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Street Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge.

Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much of the debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as "What makes justified beliefs justified?", what does it mean to say that one knows something? and fundamentally, how do we know that we know?

The term 'Epistemology' was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591.

Epistemon
In a philosophical dialogue, King James VI of Scotland penned the character Epistemon as the personification of a philosophical concept to debate on arguments of whether the ancient religious perceptions of witchcraft should be punished in a politically fueled Christian society. The arguments King James poses, through the character Epistemon, are based on ideas of theological reasoning regarding society's belief, as his opponent Philomathes takes a philosophical stance on society's legal aspects but seeks to obtain greater knowledge from Epistemon, whose name is Greek for scientist. This philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history and etymology of the subjects debated.

Epistemology
The word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning "knowledge" and the suffix -logy, meaning "logical discourse" (derived from the Greek word logos meaning "discourse"). J.F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of 'ontology', to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the 'true beginning' of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte and Bernard Bolzano for different projects before it was taken up again by Husserl. French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as 'theory of knowledge [théorie de la connaissance].' E.g., Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, with the remark that the word 'is becoming current' as equivalent to 'the philosophy of the sciences.'

Knowledge
In mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person (e.g., oneself), place (e.g., one's hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or activity (e.g., addition). Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between "knowing that" (know a concept), "knowing how" (understand an operation), and "acquaintance-knowledge" (know by relation), with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these.

While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages (N.B. some languages related to English have been said to retain these verbs, e.g. Scots: "wit" and "ken"). In French, Portuguese, Spanish, German and Dutch to know (a person) is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer and kennen respectively, whereas to know (how to do something) is translated using savoir, saber and weten. Modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω (gnorízo) and ξέρω (kséro). Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza. German has the verbs wissen and kennen. Wissen implies knowing a fact, kennen implies knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of; there is also a noun derived from kennen, namely Erkennen, which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment. The verb itself implies a process: you have to go from one state to another, from a state of "not-erkennen" to a state of true erkennen. This verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the "episteme" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name "Erkenntnistheorie". The theoretical interpretation and significance of these linguistic issues remains controversial.

In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between "knowledge by description" and "knowledge by acquaintance". Gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. In Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle's, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress.

In recent times, epistemologists including (Sosa, Greco, Kvanvig, Zagzebski) and Duncan Pritchard have argued that epistemology should evaluate people's "properties" (i.e., intellectual virtues) and not just the properties of propositions or of propositional mental attitudes.

Belief
In common speech, a "statement of belief" is typically an expression of faith or trust in a person, power or other entity—while it includes such traditional views, epistemology is also concerned with what we believe. This includes 'the' truth, and everything else we accept as 'true' for ourselves from a cognitive point of view.

Truth
Whether someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for (its) belief. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support him, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under his weight, it could be said that he believed that the bridge was safe but that his belief was mistaken. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself (by crossing it), he knows it was safe.

Epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, and others as a system of justified true sentences. Plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer.

Justification
In the Theaetetus, Socrates considers a number of theories as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowledge is true belief "with an account" (meaning explained or defined in some way). According to the theory that knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reason for doing so. One implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true. For example, an ill person with no medical training, but with a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that he will recover from his illness quickly. Nevertheless, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have known that he would get well since his belief lacked justification.

The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper written by the American philosopher Edmund Gettier provoked major widespread discussion. (See theories of justification for other views on the idea.)

Gettier problem
Edmund Gettier is best known for a short paper entitled 'Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?' published in 1963, which called into question the theory of knowledge that had been dominant among philosophers for thousands of years. This in turn called into question the actual value of philosophy if such an obvious and easy counterexample to a major theory could exist without anyone noticing it for thousands of years. In a few pages, Gettier argued that there are situations in which one's belief may be justified and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier contended that while justified belief in a true proposition is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not sufficient. As in the diagram, a true proposition can be believed by an individual (purple region) but still not fall within the "knowledge" category (yellow region).

According to Gettier, there are certain circumstances in which one does not have knowledge, even when all of the above conditions are met. Gettier proposed two thought experiments, which have come to be known as "Gettier cases", as counterexamples to the classical account of knowledge. One of the cases involves two men, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job. Each man has ten coins in his pocket. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and, furthermore, knows that Jones has ten coins in his pocket (he recently counted them). From this Smith infers, "the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket." However, Smith is unaware that he also has ten coins in his own pocket. Furthermore, Smith, not Jones, is going to get the job. While Smith has strong evidence to believe that Jones will get the job, he is wrong. Smith has a justified true belief that the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket; however, according to Gettier, Smith does not know that the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket, because Smith's belief is "...true by virtue of the number of coins in Jones's pocket, while Smith does not know how many coins are in Smith's pocket, and bases his belief...on a count of the coins in Jones's pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job." (see p. 122.) These cases fail to be knowledge because the subject's belief is justified, but only happens to be true by virtue of luck. In other words, he made the correct choice (in this case predicting an outcome) for the wrong reasons. This example is similar to those often given when discussing belief and truth, wherein a person's belief of what will happen can coincidentally be correct without his or her having the actual knowledge to base it on.

Responses to Gettier
The responses to Gettier have been varied. Usually, they have involved substantial attempts to provide a definition of knowledge different from the classical one, either by recasting knowledge as justified true belief with some additional fourth condition, or proposing a completely new set of conditions, disregarding the classical ones entirely.

Infallibilism, indefeasibility
In one response to Gettier, the American philosopher Richard Kirkham has argued that the only definition of knowledge that could ever be immune to all counterexamples is the infallibilist one. To qualify as an item of knowledge, goes the theory, a belief must not only be true and justified, the justification of the belief must necessitate its truth. In other words, the justification for the belief must be infallible.

Yet another possible candidate for the fourth condition of knowledge is indefeasibility. Defeasibility theory maintains that there should be no overriding or defeating truths for the reasons that justify one's belief. For example, suppose that person S believes he saw Tom Grabit steal a book from the library and uses this to justify the claim that Tom Grabit stole a book from the library. A possible defeater or overriding proposition for such a claim could be a true proposition like, "Tom Grabit's identical twin Sam is currently in the same town as Tom." When no defeaters of one's justification exist, a subject would be epistemologically justified.

The Indian philosopher B. K. Matilal has drawn on the Navya-Nyāya fallibilism tradition to respond to the Gettier problem. Nyaya theory distinguishes between know p and know that one knows p—these are different events, with different causal conditions. The second level is a sort of implicit inference that usually follows immediately the episode of knowing p (knowledge simpliciter). The Gettier case is examined by referring to a view of Gangesha Upadhyaya (late 12th century), who takes any true belief to be knowledge; thus a true belief acquired through a wrong route may just be regarded as knowledge simpliciter on this view. The question of justification arises only at the second level, when one considers the knowledgehood of the acquired belief. Initially, there is lack of uncertainty, so it becomes a true belief. But at the very next moment, when the hearer is about to embark upon the venture of knowing whether he knows p, doubts may arise. "If, in some Gettier-like cases, I am wrong in my inference about the knowledgehood of the given occurrent belief (for the evidence may be pseudo-evidence), then I am mistaken about the truth of my belief – and this is in accordance with Nyaya fallibilism: not all knowledge-claims can be sustained."

Reliabilism
Reliabilism has been a significant line of response to the Gettier problem among philosophers, originating with work by Alvin Goldman in the 1960s. According to reliabilism, a belief is justified (or otherwise supported in such a way as to count towards knowledge) only if it is produced by processes that typically yield a sufficiently high ratio of true to false beliefs. In other words, this theory states that a true belief counts as knowledge only if it is produced by a reliable belief-forming process. Examples of reliable processes include: standard perceptual processes, remembering, good reasoning, and introspection.

Reliabilism has been challenged by Gettier cases. Another argument that challenges reliabilism, like the Gettier cases (although it was not presented in the same short article as the Gettier cases), is the case of Henry and the barn façades. In the thought experiment, a man, Henry, is driving along and sees a number of buildings that resemble barns. Based on his perception of one of these, he concludes that he has just seen barns. While he has seen one, and the perception he based his belief that the one he saw was of a real barn, all the other barn-like buildings he saw were façades. Theoretically, Henry does not know that he has seen a barn, despite both his belief that he has seen one being true and his belief being formed on the basis of a reliable process (i.e. his vision), since he only acquired his true belief by accident.

Other responses
Robert Nozick has offered the following definition of knowledge: S knows that P if and only if: Nozick argues that the third of these conditions serves to address cases of the sort described by Gettier. Nozick further claims this condition addresses a case of the sort described by D. M. Armstrong: A father believes his daughter innocent of committing a particular crime, both because of faith in his baby girl and (now) because he has seen presented in the courtroom a conclusive demonstration of his daughter's innocence. His belief via the method of the courtroom satisfies the four subjunctive conditions, but his faith-based belief does not. If his daughter were guilty, he would still believe her innocent, on the basis of faith in his daughter; this would violate the third condition.
 * P;
 * S believes that P;
 * if P were false, S would not believe that P;
 * if P were true, S would believe that P.

The British philosopher Simon Blackburn has criticized this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs, which, while they "track the truth" (as Nozick's account requires), are not held for appropriate reasons. He says that "we do not want to award the title of knowing something to someone who is only meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or failure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the conditions." In addition to this, externalist accounts of knowledge, such as Nozick's, are often forced to reject closure in cases where it is intuitively valid.

