussed only straight lines. However, lines can also be curved. Such lines are called curved lines.

Similarly a plane can be defined by three distinct points in any coordinate system involving more than one dimension.

Hands-On Examples of Lines

 * 1) Since a straight line is defined by two points, you can prove that it takes exactly 2 points to make a line. --J.foster.davis 17:38, 20 February 2010 (UTC)
 * 2) On a sheet of paper, make a dot (representing a single point)
 * 3) Ask the students to draw a straight line through the dot.
 * 4) Ask the students to draw ANOTHER straight line. Since this is possible, you will now have 2 lines on the page.  You can also repeat this step any number of times.  This demonstrates that a single point cannot uniquely define/identify a single line.
 * 5) Now, on another sheet of paper, ask the students to place 2 small dots anywhere on the page.
 * 6) Ask the students to draw as many straight lines that intersect both dots as they can. Since you can only have 1 line, they will not be able to.
 * 7) Ask the students to draw 3 or more dots on a clean sheet of paper.
 * 8) Ask them to draw as many straight lines that intersect all 3 dots as they can. Since you cannot, this demonstrates that 3 or more dots cannot define a line. Since the case above using 2 dots is the only case that resulted in exatly one line, this demonstrates proves the definition and why that particular phrasing is used to define a line.
 * 9) Demonstrate that an infinite number of points are contained within a line --J.foster.davis 17:38, 20 February 2010 (UTC)
 * 10) Draw a line segment and have each student place a dot on the line. Since dots (points) have no length, an unlimited number of dots can be drawn without any student touching any other student's dot.
 * 11) Repeat as desired using a line segment of any length. All students will still be able to place a dot.

Rays (Half-Lines)

 * A ray (or half-line) is a line that terminates at one of its points. It travels to infinity on one side of its two defining points, and terminates on the other.

In the picture above, points A and C define a line that terminates at point A. Therefore the ray is defined by points A and C.

 * Like a straight line, a ray is one-dimensional.

title: Points, lines, and planes


text:
George Kelly (playwright)

George Edward Kelly (January 16, 1887 – June 18, 1974) was an American playwright, screenwriter, director, and actor. He began his career in vaudeville as an actor and sketch writer. He became best known for his satiric comedies, including The Torch-Bearers (1922) and The Show-Off (1924). He won the Pulitzer Prize for Craig's Wife (1925).

Early life
Kelly was born in Philadelphia on January 16, 1887. He was the second youngest of ten children born to Mary Ann (née Costello) and John Henry Kelly, an Irish immigrant. He was the brother of American businessman and Olympic champion sculler John B. Kelly Sr. and the uncle of actress Grace Kelly, who became Princess consort of Monaco, and Olympic rower John B. Kelly Jr.

Not much is known about his early life, but he was an actor in his early years. He did not like the dramatic material available during the turn of the century, and wanted to change that. He served in France during World War I and after he came home starting writing.

Career
Throughout his career, Kelly remained a realistic playwright, unaffected by the experiments of theatrical modernism. Novelist Edward Maisel described him as "a simple moralist using the theatre for simple moral purposes." Kelly's plays are often dominated by characters of monstrous egotism, and he casts a harsh light on their shortcomings. Uncompromising in his vision, he scrupulously avoided sentimentality and depictions of romance. Arthur Willis noted "Kelly appears to be anti-love, anti-romantic love, certainly, and distrustful of the tender emotions."

In his first full-length play, The Torch-Bearers, Kelly satirizes the "Little Theatre Movement", depicting it as made up of narcissistic and undisciplined amateurs. Their leader, Mrs. J. Duro Pampinelli, is a brilliant caricature of self-indulgent dilettantism. In the first act, Kelly shows the troupe incapable of conducting a competent rehearsal; in the second, he depicts with farcical brilliance their public performance collapsing in shambles. In the third act, however, the tone grows more earnest as the players are excoriated for their indulgences. In his greatest popular and commercial success, The Show-Off, Kelly focuses his critique on the figure of Aubrey Piper, a loud, lying, self-deluded businessman with an obnoxious laugh and an obvious toupee. With Craig's Wife (1925), Kelly's satire grew more severe; Harriet Craig destroys her marriage through her possessiveness and materialism.

In his later plays, Kelly grew even more severe and judgmental, and his audiences grew smaller. Behold the Bridegroom (1927) shows a shallow and decadent flapper pine away when she meets a morally upright man who makes her realize her lack of character. Despite a much-praised performance by Judith Anderson in the leading role, the play ran for only 88 performances. Philip Goes Forth (1931) is the story of a young man who is much enamored of his image of himself as a young playwright. He rebels against his family and moves into a boarding house for artists, only to discover that he has no talent. It enjoyed a run of only 97 performances. Two late plays, Maggie the Magnificent (1929) and The Deep Mrs. Sykes (1929), were very poorly received and were never even published. As a result of the box-office failure of his later works, Kelly moved to Hollywood, and only rarely returned to the theatre. The Fatal Weakness (1946) was his last Broadway play. At the time of his death, four of his plays remained unperformed and have yet to premiere.

