text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Truth and Validity

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Truth and Validity

Logic can get us from statements to further statements. So, to go back to the syllogism:

The first two statements, or claims, are called the premises, while claim below the horizontal rule is called the conclusion. In an argument, the premises are things which you hope your interlocutor has already accepted - they may be empirical observations, for example.

Notice the convention of separating the conclusion of an argument from the premises with a horizontal rule. An alternative is to use the $$\vdash$$ symbol. A, B $$\vdash$$ C means that C follows from A and B. Alternative locutions are 'A and B entail C', 'C is a consequence of A and B', 'A and B derive C'.

An argument is valid if the conclusion follows from the premises. In logic, truth is a property of statements, i.e. premises and conclusions, whereas validity is a property of the argument itself. If you talk of 'valid premises' or 'true arguments', then you are not using logical jargon correctly.

True premises and a valid argument guarantee a true conclusion. An argument which is valid and has true premises is said to be sound (adjective) or have the property of soundness (noun).

I suppose I ought to say what an argument is in this context. An argument is a progression from premises to conclusion. Each statement in the argument is either a premise, or else follows from the previous statements in the argument. So two kids shouting "'tis" and "'tisn't" at each other does not constitute an argument, neither do two teenagers swearing at each other. This book is here to help you behave like civilized adults.

Now sometimes you may see two adults pointing out facts to each other, and making inferences from those facts. We might say that these two adults are 'having an argument'. To be technical, it is a dialectic in which each side advances an argument in the sense meant here.

A mathematical argument is called a proof, and the conclusion of the argument is called a theorem. Sometimes only the really interesting conclusions are known as theorems, and the less important ones are given another name like lemma. Compare how we use the words 'lady' or 'gentleman' - these words can be reserved to refer only to people of status, or they can be used to refer to everyone.

Euclid, in The Elements, starts off with a set of premises from which he derives several volumes of conclusions, all in a rigorous manner. Such premises are known as 'axioms'. Logicians are trying to do something similar with arguments. We are reasoning about reasoning.

In arguments, mathematical or otherwise, each statement should be intuitively obvious given what has been said before - this is what is meant when we say that one statement follows from its predecessors. Logicians have tried to replace this appeal to the 'intuitively obvious' with a set of rules, called rules of inference, which form a special class of axiom. Of course the rules of inference should themselves be 'intuitively obvious' - we can't eliminate intuition completely.

So to abstract from our example about Socrates, we can write down a rule of inference:

From the premises 'all x are y' and 'a is x', we can infer 'a is y'.

So now we have a project: can reason be reduced to a small list of simple rules like this? Compare this with Euclid's project of showing that the mathematics of his day can be derived from a set of rules.

In a while we shall see how far we can get with a simple set of rules called propositional calculus. This is a very simple system, in which it is not possible even to properly express the deduction made about Socrates. But in presenting the propositional calculus I shall introduce some concepts and procedures which are useful for talking about any kind of logical calculus, in particular the predicate calculus, which I'll talk about later on.

Up: Logic Table of Contents


text:
Edificio Ex Hotel Mundial

The Edificio Ex Hotel Mundial is a former hotel building in Santiago, Chile. Located on a triangular lot, the building was commissioned by La Mundial Insurance Company and built in 1920–1923. In 1935, the building was offered for rental and operated as a hotel until 1975. It is close to the Iglesia de las Agustinas.

The building shares a similar architectural style with the building housing the Santiago Stock Exchange and the Club de la Unión, all of which are located in the same area as the Edificio Ariztía, which is bordered by the Paseo Ahumada to the east and the Alameda Avenue to the south. The main corner of the building features a cylindrical structure, which is adorned with pilasters and topped with a cupola.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edificio Ex Hotel Mundial


text:
Suicide bereavement

Suicide bereavement is the experience of those who are grieving the loss of someone to suicide. Over 800,000 individuals die by suicide every year. It was stated by Shneidman (1978) that every suicide leaves behind 6 "survivor-victims". However, new research shows that each suicide leaves behind approximately 135 who personally knew the decedent. The #not6 hashtag has been used by Cerel and colleagues to represent that suicide bereavement is many more than publicly portrayed.

Individuals experiencing suicide bereavement experience different challenges than those otherwise bereaved. Across 41 studies that examined these differences, the suicide bereaved experienced higher levels of blaming, stigma, shame and rejection. Those who lose someone to suicide may experience delays in the healing process.

Complicated grief
Complicated grief is grief whose symptoms do not decline over time. 10% to 20% of individuals survivors develop complicated grief. Individuals who develop complicated grief are likely to experience physical impairments to their daily functioning, with accompanying suffering. These symptoms persist without proper treatment, which became Complicated Grief Treatment.

Grief stages
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a Swiss-American psychiatrist, developed a model that encapsulates five stages of grief that an individual is likely to experience after a loss:. However, there is no support for people going through these stages in order or experiencing all of them.

 * 1) Denial: Can help the individual minimize the overwhelming pain of loss. This stage allows the individual to slow the processing of painful imagery, potentially reducing the pain.
 * 2) Anger: The individual adjusts to their new reality while likely experiencing extreme emotional discomfort. Anger tends to be the first feeling the individual experiences when they realize that their emotions are related to their loss.
 * 3) Bargaining: In this stage, the individual attempts to negotiate with a higher power.
 * 4) Depression: During the grieving process, bargaining has failed and the individual faces the facts of their loss. They are more likely to internalize their feelings and experience extreme sadness. They may find it difficult to reach out to others and experience isolation.
 * 5) Acceptance: In this last stage, the individual no longer resists the reality of their situation, leaving mostly sadness and regret.

Suicide risk
Compared to other bereaved, the suicide bereaved are at a higher risk of experiencing suicidal ideation. According to a 2002 study, results showed that suicide bereaved individuals were 1.6 times more likely to experience thoughts of suicide, 2.9 times more likely to have a suicide plan, and 3.7 times more likely to have made a suicide attempt. These individuals may conclude that suicide is the only viable solution to their pain. Other suicide bereaved may want to feel closer to the person they lost by ending their life the same way their loved one did.

Stigma
Despite efforts to de-stigmatize suicide, unlike other types of death, suicide remains stigmatized. Individuals who have lost their loved ones to suicide have reported difficulty with talking to others about their loss due to feeling uncomfortable talking about the topic. Additionally, certain religions reject those who have committed suicide. The suicide bereaved individuals may feel shame, making them uncomfortable sharing their loss in their religious group. Insurance policies may exclude death benefits for suicides. Survivors of suicide often experience difficulty healing due to this stigma.

Support groups
Support groups can be beneficial for the suicide bereaved, because this is a nonthreatening place where they can experience catharsis among others in a similar situation. Homogeneous support groups are typically more helpful than broader bereavement support groups. Such groups offer reassurances that feelings are acceptable. Individuals also may receive coping recommendations for holidays, talking to others and other now-difficult situations.

Support groups can be found by visiting the International Association for Suicide Bereavement (IASP) website, which is affiliated with the World Health Organization. The American Association of Suicidology (AAS) and the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (AFSP) also has a list of 400+ support groups across the United States.

Psychotherapy
Support groups on their own may not help individuals who develop a mental illness, such as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) or Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The suicide bereaved are encouraged to seek clinicians who specialize in psychotherapy and/or medication management. A combination of education, psychotherapy and medication have been shown to be the most effective treatments.

Complicated grief treatment
Complicated grief treatment (CGT) incorporates elements of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), exposure and motivational interviewing. This type of psychotherapy facilitates the essential process of accepting loss. The combination of exposure techniques with cognitive restructuring has been shown to help individuals experience life satisfaction and engage in meaningful relationships.

title: Suicide bereavement


text:
Talk:Java Programming

I was having trouble deciding on a title for this learning activity.

 * Introduction to Java
 * Introduction to Programming in Java
 * Java for Beginners
 * Basic Java

were the names that I had considered. If you believe that I picked the wrong one, I would be interested in hearing your reasoning. Dmclean 05:12, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

The name seems a tad long, how about "Introduction to Java Programming"? Zchenyu 21:58, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

 * That only saves three leters, and the way that I have it currently dove-tails nicely with the companion course Introduction to Programming Dmclean 12:44, 25 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, I'm not really counting the number of letters, just the number of words. But yes, it does work well with Introduction to Programming. Zchenyu 23:40, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Java Programming


text:
Talk:bugzilla

bugzilla
As per CFI --Keene 08:33, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Keep all, as properly tagged. --Connel MacKenzie 08:36, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Keep as above per Ruakh. DAVilla 13:50, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Keep and fix def; lots of open-source projects use BugZilla. —RuakhTALK 17:30, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:bugzilla


text:
Ikar (airline)

Ikar (Икар), legally Ikar Airlines LLC and operating as Pegas Fly from 2015 until 2022, is a Russian charter airline headquartered in Orenburg and based at Orenburg Tsentralny Airport, however operating flights from several Russian airports.

History
Initially the company, then operating under the Ikar brand, operated a fleet of Mil Mi-8 helicopters for aerial cargo operations mainly carrying bulky loads externally.

In 2015, the airline rebranded to become Pegas Fly, although the brand was changed the airlines legal name was kept as Ikar Airlines. As of 2022, the airline was forced to change to another brand name, as the rights to use Pegas Fly have been expired and cannot be renewed. Therefore since 2022, the airline uses its original name Ikar again.

Destinations
As of May 2024, the airline operates scheduled flights in three countries on 40 routes.

Ikar operates scheduled services to the following destinations:

 The airline also operates charters on behalf of Pegas Touristik to tourist destinations in Europe, Africa and Asia.