Timothy Williamson has advanced a theory of knowledge according to which knowledge is not justified true belief plus some extra condition(s), but primary. In his book Knowledge and its Limits, Williamson argues that the concept of knowledge cannot be broken down into a set of other concepts through analysis—instead, it is sui generis. Thus, though knowledge requires justification, truth, and belief, the word "knowledge" can't be, according to Williamson's theory, accurately regarded as simply shorthand for "justified true belief".

Alvin Goldman writes in his Causal Theory of Knowing that in order for knowledge to truly exist there must be a causal chain between the proposition and the belief of that proposition.

Externalism and internalism
A central debate about the nature of justification is a debate between epistemological externalists on the one hand, and epistemological internalists on the other.

Externalists hold that factors deemed "external", meaning outside of the psychological states of those who gain knowledge, can be conditions of justification. For example, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that, in order for a justified true belief to count as knowledge, there must be a link or dependency between the belief and the state of the external world. Usually this is understood to be a causal link. Such causation, to the extent that it is "outside" the mind, would count as an external, knowledge-yielding condition. Internalists, on the other hand, assert that all knowledge-yielding conditions are within the psychological states of those who gain knowledge.

Though unfamiliar with the internalist/externalist debate himself, many point to René Descartes as an early example of the internalist path to justification. He wrote that, because the only method by which we perceive the external world is through our senses, and that, because the senses are not infallible, we should not consider our concept of knowledge to be infallible. The only way to find anything that could be described as "indubitably true", he advocates, would be to see things "clearly and distinctly". He argued that if there is an omnipotent, good being who made the world, then it's reasonable to believe that people are made with the ability to know. However, this does not mean that man's ability to know is perfect. God gave man the ability to know, but not omniscience. Descartes said that man must use his capacities for knowledge correctly and carefully through methodological doubt. The dictum "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) is also commonly associated with Descartes' theory, because in his own methodological doubt, doubting everything he previously knew in order to start from a blank slate, the first thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: "I do not exist" would be a contradiction in terms; the act of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone must be making the statement in the first place. Though Descartes could doubt his senses, his body and the world around him, he could not deny his own existence, because he was able to doubt and must exist in order to do so. Even if some "evil genius" were to be deceiving him, he would have to exist in order to be deceived. This one sure point provided him with what he would call his Archimedean point, in order to further develop his foundation for knowledge. Simply put, Descartes' epistemological justification depended upon his indubitable belief in his own existence and his clear and distinct knowledge of God.

Value problem
We generally assume that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. If so, what is the explanation? A formulation of the value problem in epistemology first occurs in Plato's Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there correctly. But so, too, could a man who had true beliefs about how to get there, even if he had not gone there or had any knowledge of Larissa. Socrates says that it seems that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action. Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than true belief, and why knowledge and true belief are different. Socrates responds that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief because it is tethered, or justified. Justification, or working out the reason for a true belief, locks down true belief.

The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more valuable than mere true belief, or that makes knowledge more valuable than a more minimal conjunction of its components, such as justification, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti-Gettier conditions, on a particular analysis of knowledge that conceives of knowledge as divided into components (to which knowledge-first epistemological theories, which posit knowledge as fundamental, are notable exceptions). The value problem reemerged in the philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty-first century following the rise of virtue epistemology in the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the concept of value in ethics.

The value problem has been presented as an argument against epistemic reliabilism by philosophers including Linda Zagzebski, Wayne Riggs and Richard Swinburne. Zagzebski analogizes the value of knowledge to the value of espresso produced by an espresso maker: "The liquid in this cup is not improved by the fact that it comes from a reliable espresso maker. If the espresso tastes good, it makes no difference if it comes from an unreliable machine." For Zagzebski, the value of knowledge deflates to the value of mere true belief. She assumes that reliability in itself has no value or disvalue, but Goldman and Olsson disagree. They point out that Zagzebski's conclusion rests on the assumption of veritism: all that matters is the acquisition of true belief. To the contrary, they argue that a reliable process for acquiring a true belief adds value to the mere true belief by making it more likely that future beliefs of a similar kind will be true. By analogy, having a reliable espresso maker that produced a good cup of espresso would be more valuable than having an unreliable one that luckily produced a good cup because the reliable one would more likely produce good future cups compared to the unreliable one.

The value problem is important to assessing the adequacy of theories of knowledge that conceive of knowledge as consisting of true belief and other components. According to Kvanvig, an adequate account of knowledge should resist counterexamples and allow an explanation of the value of knowledge over mere true belief. Should a theory of knowledge fail to do so, it would prove inadequate.

One of the more influential responses to the problem is that knowledge is not particularly valuable and is not what ought to be the main focus of epistemology. Instead, epistemologists ought to focus on other mental states, such as understanding. Advocates of virtue epistemology have argued that the value of knowledge comes from an internal relationship between the knower and the mental state of believing.

A priori and a posteriori knowledge
The nature of this distinction has been disputed by various philosophers; however, the terms may be roughly defined as follows: A priori knowledge is a way of gaining knowledge without the need of experience. In Bruce Russell's article "A Priori Justification and Knowledge" he says that it is "knowledge based on a priori justification," (1) which relies on intuition and the nature of these intuitions. A priori knowledge is often contrasted with posteriori knowledge, which is knowledge gained by experience. A way to look at the difference between the two is through an example. Bruce Russell gives two propositions in which the reader decides which one he believes more. Option A: All crows are birds. Option B: All crows are black. If you believe option A, then you are a priori justified in believing it because you don't have to see a crow to know it's a bird. If you believe in option B, then you are posteriori justified to believe it because you have seen many crows therefore knowing they are black. He goes on to say that it doesn't matter if the statement is true or not, only that if you believe in one or the other that matters.
 * A priori knowledge is knowledge that is known independently of experience (that is, it is non-empirical, or arrived at beforehand, usually by reason). It will henceforth be acquired through anything that is independent from experience.
 * A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is known by experience (that is, it is empirical, or arrived at afterward).

The idea of a priori knowledge is that it is based on intuition or rational insights. Laurence BonJour says in his article "The Structure of Empirical Knowledge", that a "rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp, apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is necessarily true." (3) Going back to the crow example, by Laurence BonJour's definition the reason you would believe in option A is because you have an immediate knowledge that a crow is a bird, without ever experiencing one.

Evolutionary psychology takes a novel approach to the problem. It says that there is an innate predisposition for certain types of learning. "Only small parts of the brain resemble a tabula rasa; this is true even for human beings. The remainder is more like an exposed negative waiting to be dipped into a developer fluid"

Analytic–synthetic distinction
Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Pure Reason, drew a distinction between "analytic" and "synthetic" propositions. He contended that some propositions are such that we can know them to be true just by understanding their meaning. For example, consider, "My father's brother is my uncle." We can know it to be true solely by virtue of our understanding what its terms mean. Philosophers call such propositions "analytic". Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and predicates. An example would be, "My father's brother has black hair." Kant stated that all mathematical and scientific statements are analytic a priori propositions because they are necessarily true but our knowledge about the attributes of the mathematical or physical subjects we can only get by logical inference.

The American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, in his Two Dogmas of Empiricism, famously challenged the distinction, arguing that the two have a blurry boundary. Some contemporary philosophers have offered more sustainable accounts of the distinction.

Historical
The historical study of philosophical epistemology is the historical study of efforts to gain philosophical understanding or knowledge of the nature and scope of human knowledge. Since efforts to get that kind of understanding have a history, the questions philosophical epistemology asks today about human knowledge are not necessarily the same as they once were. But that does not mean that philosophical epistemology is itself a historical subject, or that it pursues only or even primarily historical understanding.

Empiricism
In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge focusing on the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical, while some regard disciplines such as mathematics and logic as exceptions.

There are many variants of empiricism, positivism, realism and common sense being among the most commonly expounded. But central to all empiricist epistemologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged status of sense data.

Idealism
Many idealists believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is innate—for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition". The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the human mind (as in Kant's theory of transcendental idealism), or they may be said to exist independently of the mind (as in Plato's theory of Forms).

Rationalism
By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which centres around the epistemologically privileged status of sense data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical) respectively, modern rationalism adds a third 'system of thinking', (as Gaston Bachelard has termed these areas) and holds that all three are of equal importance: The empirical, the theoretical and the abstract. For Bachelard, rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of thinking.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all "knowledge is a compilation of human-made constructions", "not the neutral discovery of an objective truth". Whereas objectivism is concerned with the "object of our knowledge", constructivism emphasises "how we construct knowledge". Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that form a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity, and on viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity—constructs can be validated through experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic; as Vico said: "The norm of the truth is to have made it."

Regress problem
The regress problem is the problem of providing a complete logical foundation for human knowledge. The traditional way of supporting a rational argument is to appeal to other rational arguments, typically using chains of reason and rules of logic. A classic example that goes back to Aristotle is deducing that Socrates is mortal. We have a logical rule that says All humans are mortal and an assertion that Socrates is human and we deduce that Socrates is mortal. In this example how do we know that Socrates is human? Presumably we apply other rules such as: All born from human females are human. Which then leaves open the question how do we know that all born from humans are human? This is the regress problem: how can we eventually terminate a logical argument with some statement(s) that do not require further justification but can still be considered rational and justified? As John Pollock stated: ... to justify a belief one must appeal to a further justified belief. This means that one of two things can be the case. Either there are some beliefs that we can be justified for holding, without being able to justify them on the basis of any other belief, or else for each justified belief there is an infinite regress of (potential) justification [the nebula theory]. On this theory there is no rock bottom of justification. Justification just meanders in and out through our network of beliefs, stopping nowhere.