Personal life
George Kelly, a "life-long bachelor," maintained a 55-year relationship with his lover William Eldon Weagley (November 27, 1896 – October 16, 1975), the son of John Adams Weagley and Ella Frances Weagley, up until his death. Weagley was often referred to as his valet. That Kelly was gay was a closely guarded secret and went unacknowledged by his family to the point of not inviting Weagley to his funeral; he instead slipped in and sat quietly on a back seat.

Kelly died on June 18, 1974, at the Bryn Mawr Hospital in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, after several years of living in Sun City, a desert retirement village in Riverside, California.

Stage productions

 * The Torch-Bearers (1922), the basis for the 1935 motion picture Doubting Thomas and the 1939 movie Too Busy to Work
 * The Show-Off (1924), the basis for the 1926, 1934, and 1946 motion pictures of the same name and the 1930 movie Men Are Like That
 * Craig's Wife (1925), for which he won the Pulitzer Prize; the basis for the 1928 and 1936 motion pictures of the same name and the 1950 movie Harriet Craig
 * Daisy Mayme (1926)
 * Behold, the Bridegroom (1927)
 * The Flattering Word (1929)
 * Maggie the Magnificent (1929)
 * Philip Goes Forth (1931)
 * Reflected Glory (1936)
 * The Deep Mrs. Sykes (1945)
 * The Fatal Weakness (1947)

title: George Kelly (playwright)


text:
User:ESGaldy

Hello, I am ESGaldy, also known as Eddie Galdamez. I am a Salvadoran currently living in the department of Cabañas. I have lived in the United States and Japan. I am fluent in both Spanish and English. Furthermore, I am learning Japanese as my third language.

Who I am
I am a native Salvadoran living in the smallest country in the Americas. I lived most of my life in the area around Washington DC. I attended high school and college in the United States.

What I do
Writing is my hobby, I am part owner of a construction company, which takes most of my time. I like writing about topics related to El Salvador, such as Tourism, politics, life in El Salvador, and many other subjects.

My Interest
The following are some other topics that I like to wither talk about or read about.

 * Washington Redskins.
 * Washington Nationals.
 * Notre Dame University.
 * NCIS TV show.

I just finished reading an old book by Anthony Robbins, "Awaken the Ginat within."

title: User:ESGaldy


text:
Talk:Clarence Raybould

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title: Talk:Clarence Raybould


text:
Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2015 February 14

February 14
This is a list of redirects that have been proposed for deletion or other action on February 14, 2015.

List of List of weapons

 * The result of the discussion was Keep. (non-admin closure) Natg 19 (talk) 22:23, 20 February 2015 (UTC)

 * List of List of weapons → Lists of weapons (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_List_of_weapons&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

Unnecessary. JZCL 22:29, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep - would be a suitable title for a "list of lists" article (see WP:LIST) but the target already duplicates that topic. There's even a List of lists of lists. Ivanvector (talk) 22:55, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep the target is indeed a list of lists of weapons -- <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 05:54, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep per above. -- Lenticel ( talk ) 01:13, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

Important works of higher classification (insects)

 * The result of the discussion was delete. --BDD (talk) 15:51, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Important works of higher classification (insects) → Entomology (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Important_works_of_higher_classification_(insects)&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

Unnecessary. JZCL 22:28, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Looking at the links, it was mentioned at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Arthropods/Archive_2 bz User:DGG back in August 2007, who noted that " A fuller explanation and context is needed, or else integration into some existing article", but there was no further discussion. It was then moved to List of works of higher classification of insects in December 2008 by User:UnitedStatesian, creating this redirect, although it's not marked as : a bot fixed the double-redirect in April 2010 after that itself was changed from an article to a redirect (to Entomology) with this edit.
 * The only place it is used is in Timeline_of_entomology_–_1800–50, where it is in fact piped (as "important work of higher classification").
 * Considering all this, I'm inclined weakly to Delete as confusing (WP:RFD), since the target is not in fact an important work of higher classification (insects). Probably its use in the article should simply be unlinked (or the opinion presented as fact, without reference, in which it is used – "this was an important work of higher classification" – can be cut entirely). Si Trew (talk) 02:41, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete. "Important" is inherently subjective and unsourceable. UnitedStatesian (talk) 19:11, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

List of things in the Ender's Game series

 * The result of the discussion was delete. --BDD (talk) 15:52, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

 * List of things in the Ender's Game series → Ender& (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_things_in_the_Ender%27s_Game_series&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

Not worth being a redirect JZCL 21:43, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

List of things that you plant on Farmville
Relisted, see Redirects for discussion/Log/2015 February 21%23List of things that you plant on Farmville