Fleet
The Ikar fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of April 2024):

Accidents and incidents

 * On 3 December 1995, a Mil Mi-8AMT (RA-25581) leased to Investkorp of Papua New Guinea - pilot error during very poor visibility led to a decrease in rotor speed up to 90 percent at an altitude of just 7 metres as the helicopter continued to descend, understandably at a greater rate. The helicopter crashed; the mechanic was seriously injured. Investigation revealed that the crew had received insufficient training and it was revealed that those involved were not previously certified to fly the Mil Mi-8AMT; their certificates had been signed in New Guinea under false pretence. It was also revealed that Ikar was only allowed to fly domestic routes and routes in the CIS, their activities in New Guinea had breached this order when they delivered RA-25518 and RA-27003 to New Guinea complete with their staff.
 * On 11 July 2012, a Mil Mi-8 helicopter was considered 'lost' sparking a scare when connection with the helicopter had failed. Searches were conducted in a forest region in Magadan where the helicopter had been patrolling a forest fire situation. Connection was broken at 3pm (local time) that day with ten firefighters and four crew-members aboard. Another Mil Mi-8 and an Antonov An-26 were dispatched to locate the helicopter which was found safely landed on the ground in the forest, apparently there were connection issues but the helicopter and crew were uninjured.

title: Ikar (airline)


text:
Category talk:Christian radio stations in Massachusetts

Contested deletion
This category should not be speedy deleted as being unpopulated, because... (your reason here) --MMessine19 (talk) 08:14, 18 August 2020 (UTC) I have added one Christian radio station


text:
User:Eastlaw/Prison discipline

Prison discipline comprises the punitive procedures and systems used in prisons to keep order and otherwise enforce desired prisoner behavior. Punishable behavior can include, for example, insolence toward staff; refusal to obey orders; possession of illegal drugs; fighting; sexual assault; and so on. Typically the offenses are divided into categories based on severity, with each category having a set of maximum punishments. A wide variety of punishments are available for those prisoners who violate the rules. The punishments can include, for example, recommending parole date rescission or retardation; forfeiture, termination, or disallowance of statutory good time, extra good time, or good conduct time; disciplinary segregation; monetary restitution; monetary fine; loss of privileges; an unfavorable change in housing quarters; removal from programs or group activities; loss of job; impoundment of personal property; confiscation of contraband; restriction to quarters; or extra duty. Prison discipline is regulated by law in most countries. For example, the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners promulgated by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe provides "Discipline and order shall be maintained in the interest of safe custody and well-ordered community life"; prohibits collective punishment and the use of prisoners to administer discipline to other prisoners; requires that punishable offenses, their punishments and the authorities competent to impose punishment be established by law or regulation; bans corporal punishment and the use of handcuffs and other restraints as punishment; and provides due process guarantees such as the right to be informed of the charge and present a defense.

title: User:Eastlaw/Prison discipline


text:
Conart/Music/Tuning

Getting rid of some preconceptions
Shocking as it might seem to some people, the twelve tones you find in an octave on the piano don't actually reflect anything but an approximation of a certain selection of tones, that for some reason during the last 300 years became the backbone of western music.

There is nothing inherently natural about the 12 tone system, and it is a mistake to think that music only can be made in it, or using parts of it (like major and minor scales, or pentatonic scales). In fact, a culture won't develop the 'intonation' that we use until it has figured out quite a bit about how frequencies work, and a certain bit of math. The Chinese are as far as I know the only culture out of Europe to have developed the same scale, and they did it way before us, but didn't use it as extensively. I will explain why, eventually.

In the world, there are several different systems with all kinds of foreign tunings: Indian and Arabic which come quite close to having an additional step between our semitones, Thai which comes quite close to having seven equal steps to the octave, Balinese scales, which have somewhat unequal steps with a twist. But more on those, and the whys and hows of them.

If you want to write songs for your conculture, yet maintain a certain depth and uniqueness, copying the western system may not be a good idea. If you must use our scale, then it's possible to use chords in unusual ways or even constructing unusual chords.

If you are interested in a truly strange scale, take a look at this site which describes the Bohlen Pierce 13 note scale, which is very different from any scale attested in any culture.

title: Conart/Music/Tuning


text:
Talk:Brad Galli

Deletion for Lack of Notability
This person does not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines or adhere to all the guidelines for Biography articles of living persons.<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 06:02, 31 January 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Brad Galli. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131110193334/http://www.wxyz.com/dpp/sports/brad-galli-joins-wxyz-sports-team to http://www.wxyz.com/dpp/sports/brad-galli-joins-wxyz-sports-team
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130124184335/http://mutvsports.com/ to http://mutvsports.com/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130906191026/http://marquettetribune.org/2011/04/07/sports/chris-broussard-axthelm-lecture/ to https://marquettetribune.org/2011/04/07/sports/chris-broussard-axthelm-lecture/

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:02, 24 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Brad Galli


text:
User:JWSchmidt/Blog/20 January 2007

I worked on converting two more portals to the editable box format: Portal:Education and Portal:Physical Sciences.

Courses
From the perspective of "learning projects", conventional courses are are an important type of "learning project" and one that Wikiversity participants should be concerned about. I think the Board of Trustees wanted the Wikiversity community to not give conventional courses a high priority right at the launch of the Wikiversity project. That said, any Wikipedia participants who really do want to develop a conventional course should do so. My guess is that in most cases the best way to develop a conventional course at Wikiversity is to start some wiki editing projects that aim to develop the course. We can always launch a "course" in the form of a discussion group and a search for good sources of information about the topic. If we attract participants who are interested in the topic, they will work to accumulate the learning resources that are needed to explore the topic. With a bit of time it will probably be possible to run a conventional course using the assembled resources. However, I suspect that Wikiversity will also have created a new and innovative online learning environment for the topic that will be superior to conventional courses. If so, most Wikiversity participants will no longer be interested in conventional courses.

See: Portal:Wiki Scholar and User:JWSchmidt/Wiki Scholar.

title: User:JWSchmidt/Blog/20 January 2007


text:
Strayer Voigt Inc

Strayer-Voigt, Inc. (also known as SVI) is a manufacturer of M1911-styled modular pistols. The Strayer-Voigt system is called modular because the lower grip and trigger guard, which is made of carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium or aluminum, is a separate component from the metal upper portion of the frame that comprises the dust cover and frame rails. They are the most famous for their Hybrid series of pistols as well as their IMM Open division pistols made for competitions. SVI markets its products under the brand name Infinity Firearms. The Infinity pistols are sometimes unofficially known by the combined name of Strayer-Voigt Infinity among some enthusiasts, a play on the SVI acronym.

History
Strayer-Voigt, Inc. was started in June 1994 when Sandy Strayer left STI International Inc to form his own company. Sandy Strayer joined forces with Michael Voigt, a professional shooter and gunsmith, to manufacture and market their own line of modular frame 1911s.

The new age of 1911s
The original polymer grip was formerly a shared patent design between Strayer-Voigt and STI International Inc. It offers a modular version of the M1911 design optimized for competition use. By making the lower half of the frame from thin polymer, the gun can make use of double-stack magazines without a significant increase in grip thickness (current production utilizes various metals for the grip). SVI and STI pistols generally hold approximately twice as many rounds of ammunition per magazine as traditional 1911s (i.e., 14 rounds of .45 ACP instead of 7 rounds). SVI Infinity pistols currently rank among the most popular - and most expensive - competition 1911 pistols made. Complete SVI handguns start at $4,200 (as of 2019) plus the cost of any customizations. They are produced in a variety of calibers, including .38 Super, 9x23mm Winchester, .40 S&W, .45 ACP, 10mm Auto, and .357 Sig. SVI Infinity pistols make exclusive use of Infinity Accuracy Enhanced pistol barrels. The barrels and all major components are manufactured in-house from billet barstock. Heat treatment and cryogenic treatments are also done in-house. SVI also now uses slides with interchangeable breech faces, which makes caliber changes cheaper for customers wanting to shoot several different calibers in the same weapon. SVI provides accuracy certificates with their pistols which feature the accuracy enhanced barrels that produce groups smaller than 40 mm at 50 m (0.8 mrad) or 1.5 in at 50 yd (3 MOA), which is remarkable accuracy for a pistol.

title: Strayer Voigt Inc


text:
User:Realdavem

Science
774–775_carbon-14_spike

Anthropic_principle

Ball_lightning

Black_swan_theory

Fermi_paradox

Interstellar_travel

Red_Queen_hypothesis

Tabby%27s_Star

Wave

Wow!_signal

Writing / Style
The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style

List_of_fallacies

Manual of Style

Geek Stuff
Arbitrary_code_execution

ClamTk

Percent-encoding

Psychology
Autism_spectrum

Barnum_effect

Bipolar_disorder

Cognitive_bias

Cognitive_dissonance

Cognitive_therapy

Chicago_school_(sociology)

Dunning–Kruger_effect

Enshittification

Folie_à_deux

Imposter_syndrome

Metaphysical_solipsism

Normalcy_bias

Personality_disorder

→Schizoid_personality_disorder

→Avoidant_personality_disorder

Peter_principle

Poe%27s_law

Zero-sum_game

Zero-sum_thinking

History
Late_Bronze_Age_collapse, Sea_Peoples, Greek_Dark_Ages

Most_recent_common_ancestor

Toba_catastrophe_theory

Yellow_journalism

Historical People
Attila

Genghis_Khan

Peter_Stumpp

Sawney_Bean

Lists
List_of_kidnappings

List_of_people_who_disappeared_mysteriously_at_sea

Lists_of_people_who_disappeared

List_of_solved_missing_person_cases List_of_unsolved_deaths

Unidentified_decedent

True Crime
Andrei_Chikatilo

Andrew_Irvine_(mountaineer)