The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism. It is also the impetus for Descartes' famous dictum: I think, therefore I am. Descartes was looking for some logical statement that could be true without appeal to other statements.

Response to the regress problem
Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem.

Foundationalism
Foundationalists respond to the regress problem by asserting that certain "foundations" or "basic beliefs" support other beliefs but do not themselves require justification from other beliefs. These beliefs might be justified because they are self-evident, infallible, or derive from reliable cognitive mechanisms. Perception, memory, and a priori intuition are often considered to be possible examples of basic beliefs.

The chief criticism of foundationalism is that if a belief is not supported by other beliefs, accepting it may be arbitrary or unjustified.

Coherentism
Another response to the regress problem is coherentism, which is the rejection of the assumption that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of linear justification. To avoid the charge of circularity, coherentists hold that an individual belief is justified circularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with the rest of the belief system of which it is a part. This theory has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special, possibly arbitrary status for some particular class of beliefs. Yet, since a system can be coherent while also being wrong, coherentists face the difficulty of ensuring that the whole system corresponds to reality. Additionally, most logicians agree that any argument that is circular is trivially valid. That is, to be illuminating, arguments must be linear with conclusions that follow from stated premises.

However, Warburton writes in 'Thinking from A to Z', "Circular arguments are not invalid; in other words, from a logical point of view there is nothing intrinsically wrong with them. However, they are, when viciously circular, spectacularly uninformative. (Warburton 1996)."

Foundherentism
A position known as "foundherentism", advanced by Susan Haack, is meant to be a unification of foundationalism and coherentism. One component of this theory is what is called the "analogy of the crossword puzzle." Whereas, for example, infinitists regard the regress of reasons as "shaped" like a single line, Susan Haack has argued that it is more like a crossword puzzle, with multiple lines mutually supporting each other.

Infinitism
An alternative resolution to the regress problem is known as "infinitism". Infinitists take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons available to them, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons when the need arises. This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid what is seen as the arbitrariness and circularity of its chief competitors, foundationalism and coherentism.

Indian pramana
Indian philosophical schools such as the Hindu Nyaya, and Carvaka, and later, the Jain and Buddhist philosophical schools, developed an epistemological tradition which is termed "pramana" independently of the Western philosophical tradition. Pramana can be translated as "instrument of knowledge" and refers to various means or sources of knowledge which were held to be reliable by Indian philosophers. Each school of Indian philosophy had their own theories about which pramanas were valid means to knowledge and which was unreliable (and why). In the Indian traditions, the most widely discussed pramanas are: Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). While the Nyaya school (beginning with the Nyāya Sūtras of Gotama, 2nd century CE) were a proponent of realism and supported four pramanas (perception, inference, comparison/analogy and testimony), the Buddhist epistemologists (Dignaga and Dharmakirti) generally accepted only perception and inference.

The theory of knowledge of the Buddha in the early Buddhist texts has been interpreted as a form of pragmatism as well as a form of correspondence theory. Likewise, the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti has been interpreted both as holding a form of pragmatism or correspondence theory for his view that what is true is what has effective power (arthakriya). The Buddhist Madhyamika school's theory of emptiness (shunyata) meanwhile has been interpreted as a form of philosophical skepticism.

The main Jain contribution to epistemology has been their theory of "many sided-ness" or "multi-perspectivism" (Anekantavada) which says that since the world is multifaceted, any single viewpoint is limited (naya — a partial standpoint). This has been interpreted as a kind of pluralism or perspectivism. According to Jain epistemology, none of the pramanas gives absolute or perfect knowledge since they are each limited points of view.

The Carvaka school of materialists only accepted the pramana of perception and hence were one of the first empiricists. There was also another school of philosophical skepticism, the Ajñana.

Skepticism
Skepticism is a position that questions the validity of some or all of human knowledge. Skepticism does not refer to any one specific school of philosophy, rather it is a thread that runs through many philosophical discussions of epistemology. The first well known Greek skeptic was Socrates who claimed that his only knowledge was that he knew nothing with certainty. In Indian philosophy, Sanjaya Belatthiputta was a famous skeptic and the Buddhist Madhyamika school has been seen as taking up a form of skepticism. Descartes' most famous inquiry into mind and body also began as an exercise in skepticism. Descartes began by questioning the validity of all knowledge and looking for some fact that was irrefutable. In so doing, he came to his famous dictum: I think, therefore I am.

Foundationalism and the other responses to the regress problem are essentially defenses against skepticism. Similarly, the pragmatism of William James can be viewed as a coherentist defense against skepticism. James discarded conventional philosophical views of truth and defined truth to be based on how well a concept works in a specific context rather than objective rational criteria. The philosophy of Logical Positivism and the work of philosophers such as Kuhn and Popper can be viewed as skepticism applied to what can truly be considered scientific knowledge.

On Wikipedia

 * Epistemological rupture
 * Epistemic democracy
 * Feminist epistemology
 * Gödel's incompleteness theorems
 * Gnosiology
 * Methodology
 * Methods of obtaining knowledge
 * Monopolies of knowledge
 * Noölogy
 * Participatory epistemology
 * Philosophy of space and time
 * Reformed epistemology
 * Scientific method
 * Self-evidence
 * Semiotics
 * Sociology of knowledge
 * Uncertainty principle

On Wikibooks

 * Thierry Dugnolle, Handbook of epistemology

title: User:EntropicPrinciple/sandbox


text:
User:Dalbys

hey its term 4 and this term south downs primary school south Australia mavros road Elizabeth downs 5113 and having ateacher miss ratcliff back as her students miss her Shannon sdps

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Dalbys


text:
Wikipedia talk:Recent changes patrol/Archives/2019/July

Assigning skipcaptcha for all users coming from whitelisted IPs
Hello everyone, there's a proposal about assigning  user right to everyone coming from whitelisted IPs. This whitelist is the same used for mass account creation requests, see meta:Mass_account_creation. This might speed up outreach wiki events a little bit. If you think this should not happen for some reason, please comment on Phabricator. Best, --Martin Urbanec (talk) 15:22, 15 July 2019 (UTC)


text:
User:Kamara64/sandbox/Foday M Kamara Jr

Foday M Kamara Jr is a student studying Information Technology in Liberia west Africa, He is also an IT security Consultant. He holds a certificate in International Computer Driver Licenses(ICDL) and Compact+ cisco.

Foday M Kamara Jr is also an ethical Hacker and a pentester.

title: User:Kamara64/sandbox/Foday M Kamara Jr


text:
Talk:Music appreciation and history

Does commons have samples that people can listen to?--Rayc 06:47, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

Please Proofread This Page
Too many typos, grammar mistakes, repeated words and other minor mistakes. Somebody knowledgeable in this field should review and possibly edit this page.

Gregorian Chant
Here is a proposed edit of the section on chant: This is the official liturgical music of the medieval Church. It consists of sacred Latin texts set to melody, and is sung without instrumental accompaniment (a cappella). Gregorian chants convey the calm, meditative atmosphere of the church prayers. The chants are now usually sung in a free-flowing style with notes of equal length, because scholars are unsure if the notation was meant to indicate rhythmic values. Gregorian chant is named after Pope Gregory I. He is known for reorganizing and standardizing the liturgy during the period from 590 to 604. Most of these chants were created between 600 and 1300 CE. The composers of Gregorian chant, like the sculptors who decorated early medieval churches, remain completely anonymous.

Dark Ages
“The period of European History between 450 and 1400 A.D. is often called the Middle Ages. The beginning of this era was considered a "dark age" by many Europeans, due to the many migrations, wars, and upheavals therein. The later period of Middle Ages is known for much more cultural growth.”

The statement concerning the “dark ages” reflects a very clear secularist folklore which has no basis in truth. One can look into the Wikipedia page “Dark Ages” whose first paragraph, concerning “Dark Ages”, ends with these two sentences:

“Today it is frequently applied only to the earlier part of the era, the Early Middle Ages. However, most modern scholars who study the era tend to avoid the term altogether for its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate for any part of the Middle Ages.”

It is a term created by people who had a pointed interest in bashing early Christianity while highlighting the glory and benefits of the slave state, the Roman Empire. The “Dark Ages” are a propaganda, not an historical fact. That some people still use this term is a reflection of a lack of understanding and or continued propaganda - it should here be updated to either reflect the misuse or dropped all together.

title: Talk:Music appreciation and history


text:
User:Brondo37

Hello my name is Tyler and I am a student at Keuka College. I play baseball at this college at the Division 3 level. I am currently taking a Digital Communications class, which has required me to create a Wiki account so here we are!

title: User:Brondo37


text:
Katja Loos

Katja Loos is professor at the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials of the University of Groningen, The Netherlands holding the chair of Macromolecular Chemistry and New Polymeric Materials.

She currently serves as the President of the European Polymer Federation (EPF).

Biography
Katja Loos studied chemistry at the Johannes Gutenberg Universität in Mainz, Germany and graduated in 1996. During her graduate studies she focused her studies on Organic Chemistry and Polymer Chemistry. In 1992 and 1993 she was an international exchange student at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, USA.

In 2001, she received her PhD in Macromolecular Chemistry from the University of Bayreuth, Germany. Her thesis was focused on hybrid materials bearing amylose using enzymatic polymerizations. During her PhD research she worked in 1997 as an international exchange researcher at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.