List of things which are neither production nor consumption

 * The result of the discussion was delete. --BDD (talk) 15:48, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

 * List of things which are neither production nor consumption → Anthropological theories of value (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_things_which_are_neither_production_nor_consumption&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

Bit too much of a wordy redirect JZCL 21:41, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete - vague. Ivanvector (talk) 22:51, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete as WP:SYNTHESIS. There is a list in Anthropological theories of value, but that section is not referenced. Graeber's book Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value, is in the "Further Reading" section, but could be better referenced:
 * However, having looked through this, the list given in that section does not appear in any shape or form, and most of the entries here appear nowhere in the whole book: indeed, the phrase "meaning making" (or "meaning-making" or other likely variant) is not present in the book. ("Meaningful difference" is quoted as a gloss for "value" (p. 2 and elsewhere); Sex and marriage are discussed a lot, and makeup a bit; chapter 2, "Current Directions in Exchange Theory", and Note 27 (p. 267) comes close to a definition. So I am not convinced this is the source of that list, and it may be pure WP:SYNTHESIS: certainly looking at Talk:Anthropological theories of value, it appears so. Si Trew (talk) 08:32, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Comment. It is presumably the Owens ref that has the list. With this edit I've rearranged the article a little to put the refs inline (making a subsection Anthropological theories of value), but the Owens paper is and I still think it's WP:SYNTHESIS judging by the talk page, to which I have added Talk:Anthropological_theories_of_value referring back to here. Si Trew (talk) 08:49, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Comment. I note we do not have Anthropological theory of value, in the singular. Si Trew (talk) 08:59, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom and because there is nothing more vague than "things." — Preceding unsigned comment added by UnitedStatesian (talk • contribs) 20:22, 15 February 2015
 * thingies? Si Trew (talk) 22:37, 16 February 2015 (UTC)
 * thingies? Si Trew (talk) 22:37, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Delete vague and confusing at best. -- Lenticel ( talk ) 03:43, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

People who were born in the year 1908

 * The result of the discussion was Keep and refine target. Refining target to 1908. (non-admin closure) Natg 19 (talk) 22:19, 20 February 2015 (UTC)

 * People who were born in the year 1908 → 1908 (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People_who_were_born_in_the_year_1908&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

No other year has this redirect JZCL 21:35, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete - duplicates Category:1908 births. Ivanvector (talk) 22:51, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete, per IvanVictor. Si Trew (talk) 02:43, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep and refine target to 1908. Per WP:CLN, lists and categories should not be considered duplicated effort. We don't need to have this for any other years, but any reader searching for this term is undoubtedly looking for just such a list. Deleting this redirect does them a real disservice. --BDD (talk) 21:25, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep and refine per BDD. This is completely harmless and will be useful to some people. Thryduulf (talk) 02:26, 16 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep per BDD. That is better. Ivanvector (talk) 17:15, 17 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Keep and refine target per BDD -- Lenticel  ( talk ) 00:24, 18 February 2015 (UTC)

Other villains in Sonic the Hedgehog (games)
Relisted, see Redirects for discussion/Log/2015 February 21%23Other villains in Sonic the Hedgehog (games)

Template:Inbox Company
Relisted, see Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2015 February 21%23Template:Inbox Company

Let's eat some food

 * The result of the discussion was delete. --BDD (talk) 15:46, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Let's eat some food → Chow Chow (links · [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Let%27s_eat_some_food&action=history history] · stats)     [ Closure: [ keep]/[ delete] ]

Could someone who understands the connection between these two pages please explain it? Bossanoven (talk) 05:33, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Yes, someone who understands the connection could explain it, but the permise of the question is questionable. ~ Ningauble (talk) 15:00, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I expect that the "chow chow" part was intended to be Chow-chow (food), but that's only one part of it. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:03, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Nonsense. Retarget to eating? Probably not a likely search term, but it's not new. Definitely shouldn't target to an article on a breed of dog. Ivanvector (talk) 16:56, 14 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete as WP:RFD, "the redirect makes no sense". Also, "chow chow", as pidgin Chinese-English, is not a translation of "Let's eat some food", and even if it were, Wikipedia is not a translation dictionary or phrase book. Neither is it a guide book. Si Trew (talk) 02:47, 15 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete as confusing. Closest possible target that I got is RSVP (invitations) but this invitation to eat is very formal. This redirect also made me hungry. -- Lenticel ( talk ) 05:33, 16 February 2015 (UTC)


text:
мѣхъ

Etymology
From, from , from. Cognates include 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) fur
 * 2) leather bag
 * 3) wineskin

title: мѣхъ


text:
nondemocratic

Adjective

 * 1) Not based upon democratic principles

Translations

 * Albanian:
 * Romanian: nedemocratic
 * Russian: ,

title: nondemocratic