Annecy_shootings

Boy_in_the_Box_(Philadelphia)

Cleveland_Torso_Murderer

Death_of_Ben_Zygier

Death_of_LaVena_Johnson

Deaths_of_Kris_Kremers_and_Lisanne_Froon

Highway_of_Tears

Hinterkaifeck_murders

La_Voisin

List_of_unidentified_murder_victims_in_the_United_States

Lizzie_Borden

Long_Island_serial_killer

Murder_of_Jacob_Wetterling

Neal_Falls

New_Bedford_Highway_Killer

Tamam_Shud_case

Tommy_Lynn_Sells

Villisca_axe_murders

West_Mesa_murders

Who_put_Bella_in_the_Wych_Elm%3F

Disappearance_of_Amy_Lynn_Bradley

Disappearance_of_Andrew_Gosden

Disappearance of Asha Degree

Disappearance_of_Brandon_Lawson

Disappearance_of_Brandon_Swanson

Disappearance_of_Brian_Shaffer

Disappearance_of_George_Smith

Disappearance_of_Jennifer_Kesse

Disappearance_of_Lars_Mittank

Disappearance_of_Madeleine_McCann

Disappearance_of_Mekayla_Bali

Disappearance_of_Maura_Murray

Disappearance_of_Rebecca_Coriam

Disappearance_of_Tara_Calico

Disappearance_of_the_Beaumont_children

Disappearance_of_Timmothy_Pitzen

Disappearance_of_William_Tyrrell

Conspiracy
American_Heart_Association

Dog_whistle_(politics)

Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory

title: User:Realdavem


text:
LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 202/Detailed Objectives

The following material is directly from the Linux Professional Institute at Objectives 202 reprinted with their permission. Note that their inclusion in this book in no way signifies endorsement on the part of LPI.

This is a required exam for LPI certification Level 2. It covers advanced system administration skills that are common across all distributions of Linux.

Each objective is assigned a weighting value. The weights range roughly from 1 to 10, and indicate the relative importance of each objective. Objectives with higher weights will be covered in the exam with more questions.

2.205.1 Basic networking configuration

 * Weight: 5

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure a network device to be able to connect to a local network and a wide-area network. This objective includes being able to communicate between various subnets within a single network, configure dialup access using mgetty, configure dialup access using a modem or ISDN, configure authentication protocols such as PAP and CHAP, and configure TCP/IP logging.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

/sbin/route /sbin/ifconfig /sbin/arp /usr/sbin/arpwatch /etc/

2.205.2 Advanced Network Configuration and Troubleshooting
Modified: 2001-August-24 Maintainer: Kara Pritchard Weight: 3

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure a network device to implement various network authentication schemes. This objective includes configuring a multi-homed network device, configuring a virtual private network and resolving networking and communication problems.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

/sbin/route /sbin/route /sbin/ifconfig /bin/netstat /bin/ping /sbin/arp /usr/sbin/tcpdump /usr/sbin/lsof /usr/bin/nc

2.206.1 Configuring mailing lists

 * Weight: 1

Description: ''Install and maintain mailing lists using majordomo. Monitor majordomo problems by viewing majordomo logs.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

Majordomo2

2.206.2 Using Sendmail

 * Weight: 4

Description: ''Candidates should be able to manage a Sendmail configuration including email aliases, mail quotas, and virtual mail domains. This objective includes configuring internal mail relays and monitoring SMTP servers.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

/etc/aliases sendmail.cw virtusertable genericstable

2.206.3 Managing Mail Traffic

 * Weight: 3

Description: ''Candidates should be able to implement client mail management software to filter, sort, and monitor incoming user mail. This objective includes using software such as procmail on both server and client side.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

procmail

2.206.4 Serving news

 * Weight: 1

Description: ''Candidates should be able to install and configure news servers using inn. This objective includes customizing and monitoring served newsgroups.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

innd

2.207.1 Basic BIND 8 configuration

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure BIND to function as a caching-only DNS server. This objective includes the ability to convert a BIND 4.9 named.boot file to the BIND 8.x named.conf format, and reload the DNS by using kill or ndc. This objective also includes configuring logging and options such as directory location for zone files.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

/etc/named.conf /usr/sbin/ndc /usr/sbin/named-bootconf kill

2.207.2 Create and maintain DNS zones

 * Weight: 3

Description: ''The candidate should be able to create a zone file for a forward or reverse zone or root level server. This objective includes setting appropriate values for the SOA resource record, NS records, and MX records. Also included is adding hosts with A resource records and CNAME records as appropriate, adding hosts to reverse zones with PTR records, and adding the zone to the /etc/named.conf file using the zone statement with appropriate type, file and masters values. A candidate should also be able to delegate a zone to another DNS server.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

contents of /var/named zone file syntax resource record formats dig nslookup host

2.207.3 Securing a DNS server

 * Weight: 3

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure BIND to run as a non-root user, and configure BIND to run in a chroot jail. This objective includes configuring DNSSEC statements such as key and trusted-keys to prevent domain spoofing. Also included is the ability to configure a split DNS configuration using the forwarders statement, and specifying a non-standard version number string in response to queries.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

SysV init files or rc.local /etc/named.conf /etc/passwd dnskeygen

2.208.1 Implementing a web server

 * Weight: 3

Description: ''Candidates should be able to install and configure a web server. This objective includes monitoring the server's load and performance, restricting client user access, configuring support for scripting languages as modules and setting up client user authentication. Also included is configuring server options to restrict usage of resources.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

access logs and error logs .htaccess httpd.conf mod_auth htpasswd htgroup apache2ctl httpd

2.208.2 Maintaining a web server

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''Candidates should be able to configure Apache to use virtual hosts for websites without dedicated IP addresses. This objective also includes creating an SSL certification for Apache and defining SSL definitions in configuration files using OpenSSL. Also included is customizing file access by implementing redirect statements in Apache's configuration files.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

httpd.conf

2.208.3 Implementing a proxy server

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''Candidates should be able to install and configure a proxy server using Squid. This objective includes implementing access policies, setting up authentication, and utilizing memory usage.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

squid.conf acl http_access

2.210.1 DHCP configuration

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure a DHCP server and set default options, create a subnet, and create a dynamically-allocated range. This objective includes adding a static host, setting options for a single host, and adding bootp hosts. Also included is to configure a DHCP relay agent, and reload the DHCP server after making changes.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

dhcpd.conf dhcpd.leases

2.210.2 NIS configuration

 * Weight: 1

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure an NIS server and create NIS maps for major configuration files. This objective includes configuring a system as a NIS client, setting up an NIS slave server, and configuring ability to search local files, DNS, NIS, etc. in nsswitch.conf.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

nisupdate, ypbind, ypcat, ypmatch, ypserv, ypswitch, yppasswd, yppoll, yppush, ypwhich, rpcinfo nis.conf, nsswitch.conf, ypserv.conf Contents of /etc/nis/: netgroup, nicknames, securenets Makefile

2.210.3 LDAP client usage

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure an LDAP server. This objective includes configuring a directory hierarchy, adding group, hosts, services and other data to the hierarchy. Also included is importing items from LDIF files and add items with a management tool, as well as adding users to the directory and change their passwords.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

slapd slapd.conf

2.210.4 PAM authentication

 * Weight: 2

Description: The candidate should be able to configure PAM to support authentication via traditional /etc/passwd, shadow passwords, NIS, or LDAP.

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

/etc/pam.d pam.conf

2.212.2 Configuring a router

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure ipchains and iptables to perform IP masquerading, and state the significance of Network Address Translation and Private Network Addresses in protecting a network. This objective includes configuring port redirection, listing filtering rules, and writing rules that accept or block datagrams based upon source or destination protocol, port and address. Also included is saving and reloading filtering configurations, using settings in /proc/sys/net/ipv4 to respond to DOS attacks, using /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward to turn IP forwarding on and off, and usingtools such as PortSentry to block port scans and vulnerability probes.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

/proc/sys/net/ipv4 /etc/services ipchains iptables routed

2.212.3 Securing FTP servers

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure an anonymous download FTP server. This objective includes configuring an FTP server to allow anonymous uploads, listing additional precautions to be taken if anonymous uploads are permitted, configuring guest users and groups with chroot jail, and configuring ftpaccess to deny access to named users or groups.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

ftpaccess, ftpusers, ftpgroups /etc/passwd chroot

2.212.4 Secure shell (OpenSSH)

 * Weight: 2

Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure sshd to allow or deny root logins, enable or disable X forwarding. This objective includes generating server keys, generating a user's public/private key pair, adding a public key to a user's authorized_keys file, and configuring ssh-agent for all users. Candidates should also be able to configure port forwarding to tunnel an application protocol over ssh, configure ssh to support the ssh protocol versions 1 and 2, disable non-root logins during system maintenance, configure trusted clients for ssh logins without a password, and make multiple connections from multiple hosts to guard against loss of connection to remote host following configuration changes.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

ssh, sshd /etc/ssh/sshd_config ~/.ssh/identity.pub, ~/.ssh/identity ~/.ssh/authorized_keys .shosts, .rhosts, generate ssh keys

2.212.5 TCP_wrappers

 * Weight: 1

Description: The candidate should be able to configure tcpwrappers to allow connections to specified servers from only certain hosts or subnets.