In 2001, she received a Feodor Lynen research fellowship of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation to conduct postdoctoral research at the Polytechnic University in Brooklyn, NY, USA, where she worked on fundamentals of self-assembled monolayers and immobilization supports for biocatalysts.

In 2003, she started an independent research group at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

Katja Loos worked as guest professor at the Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain in 2006 and at the Technical University Dresden, Germany in 2016.

Research
The research of Loos is focused on enzymatic polymerization, especially the biocatalytic synthesis of saccharides, polyamides and furan based polymers, as well as the synthesis and self-assembly of block copolymers  using supramolecular motifs and containing ferroelectric blocks.

Loos published over 270 scholarly peer-reviewed publications, various patents and book chapters. Her publications frequently get included in special themed collections of scientific journals like “Women in Polymer Science” from Wiley en “Women at the Forefront of Chemistry” of the American Chemical Society

She is the editor of the only currently available textbook in the field of Enzymatic Polymerizations.

She is editor of the scientific journal Polymer and guest-edited special issues of various scientific journals.

Since 2017 she is a member of the board of the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials of the University of Groningen. She serves as the vice-chair of the program council Chemistry of Advanced Materials of ChemistryNL, a member of the board of the MaterialenNL Platform and is a member of the board of the Dutch national postgraduate research school Polymer Technology Netherlands (PTN).

Katja Loos is the national representative of the Netherlands to the European Polymer Federation (EPF).

In addition to her research, Katja Loos advocates for diversity in science and open access publishing

Awards and honours
Katja Loos was awarded two travel scholarships of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for research stays at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, USA, in 1992 and 1993 and at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brasil, in 1997.

In 2001, she received a Feodor Lynen Fellowship award of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation to conduct her postdoctoral research.

The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) awarded her a VIDI innovational research grant in 2009 and a VICI innovational research grant in 2014

In 2016 the Technical University Dresden and the German Research Council (DFG) within the scope of its excellency initiative awarded her the Eleonore Trefftz guest professorship.

The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation awarded Katja Loos in 2019 the Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research Award.

In 2019, she was named "Topper of the year" by Science Guide.

She is one of the recipients of the IUPAC 2021 Distinguished Women in Chemistry or Chemical Engineering award.

In 2022 she won the Team Science Award of the Dutch Research Council (NWO) with her research group HyBRit.

In 2023 she received the title of Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, the prestigious Dutch order of chivalry founded by King William I in 1815.

Katja Loos is a Fellow of the Dutch Polymer Institute (DPI) and the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC)

title: Katja Loos


text:
Maria Kalesnikava

Maria Kalesnikava (Marya Alyaksandrauna Kalesnikava, Марыя Аляксандраўна Калеснікава, ; Maria Aleksandrovna Kolesnikova, Russian: Мария Александровна Колесникова, ; born 24 April 1982) is a Belarusian professional flautist and political activist. In 2020, she headed Viktar Babaryka's electoral campaign during presidential elections of 2020 in Belarus. Kalesnikava represented the united campaign of Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, then she became a member of the presidium of the Coordination Council formed during the 2020 Belarusian protests in opposition to the regime of Alexander Lukashenko. She is also a founder of the 'Razam' political party.

Kalesnikava was kidnapped by unidentified law enforcement officers on 7 September 2020. Early in the morning of 8 September 2020, she was by force taken to the Ukraine country border. Kalesnikava was intimidated and pressured to leave the country, but while being on neutral ground she got off the car from the rear window, tore her local passport to pieces and went back on foot. On Belarusian territory she was arrested immediately. On the next day, Maxim Znak, Kalesnikava's attorney, was also detained. On 11 September 2020, Amnesty International recognized Kalesnikava as a prisoner of conscience. She was awarded the International Women of Courage Award in 2021.

On 6 September 2021, Kalesnikava was sentenced to 11 years in a penal colony for her political activity.

She was last heard from on 12 February 2023.

Early life and musical career
Kalesnikava was born on 24 April 1982 in Minsk to a family of engineers. She has one sibling, a sister named Tatiana Khomich. According to Tatiana, their parents were deeply fond of music. They inspired interest in it in their daughters and in a certain way influenced Maria's choice of profession. Maria studied in a music school, then graduated from the Belarusian State Academy of Music as a flutist and conductor.

At the age of 17, Kalesnikava started teaching the flute at a private gymnasium school in Minsk. She also played the flute at the National Academic Concert Orchestra of the Republic of Belarus under the direction of Mikhail Finberg. She played on tours across Italy, Poland, and Lithuania.

At the age of 25, she moved to Germany and enrolled to the State University of Music and Performing Arts in Stuttgart. She got two master's degrees, one in Early Music, and another in Neue Musik in 2012.

In the 2010s, Kalesnikava performed at concerts and was actively involved in organizing international cultural projects in Belarus and Germany, for instance, she was one of the creators of 'Eclat' music festival. Her other projects included 'Music and the Holocaust', school programm 'Orchestra of Robots', and a series of lectures under the title "Music Lessons for Adults".

In 2017, Maria participated in one of the first TEDxNiamiha conferences in Belarus. She took part in creation of the 'Artemp' art community that hosted contemporary art events. In the same year, she became the art director of the 'OK16' culture centre in Minsk.

Political activity

In May 2020, Kalesnikava became the head of Viktar Babaryka's presidential campaign, who was Alexander Lukashenko's greatest independent competitor at the 2020 Belarusian presidential election. When Babaryka was refused registration and detained,  on 16 July 2020, Kalesnikova and representatives of two other independent candidates' campaigns — Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya (wife of Sergei Tikhanovsky) and Veronika Tsepkalo (wife of Valery Tsepkalo) — announced creation of triple alliance. Tsikhanouskaya became their mutual candidate, she gained wide support across the country. When Lukashenko declared himself a winner with 80,1% of votes, the opposition refused to acknowledge the results and accused Lukashenko of massive falsifications. USA, Great Britain, Canada and 8 EU countries refused to acknowledge the election's results as legitimate. The street protests and meetings emerged across the country, demanding re-election and Lukashenko's dismissal., brutally put down by law enforcement

Kalesnikava in her interviews always emphasized that she wasn't any kind of 'protest leader' and never took part in the meetings' organization. In that time Belarusian opposition pursued the idea that all citizens were protest leaders and everyone was responsible for his country's future. She visited protest meetings as a private person, via mass media she asked both citizens and law enforcement to preserve peace.

On 18 August 2020, Kalesnikava joined the 7-member presidium of Coordination Council. On 19 August, she was selected as one of the main board members.

By mid-August Tsikhanouskaya and Tsepkalo were forced by authorities to leave the country. Meanwhile, Kalesnikava stated to the media that she by no means would leave Belarus because she felt it was deeply personal not to flee while her colleagues and friends were jailed under unlawful charges.

On 31 August 2020, Kalesnikova announced the start of a new political party 'Razam' that she intended to make a democratic tool to protect human rights in the country.

Arrest and repressions
On 7 September 2020, Belarusian media published the news that Kalesnikava was kidnapped in the center of Minsk. Her friends and colleagues could not reach her by phone. Later, witnesses stated that a woman was forcibly put into a black minivan by some unknown men in civilian clothes with covered faces. In the morning of 8 September 2020, the news was published that the authorities tried to deport Maria against her will, she was taken to the Alexandrovka border crossing with Ukraine. Later, Ukrainian Deputy Interior Minister Anton Gerashchenko wrote on his Facebook page, "This was not a voluntary departure. This was a forced deportation from her native country". The State Border Committee of the Republic of Belarus reported that at 4 a.m. she left Belarus together with Ivan Kravtsov and Anton Rodnenkov passed the border control and headed towards Ukraine. State-controlled TV-channels put around the story that Kalesnikava was detained at the border cross when trying to leave the country and move to her sister in Ukraine. In fact, as confirmed by the witnesses Rodnenkov and Kravtsov, in the neutral zone Kalesnikava managed to escape through the rear window of the car where she was kept, tore her passport to pieces, then headed back to Belarusian border. There she was immediately arrested. Following these news, Bundestag vice-chairman Klaudia Roth promised to patronage Kalesnikava and help her via Libereco organization.

On 9 September 2020, Kalesnikava's colleague in Coordination Council, lawyer Maxim Znak was also arrested. On the same day, Kalesnikava's father, Aliaksandar Kalesnikau, was notified by the police that she had been jailed at a detention centre in Minsk. Through her lawyers, Maria appealed to the State Investigative Committee with the complaint that KGB and GUBOPiK officers threatened to kill her, they put a sack on her head and promised 'to deport her whether in one piece or in many pieces'. Deputy Head of Department of Home Affairs Gennadiy Kazakevich personally told Kalesnikava that She will be in prison without teeth for 25 years to sew clothes for the security forces.

On 10 September 2020, twelve organizations, including the Viasna Human Rights Centre, the Belarusian Association of Journalists, the Belarusian Helsinki Committee, the Belarusian PEN Center, released a joint statement naming Kalesnikava as a political prisoner. On 11 September 2020, Amnesty International recognized Kalesnikava as a prisoner of conscience.

On 20 August, Alexander Konyuk, the Prosecutor General of Belarus, initiated criminal proceedings against the members of the Coordination Council under Article 361 of the Belarusian Criminal Code, on the grounds of attempting to seize state power and harming national security.

On 12 September, Kalesnikava was transferred from Minsk to prison № 8 in Zhodino. On 16 September, the Investigative Committee of Belarus charged Kalesnikava with "actions aimed at undermining Belarusian national security" using the media and the Internet.

On 10 October 2020, Kalesnikava's attorney Aliaksandar Pylchanka announced that Lukashenko requested a meeting with her to discuss changes to the Constitution, to which she refused in an expression of solidarity with other imprisoned dissidents. On 8 November 2020, the press office of the Babaryka campaign announced that investigators had extended Kalesnikava's detention until 8 January 2021.

On 6 January 2021, the Coordination Council announced that investigators had extended Kalesnikava's pre-trial detention until 8 March. She was transferred back to Minsk. In the end of the month, on 27 January, the Investigative Committee refused to open a criminal case against law enforcement officers who threatened to kill her.

On 12 February, Kalesnikava and Maxim Znak were charged with "conspiracy to seize state power in an unconstitutional manner" and "establishing and leading an extremist organization". Her attorney Liudmila Kazak was stripped of her license to practice law on 19 February by the Belarus Ministry of Justice. On 9 March 2021, Viktar Babaryka's social media reported that Kalesnikava's pre-trial detention had been extended through 8 May. Her attorney Illia Salei is under house arrest through 16 April. Final charges in May 2021 included three articles of the State Criminal Code. The defence refused all accusations and demanded to drop all charges due to absence of the event of a crime. The investigation and the trial were held behind closed doors, the accused were prohibited to study the case files.

For a year, in detention, Kalesnikava was denied visitors and couldn't meet her father. According to Tatiana Kalesnikava, Maria wrote more than 150 letters per month while jailed, while no more than 20 were received by the addressees. The correspondences sent to her were heavily censored, as Kalesnikava received no more than 5% of letters written to her. She also was prohibited from getting a flute. A year without practice could forever ruin her mastery as a musician.

Sentence
Starting 4 August 2021, after almost 11 months in custody, Kalesnikava and Maxim Znak stood trial behind closed doors in the Minsk Regional Court. The prosecutor demanded 12 years in prison for both of them. Maria pleaded not guilty and called any charges against herself and Znak 'absurd'. Throughout the investigation and trial, the details of the charges were not publicly disclosed. The attorneys of Kalesnikava and Znak were under a nondisclosure agreement. Though the authorities promised to make the proceedings public, in fact the courtroom was filled with some strangers, foreign ambassadors who wanted to support Kalesnikava and Znak weren't allowed inside.

On 6 September 2021, Kalesnikava was sentenced to 11 years in prison. She is serving her sentence in penal colony no. 4 (ИК №4) in Gomel. Both she and Znak refused to request for pardon because they believed they were innocent. They planned to appeal to a higher court.

In a written interview, Kalesnikava told the media that in jail she was offered many times to make a movie 'Protasevich-like' with confessions and to admit guilt for her actions. In her first interview after the sentence, given by phone to BBC journalist Sara Rainsford, Kolesnikova complained that in prison 'everyone smokes everywhere', and the prolonged passive smoking will forever ruin her chances to come back as a professional flutist. However, she says she regrets nothing and believes that the protests of 2020 were the beginning of a new era in the country. According to Kalesnikava, triumph of democracy in Belarus is only a matter of time.

On 29 November 2022, Kalesnikava was hospitalized in critical condition. As stated by Babaryka's press service, she was put in a punitive isolation cell no later than 22 November. In Homel hospital she was diagnosed with perforated ulcer and had urgent surgery. As mentioned by Maria's sister, she never had any problems with GI tract before prison. In isolation cell she was denied visits of her lawyer, had faints and hypertension. Only in hospital she was allowed a 10-minutes visit of her father, with three law enforcement officers present. On 9 December 2022, one of Kalesnikava's lawyers Uladzimir Pylchanka was disbarred.

She was last heard from on 12 February 2023. In August 2023, after no news about Kalesnikava for six months, 13 cultural figures wrote an open letter to Lukashenko demanding information with no answer. On December 17, 2023, the Lev Kopelev Forum held a discussion in Cologne in support of Kolesnikova. The event was attended by former German Interior Minister Gerhart Baum, Kolesnikova's sister Tatsiana Khomich and former lawyer Lyudmila Kazak.

Reactions to Kalesnikava arrest
Human rights activists and international community condemn Kalesnikava's sentence, the case is unanimously considered to be fabricated. The sentence is repressive and made as Lukashenko's political revenge.

 * 🇪🇺 The European Commission condemned the 7 September arrest, describing it as unacceptable.
 * 🇩🇪 Germany demanded clarity on Kalesnikava's whereabouts and called for the release of all political prisoners in Belarus.
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania called Kalesnikava's abduction a disgrace, comparing it to something that Stalin-era secret police would have done, and demanded her immediate release.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland denounced Kalesnikava's abduction as contemptible and called on immediate release of all political prisoners in Belarus.
 * The United Kingdom expressed serious concern for Kalesnikava's welfare and said that her release must be given the highest priority.
 * 🇺🇸 The United States expressed concern about the attempt to expel Kalesnikava by the Belarusian authorities.
 * Amnesty International recognized Kalesnikava as a prisoner of conscience and demanded her immediate release.
 * Kosovo's speaker of the Assembly, Vjosa Osmani, along with 9 other members of the parliament, signed a letter demanding the immediate release of Kalesnikava.

Awards

 * 2020: Sakharov Prize (European Parliament, Prize for Freedom of Thought)
 * 2021: Global Belarusian Solidarity Award by the Center for Belarusian Solidarity in the category "Deed"
 * On 8 March 2021 (International Women's Day), Kalesnikava was presented with the International Women of Courage Award from the US Secretary of State, Antony Blinken. The ceremony was virtual due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and included an address by First Lady, Jill Biden.
 * 2021: Lew-Kopelew-Preis (Germany, peace and human rights award)
 * 2021: Stuttgarter Friedenspreis (Germany, award for courageous struggle against the autocratic regime of Alexander Lukashenko)
 * 2021: Fritz-Csoklich-Preis (Austria)
 * 2021: Menschenrechtspreis der Gerhart und Renate Baum-Stiftung (Germany, human rights award)
 * 2021: Václav Havel Human Rights Prize, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
 * 2022: Theodor Haecker Prize, City of Esslingen
 * 2022: Stig Dagerman Prize
 * 2022: Charlemagne Prize

title: Maria Kalesnikava


text:
CACS/Glossary/ANI

Animated Cursor – (software graphics) a feature that modifies the displayed cursor based on the state of the component the cursor is located in or the properties of a control that the cursor points to. State variation usually alters the cursor when a wait state exists. Property variation identifies controls or text that are accessible or available for end-user manipulation.

(Microsoft Windows) The file extension .ANI is used for the graphics and conditions that control the display.

title: CACS/Glossary/ANI


text:
Bálint Korpási

Bálint Korpási (born 30 March 1987) is a Hungarian Greco-Roman wrestler competing in the 72 kg division. He won gold medal in 2016 world championships in Budapest.

In 2020, he won the gold medal in the 72 kg event at the 2020 Individual Wrestling World Cup held in Belgrade, Serbia. In March 2021, he qualified at the European Qualification Tournament to compete at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan. He competed in the 67 kg event.

title: Bálint Korpási


text:
Melbourne Observer

The Melbourne Observer is a weekly newspaper circulated across Victoria, Australia.

History
The newspaper was established by transport magnate Gordon Barton in September 1969 as the "Sunday Observer", Melbourne's first Sunday newspaper. Barton ran the paper for 18 months, with a $1.5 million loss, going on to publish the Sunday Review, later known as The Review, then Nation Review.

Maxwell Newton started his version of the Melbourne Observer in March 1971, two weeks after Barton closed his enterprise. From August 1973, the newspaper was re-titled "Sunday Observer". About 1977, after financial pressures, Peter Isaacson purchased the Melbourne Observer for $425,000. He ran the weekly paper until June 1989.

The Melbourne Observer was resurrected in 2002 as a midweek publication by Victorian publisher Ash Long. It has achieved a weekly readership of more than 55,000. The content sources include original columnists and contributors as well as material aggregated from other influential media sources such as social media, newspapers and on line.

title: Melbourne Observer


text:
User:Naraht/IK hold

Intercollegiate Knights (IK) was a collegiate men's honorary service group.

History
The predecessor organization of Intercollegiate Knights was Knights of the Hook at University of Washington. Knights of the Hook was formed was formed in 1919 to serve the University and promote its traditions. The name was chosen due to group perceiving similarities between their duties and those of "the knighthood of old".

In 1922, the group was incorporated in the state of Washington, and Red and White were chosen as its colors. During the next two years IK expanded to five other schools: University of Montana, Montana State, Washington State University, University of Idaho and University of Oregon. The first national convention was in 1924 at Washington State University. Over 20 chapters were chartered by the beginning of World War II mostly in the Northwestern United States however during the war, only a few chapters continued to operate. In 1959 there were 35 active chapters, but by 1978, there were only 16. By 1990, the organization splintered with the few remaining chapters each going their own way.

Symbols
Colors: The original colors were red and white. By 1947, those colors were Flame Red and Royal Blue.