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

inetd.conf, tcpd hosts.allow, hosts.deny xinetd

2.212.6 Security tasks

 * Weight: 3

Description: ''The candidate should be able to install and configure kerberos and perform basic security auditing of source code. This objective includes arranging to receive security alerts from Bugtraq, CERT, CIAC or other sources, being able to test for open mail relays and anonymous FTP servers, installing and configuring an intrusion detection system such as snort or Tripwire. Candidates should also be able to update the IDS configuration as new vulnerabilities are discovered and apply security patches and bugfixes.''

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

Tripwire telnet nmap

2.214.7 Troubleshooting network issues

 * Weight: 1

Description: The candidate should be able to identify and correct common network setup issues to include knowledge of locations for basic configuration files and commands.

Key files, terms, and <tt>utilities</tt> include:

/sbin/ifconfig /sbin/route /bin/netstat /etc/network || /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ system log files such as /var/log/syslog && /var/log/messages /bin/ping /etc/resolv.conf /etc/hosts /etc/hosts.allow && /etc/hosts.deny /etc/hostname || /etc/HOSTNAME /sbin/hostname /usr/sbin/traceroute /usr/bin/nslookup /usr/bin/dig /bin/dmesg host

Objectifs_détaillés_(LPIC201)


text:
guarigione

Etymology
Derived from, on the example of 🇨🇬. Cognate with 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) recovery
 * 2)  healing
 * 3)  cessation (of something negative)
 * 4)  salvation
 * 5)  defense, protection
 * 1)  salvation
 * 2)  defense, protection

title: guarigione


text:
List of protected heritage sites in Nivelles

This table shows an overview of the protected heritage sites in the Walloon town Nijvel, or Nivelles. This list is part of Belgium's national heritage.

 * }


text:
Introduction to Philosophical Logic/Complex sentences and sentence functors

The reductio ad absurdum method can be extended to complex sentences. A complex sentence is a sentence made up of smaller sentences, for example "Sarah can swim but she cannot dive" is made up of the declarative sentences "Sarah can swim" and "She cannot dive", linked by the conjunction "but". Such words and phrases that link other declarative sentences are sentence functors. A functor is the part of a language that stands for a function. For instance "y=sin(x)" is a statement (in a particular mathematical notation) about the function sine and "sin" is the functor that stands for this function in that statement. Function is not defined here. If you are unsure of its meaning, please refer to Wikipedia.

A 'sentence function' takes declarative sentences as input and yields declarative sentences as output. Sentence functors stand for such functions. A sentence functor is then a string of words and sentence variables that becomes a declarative sentence if each sentence variable is replaced by a declarative sentence (here "string" just means a series of symbols). This is true for English, French, Spanish, German, Greek, Latin and so on, but all words and declarative sentences must be in the same language.

The composition of sentences
Sentences comprise parts known as constituents. A constituent will be defined as a string of symbols that is meaningful by itself. This definition may be regarded as slightly empty and the meaning of constituent is probably best understood intuitively and by example. The following are constituents of the sentence "The cat sat on the mat":

the

cat

the cat

sat on the mat

on the mat

the cat sat on the mat

All of the above are meaningful in themselves. Words are meaningful by themselves and so all individual words are constituents of any sentence that contains them (words can be considered atomic parts of language, that is they cannot be broken down further into other constituents - inflections, prefixes and suffixes are ignored here). The meaning of each constituent shown is the same as its meaning as a part of the sentence. The meaning of the constituent must be the same as it meaning in the sentence of which it is part, otherwise (although a string identical to the constituent may appear in the sentence) it is not a constituent of the sentence. For example, consider the sentence "the man who wrote on the blackboard was old".

The string "the blackboard was old" is meaningful, however its meaning is no part of the sentence above, which is asserting that the man, not the blackboard, was old. Hence, "the blackboard was old" is not a constituent of that sentence. Similarly, and perhaps less clearly, "the man" is not a constituent of the sentence. The meaning of "the man" is not the meaning conveyed in the sentence. Were "the man" to be a constituent, it would suggest that a particular man had already been identified. However, this is not the case since the restriction "who wrote on the blackboard" is needed. So, "the man" is not a constituent, but "the man who wrote on the blackboard" is.

Ambiguity
An ambiguous sentence is one that has more than one meaning. Crudely speaking, there are two types of ambiguity: structural and lexical. A lexical ambiguity arises where one word (or perhaps a phrase) has more than one meaning; for example "fast" in the sentences "He drove very fast" and "He was fast asleep". A structural ambiguity arises in a constituent because it is unclear what that constituent's constituents are. To clarify this, the notion of scope is introduced.

The scope of a constituent is defined as the smallest constituent containing that constituent and something else besides. So, in the above example, the scope of "blackboard" is "the blackboard"; the scope of the first "the" is "the man who wrote on the blackboard".

Consider the sentence "He told me to be careful this evening". Was this warning discussed in this sentence issued this evening or was it about this evening? It is unclear exactly what the constituents of this sentence are: it is unclear what the scope of "this evening" is. Is the scope of "this evening" "to be careful this evening", or is it the whole sentence "He told me to be careful this evening"? It can be seen that a new language might be devised to clear up such ambiguities: "He told me [to be careful this evening]"; "[He told me to be careful this evening]". Propositional calculus is an entirely unambiguous language, using a bracketing system as shown here. This will be seen in the next part of the book.

Sentence functors
To repeat the definition given earlier, sentence functors are strings of words and sentence variables such that if all the sentence variables are replaced by any declarative sentences, the whole becomes a declarative sentence. To fully understand this definition, it is necessary to know what a sentence variable is. A sentence variable is something (usually represented by the Greek letters psi, phi or chi) that can be assigned as its value any declarative sentence.

One example of a sentence functor was discussed in the section on consistency: it is not the case that phi

Other examples of a sentence functors are:

phi and psi I know that phi It is obvious that phi Either phi, or psi and chi

The following are not English sentence functors (consider whether the string obtained by replacing the sentence variable with a declarative sentence is in itself a declarative sentence):

Mary and phi Is it true that phi? phi is true		(but "phi" is true is a sentence functor) Whomever phi should stand up for themselves

The last example forms a declarative sentence when phi is replaced by some declarative sentences (for example, if replaced with "Jack is bullying"), but not all (e.g. "the sky is blue"), so it is not a sentence functor.

The number of places of a sentence functor is the number of different sentence variables it contains.

Either phi, or psi and chi is a 3-place sentence functor. Either phi or psi is a 2-place sentence functor. Either it is the case that psi or it is not the case that psi is a 1-place sentence functor.

An n-place sentence functor is satisfied by certain ordered n-tuplets of declarative sentences. An ordered n-tuplet of declarative sentences is a list of n different declarative sentences in a particular order. In particular, those ordered n-tuplets of declarative sentences that satisfy an n-place sentence functor yield a true declarative sentence when they, in order, replace the sentence variables of a sentence functor.

The ordered pair (grass is green, snow is black) satisfies it is the case that phi, but not that psi; whereas the ordered pair (snow is black, grass is green) does not.

A sentence is a sentence functor with no sentence variables, i.e. a sentence is a 0-place sentence functor.

Truth tables
When determining what sentences satisfy what sentence functors, the logician is interested in their truth value (rather than the actual meaning or sense). This information can be summarised in the form of a truth table.

A truth table stipulates all combinations of truth for a given set of sentences and what the truth value of a sentence functor is for each combination.

Consider the sentence functor phi and psi. The truth table for this sentence functor is drawn up as follows:

Notice that the letters P and Q are used rather than phi and psi. Sentence variables cannot bear truth values. P and Q instantiate actual sentences, the truth values of which are considered below these letters in the table: 'T' stands for when that sentence is true and 'F' stands for when it is false. Note also that "P and Q" is a sentence, not a 2-place sentence functor (sentence functors with at least one sentence variable cannot bear truth values). To know what the value of the declarative sentence yielded by replacing the sentence variables of the sentence functor with sentences of various truth values, the row (known as a structure) containing the desired truth values is selected and the letter in that row below the complex sentence taken.

In the above example, the sentence "P and Q" is true when P is true and Q is true but false for any other values of P and Q (so when P is true but Q is false, "P and Q" is false).

Consider the truth table of the sentence functor Hume knew that phi.

The structure where P is false is false for "Hume knew that P", for it is not possible to know something that is false. However, the structure where P is true has the symbol "-" in it (this will be referred to as a blank). This symbol does not mean that the sentence is neither true nor false in this structure. It means that there are true sentences that satisfy this functor and there are sentences that do not satisfy this functor. For example, Hume knew that his (Hume's) first name was David. However, he did not know that Russell was (or rather would be from Hume's perspective) a 20th century philosopher.


text:
Hund (card game)

Hund is a card game, which is especially common in Silesia but not well known in Germany. It is played between four players using a standard French pack of 52 cards (from 2 to Ace minus the Jokers). The aim of the game is to get rid of all one's cards as quickly as possible to one's opponents. The game has no winner, only a loser: when one player has all the cards in hand, that player loses the game and is known as the "dog" (Hund) hence the name of the game.

The feature of each player having an individual trump suit means that it is related to games like Bauernheinrich, Calypso, Dudák and Svoi Kozyri.

Rules

 * The aim of the game is to be the first to discard all cards.
 * The player who has all the cards in his hand at the end of the game is the loser.
 * The player with the 2 must start by playing it out.
 * The following player must play two cards: one of higher value or, if he does not have it, take the cards and then a second card of his choice.
 * Until the Q is played, a 'higher card' is a card of a higher rank in the same suit . Suit must always be followed or the pile must be picked up.
 * Cards are played in turn in this way until one player has to pick up the pile, after which the next player plays one card.
 * Once the Q is played, this player has Clubs as his trump suit, and the remaining three players, Spades, Hearts and Diamonds, in clockwise order. So it is a major tactical advantage to hold the Q.
 * From this point on, a card of a player's personal trump suit beats a card of any other suit, but not a higher card of the same suit.
 * The game continues until a player has all cards in his hand, or it is foreseeable that a player will be forced to lose.
 * A player who loses three times in a row is the "dog".

Playing
All the cards are dealt to the four players, who then sort their hand cards by suit and rank (from 2 to Ace). The player with the 2 starts. He must play this card.

The next player must play a higher card or take the card into his hand. He is also allowed to voluntarily take the cards on the table. If he could or wanted to trump the 2 of Clubs, he plays a card of his choice. This can also be of a suit other than Clubs. If he had to or wanted to take the card, it is the turn of the next player to play a card of his choice. Cards are played consecutively onto a pile until a player picks it up. Once a player has picked up the pile, the next player plays only one card and the following player plays two cards as described above.

This is repeated until a player plays the Q. From this point on, all players also have a "trump suit" which beats all other suits. Clockwise, these are: Clubs for the player with the Q, Spades, Hearts and Diamonds. Now the player with Diamonds as his trump card can trump e.g. a Heart King with a Diamond 2, but not a Diamond King with a lower Diamond card.

The game allows the player many tactical options. This begins with the choice of the cards to be played, through the attempt to find out who has the Q in the first part of the game (this player will try to get as many Clubs as possible into his hand and thus also take piles which he does not necessarily have to take or deliberately does not take), to the choice of which piles of cards to take voluntarily or not.

Tactics
Hund requires tactical skill and a good memory. A good memory is important in working out which player has which important cards. Tactical skill is needed to turn this knowledge into favourable moves.

In a normal move, two cards are played. The first is a defensive card; it must be used to prevent having to pick up the cards on the table. Here you must be careful not to play too high a defensive card and to keep your own trump suit (if known) in your hand. At the same time you should avoid giving high cards of your trump suit to other players, especially with small piles. So it is generally as high as necessary, but low as possible.

The second card to play is the offensive card. This serves either to force the next player to pick up the pile, or force him to play a high card as a defensive card. This card can also be used to get rid of a low card. Especially with small piles, this option is often used. Only after a certain number of cards are in the pile is it worth playing high attack cards.

The ability to pick up the pile voluntarily allows players to acquire useful cards in their hands. Here you always have to balance the use of the good cards against the damage caused by unwanted cards in the pile. In general, it is worth taking a pile if it contains more cards of your trump suit than cards of a different suit.

Literature

 * Arnold, Peter (1995). The Book of Card Games. Barnes & Noble, USA

title: Hund (card game)


text:
Gedzhukh

Gedzhukh (Геджух; Ҝеҹух, Gecux; Dargwa: КӀечӀух) is a rural locality (a selo) in Derbentsky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. The Village population was 6,829 as of 2010. The village has an Azerbaijani-majority. There are 41 streets.

Geography
Gedzhukh is located 24 km northwest of Derbent (the district's administrative centre) by road. Kala and Mamedkala are the nearest rural localities.

title: Gedzhukh


text:
Cookbook:Meat

 * Basic foodstuffs

Meat refers most broadly to the muscle tissue of animals, and usually to mammals and birds. It is considered culinarily distinct from seafood.

Characteristics
Meat consists primarily of water, protein, and fat. The bulk of the meat structure is made up of groups of muscle fibers arranged in bundles, and these fibers coagulate during cooking. Distributed among the muscle fibers are fatty and connective tissues. Fat in meat carries a large amount of flavor, and it contributes tenderness and juiciness. Connective tissue is tough and is greater in older animals and more highly-exercised muscles, and it consists of collagen and elastin. Collagen can be broken down during cooking, while elastin must be either removed or broken down by grinding, cutting, and/or pounding.

Red meat
Red meat is frequently defined as meat that is red when raw and dark when cooked, although it can also be defined as meat that has a relatively high myoglobin content. It always includes meats like beef, bison, mutton/lamb, and venison. Pork is sometimes considered red meat and sometimes not. Red meat can feature marbling, which is where fat is distributed within the meat, and high marbling is usually very prized.

Poultry
Poultry meat is primarily divided into light and dark meat. The light meat contains less fat and connective tissue, while dark meat contains more. As a consequence, light meat generally cooks faster than dark. Chickens and other birds that don't fly very much tend to have light breast and wing meat with dark leg meat. On the other hand, duck, goose, and squab are all dark meat.

Game

 * Wild sheep and goat, antelope, springbok, 'bush meat', gnu, water buffalo, zebra, venison, rabbit, squirrel
 * Snipe, woodcock, pigeon, squab, guineafowl, partridge, grouse ptarmigan, widgeon, wild duck and goose

Other meats

 * Alligator, frog, lizard, snake, snail, insects, whale, dog, iguana

Organ meat
Organ meats can include liver, sweetbreads, brains, kidney, heart, tongue, gizzard, and tripe. In general, organ meats are highly perishable and must be cooked soon after purchasing. Those made of muscle tend to be tough, while glandular non-muscular meats are tender and easily overcooked.

Aging
After slaughter, most meat is tough from rigor mortis and is called green meat. Over time, the meat softens and develops more in flavor, and for certain meats this process can be carefully extended in a process called aging. In dry aging, the meat is stored in a cool dry environment with high air circulation to prevent spoiling. Usually only beef and lamb are significantly aged.

Storage and handling
Raw meat is highly perishable, and care must be taken to protect it from spoilage. In the refrigerator, meat should optimally be stored in a way that promotes air circulation, although the surfaces should still be covered to prevent drying. In general, meat stored this way only keeps for up to several days, and ground meat has a lower shelf life due to the increased surface area.

Freezing meat will significantly prolong its shelf life by preventing the growth of mold and bacteria.

There are three ways to defrost meat: in the refrigerator, in cold water, and in the microwave. Never defrost on the counter or in other locations. It's best to plan ahead for slow, safe thawing in the refrigerator. To defrost in cold water, do not remove packaging. Be sure the package is airtight or put it into a leakproof bag. Submerge the package in cold water, changing the water every 30 minutes so it continues to thaw.

When microwave defrosting meat, plan to cook it immediately after thawing because some areas of the food may become warm and begin to cook during microwaving. Holding partially cooked food is not recommended because any bacteria present wouldn't have been destroyed.

Foods defrosted in the microwave or by the cold water method should be cooked before refreezing because they may potentially have been held at temperatures above 40 °F allowing harmful bacteria to grow.

Put packages of raw bison in disposable plastic bags (if available) to contain any leakage which could cross contaminate cooked foods or produce. Take packaged bison home immediately and refrigerate at 40°F; use within 3 to 5 days, or freeze. If kept frozen continuously, it will be safe indefinitely.

Cooking
Cooking meat causes proteins to coagulate, fat to render, and connective tissue to break down. The longer the cooking, the more the connective tissue breaks down; however eventually the protein coagulation will squeeze out too much water and cause the meat to become dry and stringy. As a result, different kinds and cuts of meat should be cooked in the way best suited to their particular characteristics.

Doneness
Doneness refers to the degree of cooking meat has attained. The most accurate way to evaluate doneness uses a thermometer, but this is not always possible when cooking smaller or thinner cuts of meat. When using a thermometer is not possible, sight and touch can be used to check doneness for smaller cuts of meat. In smaller birds, the doneness can also be assessed by checking on the looseness of the joints and how the meat pulls away from the bone. The following table notes common characteristics of various stages of doneness: Beef can be cooked anywhere from very rare to well done. Pork and most poultry are generally cooked until well-done. Tender cuts of meat and cuts low in fat can quickly become overdone and dry out, which will make them dry and stringy.

Note that the temperature of meat will continue increasing for a short period after it is removed from the heat, and this should be taken into account when aiming for a specific level of doneness.

Dry heat cooking
Dry heat cooking methods like grilling, frying, and broiling are most suitable for tender cuts of meat. Smaller sizes are usually best, the cuts should be evenly thick all over, and most extra connective tissue and fat should be removed.

Roasting meat is different from the other types of dry heat cooking in that it often involves larger pieces of meat, lower heat, and longer cooking time. Ideally the heat is only raised at the end of the cooking period to brown the surface. Having a layer of fat at the surface helps keep the roasting meat moist.

Tougher meats may be seared before moist cooking in order to develop flavor from the browning. A common myth is that searing meat closes pores and "seals in" juices, but this is not the case.

Moist heat cooking
Steaming and poaching are moist heat cooking methods that should be used for small, tender pieces of meat.

Stewing and braising are excellent methods for tough pieces of meat, as the low-and-slow cooking breaks down connective tissue into gelatin. This method also produces very flavorful food, as tougher meat is usually higher in flavor and any released juices become part of the sauce. Do not cut the meat into too-small pieces, as this can cause them to dry out. Tender meats can also be braised, but it should be at a lower temperature and for less time. Never cook meat above a simmer. Boiling should be avoided to prevent overcooking.

Safety
When an animal is butchered, many meats can become infected with various bacteria, such as Staphylococcus, Campylobacter jejuni, and E. coli O157:H7. This can occur because the intestines can be accidentally cut into, releasing contaminated fecal matter, and butcher's knives can bacome contaminated. Infection chances are greatly reduced by thorough cooking.