Refs

 * https://dc.ewu.edu/loztenhiser_docs/13/
 * https://dc.ewu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=loztenhiser_docs
 * http://files.lib.byu.edu/ead/XML/UA810.xml
 * https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/22078302/ Yurok
 * https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6fr419d
 * https://sites.lib.byu.edu/special-collections/2008/10/22/the-intercollegiate-knights-at-byu/
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20170408000127/http://web.mst.edu/~ik/history.html (note red and white, later Flame Red and Royal Blue,according to the initiation.
 * https://universe.byu.edu/1998/09/14/y-days-tradition-carried-on-through-clubs/ 1998 situation (correct or not)
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20120308035139/http://www.ik-fraternity.org/chapter_information.htm Old ik website

Chapters
School List of Intercollegiate Knight Chapters
 * 1922 University of Washington - Hook
 * 1922 University of Idaho, Moscow - Ball and Chain
 * 1922 Montana State University, Bozeman - Fang
 * 1922 Washington State University, Pullman - Cougar Guard
 * 1922 University of Montana, Missoula - Bear Paw
 * 1922 University of Oregon - Oregon Knights
 * 1923 Oregon State University - Beaver Knights /Thane
 * 1924 Utah State University - Beno
 * 1925 University of Redlands - Yeoman
 * 1932 Lewis–Clark State College (Idaho) - Pioneer Lancer
 * 1932 Idaho State University - Tiger
 * 1935 College of Idaho - Arrowrock
 * 1935 Eastern Washington University - Tomahawk
 * 1936 Gonzaga University - Kennel
 * 1937 Central Washington University - Claw
 * 1937 Montana School of Mines, Butte - Copper Guard
 * 1937 University of Utah - Scalper
 * 1939 Linfield University - Old Oak
 * 1940 Albion State Normal School - Cardinal
 * 1940 Boise State University - Golden Plume
 * 1940 Seattle University - Wigwam
 * 1941 Brigham Young University - Golden "Y" /Gold "Y"
 * 1946 University of Puget Sound - Log
 * 1947 Pacific University - Badger
 * 1948 Whitworth University - Lookout
 * 1948 Brigham Young University–Idaho (formerly Ricks College) - Norseman Knights /Silver Chalice/Viking
 * 1948 University of Portland - Pilots
 * 1949 Lewis & Clark College (Oregon) - Mustang
 * 1949 Branch Agricultural College (now Southern Utah U)- Rainbow Chapter
 * 1949 Rocky Mountain College - Rimrock
 * 1949 Humboldt State University - Humboldt Knights /Yurok
 * 1950 Montana State University Billings - Stinger /Avalon
 * 1951 University of Denver - Civic Center - Gold Nugget
 * 1951 Westminster College (Utah) -Los Caballeros
 * 1951 Eastern Oregon University -Mountaineer (Knights)
 * 1951 University of Denver - Park Campus - Pioneer
 * 1953 Olympic College - Cruiser
 * 1953 Grays Harbor College - Harbor Knights
 * 1953 Highlands University - Los Matadores
 * 1953 Colorado State University - Totem
 * 1953 Saint Martin's University - Yeoman
 * 1954 Eastern Oklahoma A&M - Excalibur
 * 1959 Pan American University - Camelot
 * 1959 Carbon College - Golden Eagle
 * 1959 Snow College - White Knights
 * 1960 Portland State University - Odin's Raiders
 * 1960 Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College - Praetor
 * 1960 Nevada, Southern Division (now UNLV) - Red Eagle
 * 1960 Western Oregon University - Wolf Knight
 * 1961 Connors State College - Lancelot
 * 1961 Oklahoma State University - Galahad
 * 1961 Ventura College - Buena Ventura
 * 1961 University of San Diego - Scout
 * 1962 Fort Lewis A&M - Royal Windsor
 * 1962 Church College of Hawaii - Kamehameha
 * 1962 University of Denver - Thor (October 1962 Gold Nugget and Pioneer chapters merged)
 * 1963 Washburn University - Harbinger
 * 1963 University of Missouri - Rolla - Osage
 * 1964 Pacific Lutheran University
 * 1964 Yakima Valley College - Golden Fleece
 * 1968 Western Montana College - Crimson Tide
 * 1969 Columbia Basin College - Falcon
 * 1976 University of Texas - Don Quixote
 * 1988 University of Missouri (Columbia) - Tri-Star
 * 1990 Utah Valley State College - Silver Plume

Chapter List
From http://files.lib.byu.edu/ead/XML/UA810.xml

 * Arrowrock Chapter, 1963-1973, 1987-1988
 * Avalon Chapter, 1963-1977
 * Badger Chapter, 1963-1972
 * Ball and Chain Chapter, 1963-1979
 * Beno Chapter, 1963-1979
 * Los Caballeros Chapter, 1963-1965
 * Buena Ventura Chapter, 1963-1970
 * Camelot Chapter, 1963-1973, 1987-1988
 * Cardinal Chapter, 1951
 * Claw Chapter, 1963-1970
 * Cougar Guard Chapter, 1963-1974
 * Crimson Tide Chapter, 1967-1970
 * Cruiser Chapter, 1963-1970
 * Excalibur Chapter, 1957-1963
 * Falcon Chapter, 1969-1974
 * Fang Chapter, 1955-1960
 * Galahad Chapter, 1963-1980
 * Golden Eagle Chapter, 1964-1971
 * Golden Fleece Chapter, 1963-1970
 * Los Matadores Chapter, 1955-1960
 * Golden Plume Chapter, 1963-1973
 * Gold "Y" Chapter, 1963-1973
 * Harbringer Chapter, 1963-1965
 * Javelina Chapter, 1967-1972
 * Kamehameha Chapter, 1963-1966
 * Knight Chapter, 1963-1968
 * Log Chapter, 1963-1968
 * Lookout Chapter, 1963
 * Mountaineer Chapter, 1963-1973
 * Norsemen Knights Chapter, 1959-1961
 * Odin Raiders Chapter, 1964-1969
 * Old Oak Chapter, 1963-1980
 * Osage Chapter, 1963-1974
 * Pilot Chapter, 1952
 * Pioneer-Lancer Chapter, 1963-1971
 * Praetor Chapter, 1964-1969
 * Rainbow Chapter, 1964-1966
 * Red Eagle Chapter, 1964-1970
 * Sigma Alpha Chi Honorary, 1960 ?????
 * Scalper Chapter, 1963-1974
 * Silver Chalice Chapter, n. d.
 * Thor Chapter, 1963-1966
 * Tiger Chapter, 1963-1974
 * Tomahawk Chapter, 1963-1974
 * Totem Chapter, 1963-1972
 * White Knights Chapter, 1962-1972
 * White Knights Chapter, 1987
 * Wigwam Chapter, 1965-1973
 * Wolf Knight Chapter, 1965-1977
 * Yurok Chapter, 1964-1973

Matchups

 * Church College of Hawaii - Kamehameha
 * Idaho Southern Branch, Pocatello - Tiger
 * Eastern Washington College, Cheney - Tomahawk
 * Utah State College, Logan - Beno
 * Montana School of Mines, Butte - Copper Guard
 * Lewiston State Normal School - Pioneer Lancer
 * State College of Washington, Pullman - Cougar Guard
 * College of Idaho, Caldwell - Arrowrock
 * University of Utah - Scalper
 * Gonzaga University, Spokane - Kennel
 * Seattle College, Seattle - Wigwam
 * Brigham Young University - Golden Y
 * University of Montana, Missoula - Bear Paw
 * Linfield College, McMinnville - Old Oak
 * Central Washington College, Ellensburg - Claw
 * University of Idaho, Moscow -Ball and Chain
 * Montana State College, Bozeman -Fang
 * Boise Junior College, Boise - Golden Plume
 * Albion State Normal School - Cardinal
 * (Eastern Montana College - Avalon
 * Pacific University (Oregon) - Badger
 * Westminster College of SLC - Los Caballeros
 * ??? - Buena Ventura (actual???)
 * Pan American University - Camelot
 * ??? - Crimson Tide (gotta be Alabama)
 * ??? - Cruiser
 * Eastern Oklahoma A&M - Excalibur
 * ??? - Falcon
 * Colorado State College - Totem
 * Oklahoma - Galahad
 * Missouri (UM Rolla) - Osage
 * ??? - Golden Eagle
 * ??? - Golden Fleece
 * ??? - Los Matadores
 * Brigham Young University - Gold "Y" /Golden "Y"
 * ??? - Harbringer
 * ??? - Javelina
 * Snow College - White Knights
 * Oregon College of Education - Wolf Knight
 * Ricks College - Norseman Knights
 * ??? - Knights
 * University of Puget Sound - Log
 * Whitworth College - Lookout
 * Eastern Oregon College - Mountaineer
 * ??? - Odin Raiders
 * ??? - Pilot
 * ??? -Praetor
 * ??? - Red Eagle
 * ??? - Silver Chalice
 * University of Denver??? - Thor chapter?

 * Rocky Mountain College - Rimrock Knights
 * Branch Agricultural College (now Southern Utah U)- Rainbow Chapter

 * Eastern Montana College of Education -Billings - Stinger Chapter
 * Humboldt State - Yurok chapter
 * Portland State College - Odin Raiders
 * Nevada Southern (now UNLV) - Red Eagle

title: User:Naraht/IK hold


text:
User:Bilalhassan428/sandbox

Malakwal.jpg

City Info
Malakwal town is a Tehsil in District Mandi Bahauddin of Pakistan. It is located around 225 Kilometer south east of Capital city Islamabad and around 35 Kilometer away from its district headquarter Mandi Bahauddin. It has moderate climate, which is hot in summer and cold in winter. During peak summer the day temperature rises to 45ºC, but the winter months are very pleasant. Only in the months of December and January the temperature goes down.