Index
For a complete list of all meat and poultry ingredient pages available on the Cookbook, please see Category:Meats, or browse below.

title: Cookbook:Meat


text:
Sundanese script (disambiguation)

Sundanese script which is used as standard while writing in Sudanese.

Sundanese script may also refer to:

 * Old Sundanese script, which was used 14th–18th century
 * Sundanese script, which is standardized sundanese script that derives from Old Sundanese script
 * Sundanese-modified Javanese script, also known as cacarakan, which was used from 19th century

title: Sundanese script (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:MusicIP Mixer

Wikiproject Computing
I have removed the WikiProject tag, as this article is either a redirect or deleted. If you oppose, please restore the tag. Thank you, fahadsadah (talk,contribs) 15:53, 30 March 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:MusicIP Mixer


text:
User:Vikitheaustrian

Hello, I study film and have no idea why. I like animals and taking naps, my ringtone is Electric Feel by MGMT.

title: User:Vikitheaustrian


text:
Kaluga Queen

Kaluga Queen is a Chinese brand of caviar made by the caviar company Hangzhou Qiandaohu Xunlong Sci-Tech Co., Ltd. The company produces 60 tonnes of caviar annually, making it the largest producer of caviar in the world and responsible for 60% of world production. Kaluga Queen supplies caviar for 21 of the 26 3-starred Michelin restaurants in Paris.

History
Kaluga Queen was founded in 2003 by Hangzhou Qiandaohu Xunlong Sci-Tech Co., Ltd., a caviar company affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. The caviar processing facility was constructed in 2004 and the Kaluga Queen brand created in the following year.

Several years after the founding of the company, CITES imposed a severe curtailment of wild caviar from the Caspian Sea region, creating an opportunity for caviar farming startups to take market share from the traditional caviar powers of Russia and Iran.

Production
The sturgeon are farmed at Qiandao Lake, a man-made lake surrounded by little in the way of industry. There are about 50,000 sturgeon maturing at the farm. At age 6 when the sex of the sturgeon becomes apparent, the males are separated from females for immediate processing while the females continue to be nurtured in pens.

The mature sturgeon are shipped in water-filled trucks from the lake to a processing facility in Quzhou. At the facility the sturgeon's eggs are taken out and "checked, re-rinsed, salted, and sealed in tins in less than 10 minutes". The sturgeon without eggs is smoked and exported mostly to Russia.

The company raises 5 different species of sturgeon each producing a different variety including beluga.

Reception
Kaluga Queen's caviar has been favorably reviewed. A writer for Newsweek praised the brand's Schrenckii caviar as having peerless "power and intensity". French chef Alain Ducasse serves it at his portfolio of restaurants.

Media coverage of Kaluga Queen has often focused on the Chinese origins of the brand but not the quality, noting the lack of association between China and caviar. A piece in that's magazine noted that while Kaluga Queen is "hugely successful", the brand still finds it difficult to gain recognition in the international community.

At the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit, which was held in the company's home province of Zhejiang, world leaders attending the summit, were served Kaluga Queen caviar.

title: Kaluga Queen


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/aihs.ac.in

Links

 * aihs.ac.in resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.

Additions

 * Displayed all 4 additions.


text:
José Mostany

José Antonio "Pepe" Mostany (born 13 January 1963), is an Argentinian former rugby union player. He was the first Club Manuel Belgrano player to play for the Pumas.

Career
Mostany played for Club Manuel Belgrano in the Nacional de Clubes and had three caps in the 1987 Rugby World Cup, playing all the three pool stage matches, with the tournament being his only time where he played for the Argentine national team.

title: José Mostany


text:
Talk:List of Fiat passenger cars

Untitled
hi i hope that i can contact you i want to upgrade my car. my car model 127 1982 i but in it 1300 racing engine & i want to but in it something to low down the benzen taked. If u can send me the pictures or send me the turbo plane of that car and i will do it. i am doing any thing in my car by myself i buyed the tools that makes me get the engine out & in & i studed the electric circle of that car. If u can contact me my mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>i live in egypt cairo tel.<PHONE_NUMBER> Name: Amr Khafagy

title: Talk:List of Fiat passenger cars


text:
Kullervo Leskinen

Kullervo Leskinen (15 September 1908 – 25 July 1989) was a Finnish sports shooter. He competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics and 1952 Summer Olympics.

title: Kullervo Leskinen


text:
File:The Legend of Dragoon Addition Attack.jpg

Licensing
Rationale for the fair use of this image in the article The Legend of Dragoon:
 * Japan Studio has not released any such images to the public domain
 * The image is used to demonstrate the game's distinctive quick-time event mechanic; this is an important aspect of the game, as it is used every time a character attacks an opponent. It is frequently cited in sources as one of the defining features of this game. It is also demonstrating the visual graphics for this game.
 * The image is being used in an informative way and should not detract from the game
 * The image is a small, web-resolution image
 * The image is used to illustrate an important characteristic of the game mentioned in the article, which conveys to the reader an idea of what it looks like
 * The image's only purpose is to aid in the description of a game mechanic of The Legend of Dragoon, and for no other purpose
 * The image does not limit Japan Studio's ability to sell the game
 * This single image of a video game respects commercial opportunities because it is an image of ordinary gameplay; thus, it is unlikely that someone would view this image instead of purchasing the game.
 * This image is used in The Legend of Dragoon; thus, it is not orphaned.
 * This image is only used in the article namespace.
 * This image's page lists the source, developer, and publisher, a tag indicating that this image is a screenshot of a non-free video game, and a fair-use rationale has been listed for the article in which this image is currently used.


text:
User:Berek

Hi, all. I'm a longtime Wikipedia user with an interest in Astronomy and History, especially the History of Scotland and World War I. I'm currently working on creating a course on History of Scotland, and would greatly appreciate any feedback on my progress there. Hope to talk to you all some time. I'm also trying to help out occasionally at Special:UncategorizedPages and Special:UncategorizedCategories.

 * Human Legacy Course
 * Portal:Learning Projects
 * Portal:History
 * Topic:European History

title: User:Berek


text:
стоять

Etymology
, from, from.

Verb

 * 1) to stand
 * 2) to be situated
 * 3)  to be in a certain place within a formal structure
 * 4)  to firmly follow or adhere
 * 5)  to be idle, to be in a state of malfunction or downtime
 * 6)  to withstand, to survive, to not succumb
 * 7)   to be in line, to be in a queue
 * 8)  to be frozen
 * 9)  expresses a demand to stop or stop moving
 * 10)  to be erect
 * 1)  to be idle, to be in a state of malfunction or downtime
 * 2)  to withstand, to survive, to not succumb
 * 3)   to be in line, to be in a queue
 * 4)  to be frozen
 * 5)  expresses a demand to stop or stop moving
 * 6)  to be erect
 * 1)   to be in line, to be in a queue
 * 2)  to be frozen
 * 3)  expresses a demand to stop or stop moving
 * 4)  to be erect
 * 1)  expresses a demand to stop or stop moving
 * 2)  to be erect
 * 1)  to be erect
 * 1)  to be erect

Usage notes

 * Not to be confused with most of the conjugation forms pertaining to . Note the difference in stress between forms of the same spelling.

title: стоять


text:
Talk:Makhan Shah Labana

Untitled
Obviously User:Jahiegel has not read the article or the background relating to this article or has no idea of this subject ie: Sikhism- For your education, a Sakhi refers to a historic account of interesting and important events mainly during the 250 years or so of the lives of the Sikh Gurus from 1469 to 1708. However, Sakhis outside this time scale do exist. --Hari Singh 03:09, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

Deletion of Bhai Makhan Shah

 * From: User talk:Sandstein

Dear Sir,

Further to your vote to delete my article, Bhai Makhan Shah, I would like to bring the following to your attention and present this for the record:

You said: "WP:NOT a book publisher. If verified to be notable, rewrite as an encyclopedia article rather than a story." I would like to bring the following to your attention. Ths article is not a book but a historic record - please see my introduction and the links added recently. Further the style of writing is how these Sakhis are normally written - so I have preserved the style and want to give the readers a feel for how this history was passed from one generation to another in rural India during the 1400 onwards.

You may be aware that this article was tagged by Joe for speedy deletion because he thought that the article "appears to be a fictional story" at 2:58. He had however, failed to notice that the article began with: "Makhan Shah Lubana (also written as Lobana) was a devout Sikh and a rich trader from Tanda district Jhelum (now in Pakistan)..…" – If this was a fictional story, would it refer to "(now in Pakistan)"?

Further, mid-way down the article is the line "He then recited this Shabad of Guru Arjan Dev:" followed by the sacred hymn by the fifth Sikh Guru – Now surely if you are not even aware of the Gurus of the Sikhs, do you have the right to make any judgement on this article or any other article linked to Sikhism?

He was wrong but he realised his mistake and rightly and honourably retracted from that position. However, he did not completely re-evaluate his position as he almost instantly put an AfD notice on the article.

If Joe had the "well-being" of Wikipedia at heart, surely it does not take more than a few seconds to search for "Makhan Shah" on Google to see if this is fiction or fact! – If he had done this, he would have found 654 hits and the first article is at: www.Sikh-History.com – Do I need to say more! – I don't think you would find fictional stories on a history website. Under the circumstances, the comment by User talk:Royboycrashfan that this is "original research" is unbelievable!! 654 hits with Google and you think that this is original research!! This is a record of historical events that took place in about 1620AD. And what is surprising is that you are supported by User:TBC and User:Khoikhoi. Blindly following the leader!!

Following my comments on the discussion page highlighting that this article was a example of a Sakhi (ie: Historical Record), which are very popular in Sikhism at 3.09, Jow quickly changed the article to AfD status at 3.13 saying that this was because "text is a Sikh story taken from www.srigurugranthsahib.org website". So in 4 minutes he had read the 2 articles of over 1250 words each and done a proper comparison of the two articles. I am sorry but I don't think this is how articles should be judged - Someone spending less than 4 minutes to evaluate an article that may have taken a few days to create from various resources. Why should someone who appears to have no knowledge of the subject matter, is completely anti-religion and has spent very little time researching the subject take such a step? I wonder?

Having read the Guide to deletion, I believe that the comments made by Joe – "only that the fashion in which it is currently presented is non-encyclopedic" does not appear to be reason for articles to be deleted.

Further, he say that if the text was: "of great religious import, it would, I think, appear in some form on more than one website" – This is based on a Google search of the words: "Once while he was returning home". What he does not tell us is the Google finds the following:

"with his ship carrying valuable goods over the vast seas, his ship got caught up in a furious storm" in my article and

"with his ships loaded with valuable cargo, there was a furious storm at sea and his vessels got caught in it" on the other site.

Not quite the same sentence – let alone the whole article. So how can anyone say that "text is a Sikh story taken from" www.srigurugranthsahib.org site - is a completely mystery to me? I wonder why you have taken this step as it is totally unjustified!

I believe that your criticisms are entirely ill-founded and without foundation. Further, this appears to a tactic to discourage minority religions to have a reasonable say on this website and this type of behaviour will stall contribution from the minority traditions. The majority sects will dictate what goes on this site - even when they are completely wrong!! If that was your intention, I have no problem with that – just do it openly rather than using unnecessary stealth and poor logic!!! --Hari Singh 07:59, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:07, 26 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Baba Makhan Shah Labana.jpg

title: Talk:Makhan Shah Labana


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Banana tooth

The result of the debate was delete. Mailer Diablo 01:13, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Banana tooth
This is a disputed prod. The editor who removed the prod template claims it's a legitimate term, but I can find no references to this usage of the term on Google (search results). Delete as unverifiable and non-notable neologism.--Muchness 00:35, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete Protologism worthy of wider recognition (I, too, have known banana tooth) - but Wikipedia can't be the vehicle for that. Bobby P. Smith Sr. Jr. 00:37, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete as neologism -- T B C [[Image:Confused-tpvgames.gif|18px|]] ???  ???   ??? 00:57, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete unless someone can WP:CITE WP:RS. Walter Siegmund (talk) 01:03, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per TBC.--Firsfron 01:33, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete as unverifiable neologism, per nom. Kuru   talk  02:59, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per above. --Khoikhoi 04:09, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per Kuru. ¡Dustimagic!  ( T / C ) 04:11, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per above. Kukini 06:19, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete Non-notable phrase coining. Requires citations and references in print before it can be transwikied to Wiktionary. Non-encyclopædic.   (aeropagitica)   07:01, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete ad neologism and per nom. --Ter e nce Ong 10:08, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per all. -- S iva1979 Talk to me  14:21, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per above. Wikipedia is not the place to go coining new terms. Get this to UrbanDictionary or Stephen Colbert. <IP_ADDRESS> 14:47, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per all. Oliver Keenan 20:39, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete neo/proto, per nom  Dei z io  00:50, 22 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per stupid? --DragonWR12LB 06:56, 22 March 2006 (UTC)


text:
KNBX-CD

KNBX-CD (channel 31) is a low-power, Class A television station in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States. The station is owned by HC2 Holdings. KNBX-CD's transmitter is located on Mount Arden near Henderson, Nevada.

History
KNBX-CD (meaning "Nevada Box") was owned by Equity Media Holdings and previously broadcast programming from TeleFórmula. Before that, it had aired programming from MTV2. Like most over-the-air MTV2 affiliates, it was an affiliate of The Box until that network's acquisition by Viacom in 2001.

KNBX-CD was sold at auction to Mako Communications on April 16, 2009. Most recently, it operated as a translator of Azteca América affiliate KMCC (channel 34).

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

title: KNBX-CD


text:
User:Jaymax1991/sandbox

Team 1 - IT DOES MATTER (Jason Maxwell) =IT Does Matter=

Team one will be arguing from the "IT does Matter" standpoint.

=Introduction=

''Published in the May 2003 edition of the Harvard Business Review, "IT Doesn't Matter" examines the evolution of information technology in business and show that it follows a pattern strikingly similar to that of earlier technologies like railroads and electric power. For a brief period, as they are being built into the infrastructure of commerce, these “infrastructural technologies,” as I call them, open opportunities for forward-looking companies to gain strong competitive advantages. But as their availability increases and their cost decreases – as they become ubiquitous – they become commodity inputs. From a strategic standpoint, they become invisible; they no longer matter. The staff of HBR voted “IT Doesn’t Matter” the best article to appear in the magazine during 2003.''

=Evidence Supporting Argument from Carr's Article=

Carr's Argument
Carr’s is not arguing that Internet Technology is not important but that it’s infrastructural competitive advantage has diminished. Carr uses numerous examples such as the railroad and electric power, information technology to argue his viewpoint. According to Carr, one of the things that we have learned in the past in the sprint to commoditization of infrastructural technologies is the rapidity of their installation. When huge amounts of cash are inevitably invested in a new infrastructure, a buildout proceeds with extreme speed. By the end of the buildout phase, the opportunities for individual advantage are largely gone. the rush to invest leads to more competition, greater capacity, and falling prices, making the technology broadly accessible and affordable."

Rebuttal "IT Does Matter"
Spend Less. "Studies show that the companies with the biggest IT investments rarely post the best financial results. As the commoditization of IT continues, the penalties for wasteful spending will only grow larger. It is getting much harder to achieve a competitive advantage through an IT investment, but it is getting much easier to put your business at a cost disadvantage."

Follow, Don’t Lead. "Moore’s Law guar- antees that the longer you wait to make an IT purchase, the more you’ll get for your money. And waiting will decrease your risk of buying something technolog- ically flawed or doomed to rapid obsoles- cence. In some cases, being on the cut- ting edge makes sense. But those cases are becoming rarer and rarer as IT capabilities become more homogenized."

Focus on Vulnerabilities, Not Opportunities. "It’s unusual for a company to gain a competitive advantage through the distinctive use of a mature infrastructural technology, but even a brief disruption in the availability of the technology can be devastating. As corporations continue to cede control over their IT applications and networks to vendors and other third parties, the threats they face will prolifer- ate. They need to prepare themselves for technical glitches, outages, and security breaches, shifting their attention from opportunities to vulnerabilities."

=Evidence Supporting Argument from Pearlson and Saunders= Carr defines Information Technology as " technologies used for processing, storing, and transporting information in digital form." However, Pearlson and Saunders defines Information Technology as "the technology component of the information systems, usually consisting of the hardware, software, networking, and data" and Information System as "the technology (hardware, software, networking, data)people, and processes that an organization uses to manage information" A more accurate article for Carr would have been, Infrastructural IT Doesn't Matter. Overall information technology and informations systems play a major role within any business or organization. Business, Organizational, and, Information Strategy must be aligned to insure business success. Misalignment within the Information Systems Strategy could lead to catastrophic consequences(BP Oil Spill ) TrianglePearlson and Saunders introduces us to the framework Information Systems Strategy Triangle the relation of business strategy with information system and organizational strategies.

= Evidence From Work Experiences=

IT plays a vital role in our in our society from the military, to e-commerce, education, online banking and even entertainment. Ted Hoff's invention of the microprocessor in the late 1960‘s has paved the way for personal computer, laptops, cell phones, and so much more and changed how we view and use computers. There is no doubt that in the last two decades, the use of the personal computer and internet has definitely been on the rise. It’s hard to look at the world without technology. Everything from personal computers, cell phones and tablets to smaller things such as digital watches, alarm clocks, and calculators. Information technology continues to be the backbone or infrastructure for our computerized nation. Just as semi-trucks and the highway are the backbone infrastructure for our transportation of goods. Information technology continues to be a major part and driving force for our computerized nation. The army realized that IT was so important that they created an entire Military Occupation Skill devoted to it. As 25Bravo or information Technology Specialist I am the backbone of S6 or communication within the army. We specialize in military computer and communication equipment including very small aperture terminals (VSATs), radios, Cisco Routers and Switches, Windows Servers and Exchange, etc. As more technical description of my job title is as followed: installs, operates, and performs unit maintenance on multi-functional/multi-user information processing systems and peripheral equipment and auxiliary devices. Performs input/ output data control and bulk data storage operations. Transfers data between information processing equipment and systems. Troubleshoots automation equipment and systems to the degree required for isolation of malfunctions to specific hardware or soft ware. Restores equipment to operation by replacement of line replaceable unit (LRU). Installs, operates, performs strapping, restrapping, PMCS and unit level maintenance on COMSEC de vices. Assists in the design, preparation, editing, and testing of computer programs. Drafts associated technical documentation for program reference and maintenance purposes. Modifies existing ap plication packages using application and operating system software and appropriate computer language commands and files.

=Evidence from External Resoucrces=

title: User:Jaymax1991/sandbox


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lycée Français de Luanda

The result was delete. Tone 21:55, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

Lycée Français de Luanda

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

The article is an extreme stub that only cites a single primary source and I wasn't able to find anything that would satisfy the notability the guidelines in a BEFORE about it. Plus, Wikipedia isn't a directory. --Adamant1 (talk) 12:29, 18 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Education-related deletion discussions. Shellwood (talk) 12:43, 18 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Schools-related deletion discussions. Shellwood (talk) 12:43, 18 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Delete Wikipedia is not supposed to be a lightly annotated directory of websites, which is what we become when we source articles only to their own website.John Pack Lambert (talk) 18:30, 19 August 2020 (UTC)


text:
Peace studies/Islamic fundamentalism

''This learning project is brought to you by the Division of Peace Studies. When contributing to this learning project, please adhere to the Peace Studies learning project guidlines and the Peace Studies learning project template.''