This town is very famous because of its Railway Junction. Up to year 2001 a lot of locomotive fans, from all over the world, used to visit Malakwal. Because Malakwal was the home of last SPS and SGS class locomotives in Indo Pak subcontinent.

Its population is around 50,000. Peoples of this area are really very hardworking. In tehsil Malakwal the land is very fertile and people's major source of income is farming. In this area wheat, rice and sugar cane are the major crops.

In this town There are only two government high schools for boys and only one government high school for girls and same is the ratio for Primary and Middle Schools. These schools are really not sufficient to accommodate all the students of this area. Because of this all the government schools are over crowded and students are unable to get the quality education. Actually these schools were opened several decades ago and now this Tehsil has almost tripled its population. But the numbers of schools are same. This town really needs some good new government schools so that a common person can send his kids to school.

title: User:Bilalhassan428/sandbox


text:
Japanese/Vocabulary/Dates

This is a list of Japanese vocabulary for dates. It includes months, days, weeks and ect.

Days of the week

 * Days may be abbreviated, for example, 金曜 or 金 (Fri)

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Dates


text:
Kotli, Himachal Pradesh

Kotli Tungal (Kotli) is a small town in Himachal Pradesh, in northern India located along national highway 70 (updated 003) which connects Jalandhar (in Punjab) to Mandi. It is 22 km from the town of Mandi, Kotli is a Sub Division and Tehsil (Sub District)  of Mandi District. Kotli and the surrounding area are also known as Tungal Valley. The center of Tungal Valley is Kotli, where The NH 70 (003) from Mandi to Jalandhar passes through Kotli. Tungal Valley is covered with lush green forests of oak and cedar deodar. Rechara Dev Temple, Mahan Dev Temple, Kali Mata Temple, Janitri mata temple, Nagan mata mandir, Jhumba Ri Jogni Mata Temple are the main temples of the area. Jhumb dhar located at an altitude of 2100 m from sea level is height peak of the area. Pahari and Hindi are spoken.

Education

 * Government Degree College Kotli
 * Government Industrial Training Institute Kotli

Access
Kotli Tungal is well Connected by National Highway 003 with district headquartersMandi,
 * Distance from Delhi: 451 km
 * Distance from Chandigarh: 215 km
 * Distance from Shimla: 147 km
 * Distance from Mandi: 22 km

title: Kotli, Himachal Pradesh


text:
basket hilt

Noun

 * 1) A style of sword hilt with a covering wrought like basketwork, to surround and protect the hand.

Translations

 * Chinese:
 * Mandarin:
 * Dutch:
 * Finnish:

title: basket hilt


text:
Talk:Bob Leach

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 one external links on Bob Leach. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110206090753/http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com:80/archives/04102008.pdf to http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/archives/04102008.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110206090753/http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com:80/archives/04102008.pdf to http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/archives/04102008.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110206090753/http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com:80/archives/04102008.pdf to http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/archives/04102008.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110206090753/http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com:80/archives/04102008.pdf to http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/archives/04102008.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110206090753/http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com:80/archives/04102008.pdf to http://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/archives/04102008.pdf

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:27, 4 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bob Leach


text:
Talk:Reinforcement (speciation)

Article is too technical
The lead to this article is completely incomprehensible to a general reader, and even to one with significant education in the biological sciences. The diagram illustrating the lead does not help in the slightest: if anything, it adds further layers of jargonistic unexplained concepts.<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 14:36, 4 January 2018 (UTC)
 * I reworded the first paragraph to be a little easier to understand. The sentence you provided was inaccurate. Reinforcement is speciation caused by selection against unfit hybrids. Additionally, the original first sentence contained the appropriate links to be able to understand the fundamentals of the topic. The reworded one did not. Speciation, reproductive isolation, hybrids, fitness, etc are all important to understanding a rather complex and technical topic.  Andrew Z. Colvin  •  Talk  22:22, 4 January 2018 (UTC)

"Secondary contact" is not synonymous
My PhD thesis is in speciation and I have a peer-reviewed journal article published on the topic of reinforcement. I can say with 99% confidence that the evo bio community does not use secondary contact to mean reinforcement. Anyone who might use the term in this imprecise manner would have it pointed out by a reviewer. I don't have Dobzhansky's book at hand, but even if he did use the terminology like that in 1937, it is not how we use the term today. Yel D'ohan (talk) 15:42, 1 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Perhaps it would help the reader if the term secondary contact was referred to, not as a synonym, but as a term that has been applied in regards to reinforcement? Currently there is a redirect from secondary contact to reinforcement. Maybe the lead could have the parenthetical removed and the bold use of the term secondary contact placed in the sentence about Dobzhansky's conception of the term? This might help remove the assumption of synonym? Andrew Z. Colvin • Talk 02:10, 3 September 2018 (UTC)
 * I think secondary contact would be better redirected to hybrid zone instead of here, and eventually it should be given its own article. As one of the figures shown, reinforcement is only one of the four possible outcomes of secondary contact. If we have to mention it, perhaps something like "reinforcement may occur during secondary contact" in one of the opening sentences would work. Yel D'ohan (talk) 02:27, 3 September 2018 (UTC)
 * I agree, it should have an article of its own. We could remove the redirect entirely and let the link simply be red. And honestly, we probably don't need to mention it in the lead at all by the fact that it needs its own article. We can link the use of the term in the sentence about Dobzhansky's conception. Andrew Z. Colvin • Talk 03:02, 3 September 2018 (UTC)

post-zygotic isolation
it is somewhat confusing that the article uses first the term "reproductive isolation" and later refers to it as "post-zygotic isolation" without clarifying that they are one and same. to find this out requires further inquiry from the layperson. i personally find post-zygotic a somewhat cryptic expression and would rather see it only once in the article at the very first time when "reproductive isolation" is mentioned, as a remark in brackets informing that it is also called "post-zygotic isolation", and then never more. at least the circumstance that the "post-zygotic isolation" expression leads to a redirect and the respective article refers to it as "reproductive isolation" seems to suggest that the latter term is/should be/ preferred.<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 21:05, 9 March 2020 (UTC).

title: Talk:Reinforcement (speciation)


text:
Statistics/Practise Problems/Summary Statistics

Questions:
 * 1) Calculate the sample mean and sample standard deviation of 34, 45, 17, 25, 30, and 23. Report the answer to two decimal places.

Answers:
 * 1) (NEW) Sample mean = 29, Sample standard deviation = 9.78


text:
User:Kizer/Web Page/Flash/Mask

MASKING

1. Insert a keyframe wherever you want your movie to end by right clicking where you want in on the Timeline and clicking ~insert keyframe~

2. Double click the words "LAYER 1" to change the name to background

3. Create your object in frame 1, this will be your background, lock it

4. Add a new layer, to do that: click the button that looks like a post it note with a plus sign

5. double click it to name it LAYER 1.

6. make sure you're on LAYER 1, draw a rectangle that has no line color, and convert to symbol

(to convert to symbol you right click the rectangle click convert to symbol, make sure the graphic bubble is filled in. and click okay)

7. insert a keyframe on LAYER 1 at the frame where the movie will end

You will stay on Layer one now

8. click keyframe 15, make a new keyframe, click the rectangle and move the rectangle over to the right side, by using your arrow keys on the keyboard

9. click keyframe 30 make a new keyframe, click the rectangle and make the rectangle go to the complete opposite side

10. click keyframe 45. make a new keyframe, click the rectangle and with the FREE TRANSFORM TOOL make it full width of the picture.

11. click keyframe 60 and make the rectangle get smaller into a cube... with the FREE TRANSFORM TOOL

12. Click keyframe 75 and make the cube go all the way up and down in height but stay the same width

13. click keyframe 90 and make that rectangle go all width and height of the picture

14. right click in between the keyframes and click CREATE MOTION TWEEN

15. right click layer 1 and click mask in the drop down menu

MagikNinja 18:19, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Kizer/Web Page/Flash/Mask


text:
User:CyborgTosser~enwikibooks

I am studying Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Computer Science, and Physics in college, so these are my primary academic interests at this time.

You can also check out my website to learn more.

I am also a long time contributer to Wikipedia; see my user page there.

title: User:CyborgTosser~enwikibooks


text:
Trophée des Championnes

The Trophée des Championnes is a French women's association football trophy contested as an annual match between the champions of Division 1 Féminine and the winners of the Coupe de France Féminine from previous season. It is the female equivalent to Trophée des Champions which is played since 1995. If both league and cup are won by the same team, the league runners-up will be qualified to play this match as the second team.

title: Trophée des Championnes


text:
Talk:Rusyns

RfC about "White Croats" question
Is it possible to call all Croats, except for "Croats in the Balkans", "White Croats", even if the reliable sources call them simply "Croats" or claim that they are called "White Croats" wrongly or give the localization of "White Croats" in a completely different place? Nicoljaus --Nicoljaus (talk) 14:52, 8 July 2019 (UTC)(talk) 14:45, 8 July 2019 (UTC)