Learning Materials

 * Including links to learning materials in wikiversity, wikipedia, and on the internet.

Reading List
Ideally, readings should be available on the internet, and the links made available. Give a brief summary of each reading, and possibly some questions with which to address the text. Readings that are unavailable on the internet should be referenced in the following way:

 * Author, A., Title of Book (Location: Publisher, Year of Publication).

Assignments

 * Edit and improve this learning project.

title: Peace studies/Islamic fundamentalism


text:
Talk:Linguistics

October 2004
I think this book is a great idea.

I'm currently studying for a BA in Linguistics at UCL. I'll try to contribute where I can.

--Frankie Roberto 02:02, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Sections
Does anyone have any thoughts about what sections there should be within this book?

I'm not convinced that Typoloy should be included. Also, perhaps Historical Linguistics should be part of History, not Linguistics? Frankie Roberto (changed due to mis-read)

 * Well typology is pretty important in modern linguistics -- if you believe that the goal of linguistics is to understand how the human language device works, then typology, as the basic tool of determining what can and can't be considered language, is pretty key. Additionally historical linguistics refers to how languages develop through time, not the history of linguistics per se. Mo-Al (talk) 20:42, 3 August 2009 (UTC)

Welcome
Hey, Frankie, welcome. I was beginning to think I was the only one who cared. Thank you for creating template:LinguisticsTOC. I'm not a big MediaWiki guru, so any help people can give improving the markup in ways like this will be really appreciated.

 * I'm new to wikis in general, so I'm not that good on the markup either. I took the idea from the Manual of Style. There doesn't seem to be a clear way to organise the books yet. Frankie Roberto

ACW 18:04, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Hi, I'm quite new to linguistics (and rather interested in reading this wikibook). Nonetheless, I do know something on the subject and would gladly aid in it's development if y'all'll have me. (My knowledge goes as far as my edits in the conworld wikibook.) - Ingolemo 19:25, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Historical linguistics
The term historical linguistics doesn't refer to the history of linguistic scholarship; discussion of that, I would agree, belongs to a history book, albeit a rather specialized one, and not to a linguistics book, especially a broad overview like this one.

Instead, historical linguistics is a branch of linguistics proper. It's the study of how languages change over time, and how those changes contribute to the way a language appears at any given moment. Sometimes it is called diachronic linguistics, as opposed to synchronic linguistics, which studies language at a particular point in time.

Historical linguistics uses a theory very similar to the theory of biological evolution (descent with modification). People are always accidentally changing their languages in little ways; those changes get passed to children when they are learning to speak; changes that hurt communication tend to be eliminated, while changes that help communication tend to spread.

Just as in biology there are families of organisms that were once single species, in historical linguistics we observe that there are language families which have descended from a single archaic language.

The most famous achievement of historical linguistics to date is the Indoeuropean theory, which shows that most of the languages in a wide band stretching from Europe through Central Asia to India are related, and are descended from a single ancestral language, called Proto-Indo-European. By careful comparative methods, linguists have been able to reconstruct much of the grammar and vocabulary of this extinct language, the common ancestor of Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and all the Germanic and Slavic languages as well. It's a stunning achievement, and one that well deserves discussion in a linguistics textbook. Well, in my opinion anyway.

ACW 18:18, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

A historical linguistics section is also the best place to introduce dialectology, and demystify the whole notion of dialect.

ACW 18:29, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I agree; I really think the field ought to be called "Language Change", since it deals with the general theory of how language changes over time, not only with "historical" languages.

Language diversity
I feel funny that there seems to be no place in the current table of contents for discussing the current state of language on our planet. A lot of beginners' questions fall into this area. "How many languages are there?" "Which languages have the most speakers?" "What are American Indian languages really like?" "What about those weird clicks?"

So I think we should really have a section about that, where we can discuss the amazing variety of languages that exist, and give some handle on the most important languages and language families to be aware of, as well as their basic characteristics.

This kind of hooks into historical linguistics, since the historical viewpoint is the most useful way to understand how languages are distributed around the world today.

It also may be what I had in mind when I proposed a chapter on typology -- some place to show off some weird wonders, and show how wildly languages can vary from each other.

This proposed section would also be a good place to talk about language oppression, endangerment, and extinction.

ACW 18:27, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Syntax Trees
If we're going to go deep into generative grammar, we'll need to be able to draw lots of trees. See for an example. Anyone got any ideas on how best to do this? Frankie Roberto

OpenOffice.org's Draw program tends to work fairly well for these sorts of things. Then there's also Dia, or Microsoft Visio. That's also assuming that we get to the topic of generative grammar in this book. That subject is so large that it may be better to create a book covering just generative grammar to simplify things for the introductory book, and begin the generative grammar book with the assumption that the reader has a basic understanding of linguistics. NathanClayton

Frankie is right that we will need some trees when we get to talking about syntax. It's an iconography that everyone in the field uses, and we must at least talk about the basics even if we don't get into debated areas. So Nathan's suggestions of how to draw them will definitely be useful. Assuming we make any more progress on this book at all. ACW 22:00, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

It may be worth noting that there are other, more text-friendly forms, like bracket notation that may be useful if we don't want to make large amounts of trees. Although, ACW is right - tree notation is used by just about everyone, so even if we don't use it through this wikibook we should at least include a few so that prospective students can understand how they work. -- Kirby1024 08:43, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

Page names
Just a quick note to say that I've moved the all the subpages from things like Linguistics: Hello to Linguistics/Hello. It's much easier to work with and seems to be the new standard in wikibooks. -- Kowey 13:53, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

Keep it up
I have recently discovered the conlangs (constructed languages) (which I don't know if that's common among linguistics students and teachers) and joined the |CONLANG list, on which I don't know half (actually a lot more than that) the things they're talking about. It looks like this will help me (if it gets finished). So thanks and keep it up! Leon math 23:26, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

Style
Reading the introduction I see that italics seem to be way overused. Does Wikibooks have a stylistic policy on this sort of thing? In my opinion italics should probably only be used for introducing new terminology and examples from languages, and bold text very sparingly. Mo-Al (talk) 20:42, 3 August 2009 (UTC)
 * My personal opinion is that introduction of new terms should come in bold, italics should be used for emphasis in explanations, and capitals should be used to indicate stress in ex-AM-ples. And that's how I do it when I write linguistic articles, because that's how I was trained. --Quintucket (discuss • contribs) 11:54, 30 December 2011 (UTC)

Phonetics vs. Phonology
I am concerned that the phonetics chapter contains too much information on phonology (e.g. phonemes and allophones). Also, the IPA is arguably more of a phonological tool than a phonetic one. Frankly, I don't even know whether the chapter on phonetics should really come before phonology. Mo-Al (talk) 21:03, 3 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Phonetics -> Phonology is the usual order. I'm not sure how you can study sound patterns without studying the sounds first. Kayau (talk · contribs) 16:40, 9 May 2015 (UTC)

New Sections
I'd like to add two new sections: Language Acquisition, and Creoles. They're also major fields of study in their own right, and incorporate pretty much every other fields except computational linguistics and phonetics. (And they may incorporate the latter, but I'm not competent to deal with it; I know absolutely nothing about phonetics.) Specifically, I think Creoles should come after historical linguistics, and Language Acquisition after Psycholinguistics. I'm going to add them unless anybody can provide a reasonable objection, but I'll add them at the end if people would rather I do that.

I'd also like to add three more: Neurolinguistics, Discourse Analysis, and Signed Languages though my experience there would provide fairly minimal articles, albeit more complete than a few on here, and I'm really not sure where to put those. --Quintucket (discuss • contribs) 11:51, 30 December 2011 (UTC)
 * I realized that nobody has done much more than pretty-up this article since 2009. So I've just gone ahead and added three of these.  Neuroling I'm not ready to work on, and I'm not sure that DA, on second thought is actually necessary. --Quintucket (discuss • contribs) 19:49, 30 December 2011 (UTC)
 * I will turn your wishes into reality. Kayau (talk · contribs) 14:14, 9 May 2015 (UTC)

Restructuring
I plan to restructure the book as follows:

 * Intro
 * Part I: Traditional Areas of Theoretical Linguistics
 * Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse analysis **
 * Part II: Language as Signs
 * Sign languages, orthography
 * Part II: Language and the Human Mind
 * Psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics **, language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics
 * Part III: Variation and Diversity in Language
 * Typology, historical linguistics, dialectology and creole*, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics**

* I decided to widen the scope of the Creoles section as a full chapter seems excessive for an introductory book. ** New chapters.

I have also decided to scrap computational linguistics as it seems unnecessary for an introductory book. I'll keep this up for a week, and will be bold if there are no objections after a week has passed (as I do seem to be the sole contributor at the moment). Kayau (talk · contribs) 15:27, 22 June 2015 (UTC)

 * I cannot judge whether you are right about that or not: you may very well be. However, couldn't you move more advanced stuff into their own subsection or even their own book? IT seems a pity to let it go to waste. Jcwf (discuss • contribs) 15:35, 22 June 2015 (UTC)
 * I agree, comp ling can get its own book. I just don't believe it fits into an intro. Kayau (talk · contribs) 17:00, 22 June 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Linguistics