 * The majority of reliable sources call them as White Croats. We cite reliable sources. We include a wikilink to the article, which title is named according to the most common usage, and not correct name. All Wikipedian articles are named as White Croats (wikidata). The answer is yes - simple as that. The discussion is pointless.--Miki Filigranski (talk) 14:56, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * I just want to warn everyone, this is the editor with whom the dispute went. To illustrate the situation: trying to confirm their allegations, they referred to the article [ ХОРВАТИ], which says: They  are often unreasonably also called "White Croats". This is due to the fact that Eastern Europe Croats is mistakenly identified with "Croats White" <...> in fact, both cases <(Porphyrogenitus and Russian Primary Chronicle)> refer to the Slav tribes in the Balkans - the ancestors of the modern Croatian population.. They also ignored the discussion on the Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution_noticeboard#Talk:Rusyns#White_Croats--Nicoljaus (talk) 15:08, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * I am constantly warning you that you are ignoring editing policy (WP:WEIGHT) because you are ignoring all other cited reliables sources in the mentioned articles, and misinterpreting and cherry picking statements from reliable sources (including the one above which says that They  are often unreasonably also called "White Croats"). There is no "my allegation" neither I tried to confirm it only with that citation neither I ignored the dispute resolution which I advise you to start. You're dishonest. --Miki Filigranski (talk) 15:31, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * neither I ignored the dispute resolution -- Well, one more small illustration of how much we can believe the words of this editor: --Nicoljaus (talk) 15:45, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * I advised you to start dispute resolution, which you did on 27 July, Dispute resolution noticeboard/Archive 177, but did not do it properly as neither did write my "summary of dispute", neither did notify me (firstly even ignored moderator's remark). When I wrote the "summary of dispute" you went to comment in the same section which is not a place for further commentary. Then the moderator started with "first statements" on 1 July, but I was not active & barely active from 30 June until 4 July. I already explained you above, it is summer, a period when adult editors, including myself, have to handle both job and family time hence are not capable to follow everything on daily basis neither was notified (pinged) by anyone. However, you continue to be uncivil and provoke. If you think that such behavior is getting you anywhere closer to a consensus or support by other editors you're greatly mistaken.--Miki Filigranski (talk) 17:27, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Well, as I see, the summer is not an obstacle for blank reverting and long empty talk, only for participation in a moderated discussion.--Nicoljaus (talk) 18:21, 8 July 2019 (UTC)
 * There's no rush. Wow, you continue to provoke, and now even dare to dictate my personal life. I am speechless. --Miki Filigranski (talk) 20:06, 8 July 2019 (UTC)

Related groups
Due to historical reasons Rusyns are more related to the neighbouring nations, like Slovaks, Poles and Hungarians than to the rest of east slavs. As a Rusyn I can tell you for sure that Rusyn culture, traditions, cuisine and religious rituals are very similar to Slovak despite having different self-identification, religion and language. Constant contacts with neighbours and a constant population mix within Hungarian kingdom, lack of contact with other slavs on the other side of Carpathians made us totally different from rest of the East Slavs.--Killrocker (talk) 16:00, 10 February 2020 (UTC)

 * - While I'm sure your intentions are good, this is an article talk page, not a venue for sharing personal anecdotes. Please see WP:SOAP. Iryna Harpy (talk) 05:10, 13 February 2020 (UTC)

 * - Thats correct, this is not a personal anecdote, but a fact. The thing is that nowadays we don`t have any reliable sources when it comes to Rusyns (due to many reasons), except Rusyns themself. If we simply compare Rusyn culture (traditions, cuisine, cothing, religious rituals,..) with other surrounding cultures and other East Slavic cultures, then it becomes very very clear. Lets be honest, how Russians and Rusyns could be related if there was no contact between these two nations until 1944? The only reason why Rusyns are classified as East Slavs is religion, which is funny, because Rusyns became Orthodox (and then Greek Catholic) in a different way than the rest of East slavs. So what we are talking about here is a common sense and a basic history knowledge. We don`t need any source to prove that Khanty and Hungarians are not culturaly related anymore, and we dont need a proof that English culture has more in common with Welsh rather than with German. We don`t need to prove that Rusyns are not related to some nations that live thousands kilometers away and didn`t have any contacts with them. --Killrocker (talk) 14:08, 14 February 2020 (UTC)

Andy Warhol
Ought to be mentioned in this article. Will find some sources to add him in. Ab e g92 contribs 19:55, 2 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rusyns


text:
Kazimierz Raszewski

Kazimierz Raszewski (29 February 1864 – 14 January 1941) was a lieutenant general of the Polish Army.

Early life
Raszewski was born 29 February 1864 in a small village called Jasień near Poznań (Czempiń Municipal), in the Province of Posen in the Kingdom of Prussia. Kazimierz was the second son of a szlachta (Polish landed gentry) Ignacy Raszewski and Józefa Koczorowska. An ancestor, Kazimierz Turno, was a general of the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw.

In 1827, he started attending the Real School in Poznań. He later moved to the Saint Mary Magdalene School. In 1884, he finished school in Bolesławiec.

Military career
He started his military career in 1885 by joining the 2. Schlesische Husaren-Regiment Nr. 6 in Prudnik. The commander of the Regiment in Prudnik was lieutenant Rosenberg, a friend of Raszewski's father with whom he served in the Husaren-Regiment Nr. 1 in Milicz. Due to Raszewski's Polish descent, he was being mocked by other soldiers. After many years, in his autobiography, he stated that he wouldn't become an officer without the support he received from Rosenberg while in Prudnik.

After graduating from military school in Nysa in 1887, he came back to Prudnik as a second lieutenant and became the commander of the platoon. In 1892, he married Olga Luchs. The couple had a son Lambert (born 1893) and a daughter Izabela (1894–1917).

In 1894, he was moved to 1. Schlesische Husaren-Regiment Nr. 4 in Oława. In 1913, he joined the Husaren-Regiment Nr. 16 in Schleswig. During World War I, he served on Western and Eastern Front.

In 1918, he joined the Armia Wielkopolska to fight in the Greater Poland uprising. He later participated in the Polish–Soviet War.

Promotions

 * Second Lieutenant – 1887
 * Lieutenant – 1895
 * Rittmeister – 1901
 * Major – 1913
 * Lieutenant Colonel – 21 January 1918
 * Colonel – 1919
 * Lieutenant General – 21 April 1920

Honours and awards

 * Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
 * Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
 * Cross of Valour, two times
 * Krzyż na Śląskiej Wstędze Waleczności i Zasługi
 * Gold Cross of Merit
 * War Medal 1918-1921
 * Decade of Independence Regained
 * Iron Cross
 * Great Officer of the Order of St. Sava
 * Commandeur of the Legion of Honour
 * Officier of the Legion of Honour
 * Order of Merit

title: Kazimierz Raszewski


text:
Poetry/Post-Modernist Poetry

Content summary
In this class, we will cover poetry after World War II, but before the modern era. While the line is a bit tricky to find at times, we'll try to deal with the bigger styles and ideas during the 1940s through the 1970s.

 * Wikipedia article on Post-Modernism and Post-Modernist Literature

Poets

 * Samuel Beckett
 * Allen Ginsberg
 * Jack Kerouac
 * Charles Bukowski
 * Carol Ann Duffy

This page, like others, is still being worked on. Please be patient! If there's something you'd like to see, please let me know.

Questions/Suggestions?

Unit materials

 * Study guide:

title: Poetry/Post-Modernist Poetry


text:
St. Paul's Cathedral, Abidjan

St Paul's Cathedral (French: Cathédrale Saint-Paul d'Abidjan) is a Roman Catholic cathedral located in the city of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. The cathedral, which was designed by the Italian architect Aldo Spirito, serves as the mother church for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Abidjan.

The first stone of the cathedral was consecrated on May 11, 1980, by Pope John Paul II during his first pastoral visit to Côte d'Ivoire. He further dedicated the building upon completion on August 10, 1985, during a second visit to the country to lay the foundation for the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace in Yamoussoukro. The cost of implementing this modern architectural edifice, reputedly the second largest church on the African continent (as of 2002), and one of the largest cathedrals in the world, was estimated at $12 million. Architecturally, the cathedral is unique and modern, though built to meet the specific aspirations of the ethnic people of Côte d'Ivoire.

Location
The striking external feature of the cathedral (which attracts visitors at the entrance itself) is the tall concrete structure, which is shaped like an anthropomorphic giant. It is dominantly located on a hillock providing commanding views of the city of Abidjan, and overlooking the Bay of Cocody.

History
Planning for building the cathedral was allotted to Italian architect Aldo Spirito in 1980, under the directive of Félix Houphouët-Boigny, President of the Côte d'Ivoire. The architect designated for the design was Pope John Paul II, who blessed the foundation stone during his visit to Côte d'Ivoire in 1980. The construction was completed over a period of five years by a joint sector company of Sonitra and the Government of Ivory Coast in association with Sonitra, an Israeli firm. The cathedral was formally consecrated by the pope during his second visit to Abidjan in August 1985. It is the second largest cathedral in Africa.

Saint Paul's Cathedral served as a refuge for approximately 1,800 Ivorians fleeing violence during the height of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis which engulfed Abidjan.

Exterior
The structure of the Cross, which is winged on both flanks, is held in position through seven cables which are anchored to the main building of the cathedral which is in a triangular shape; it creates an elevated vision that the structure is being tugged towards the lagoon. The materials used for building this unique edifice consists of concrete, steel, travertine (a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs), stones and sheets of stained glasses. Symbolism represented by the overall structure of the cathedral and the cross is of Jesus Christ spreading his arms, akin to the statue of Christ in Rio, with metaphysical significance of pull towards the ultimate trinity.

The external feature of the cross of the cathedral is also inferred to depict a view as though a devotee is bent on his knees offering prayers with his cloak flying backwards merging into the attractive concrete slab which is integral to the cathedral's roof.

On the exterior face of the cathedral there are fourteen panels of different sizes in many colours, which are made in terracotta ceramics with the Cross and the story of Christ as the main theme (as relevant to the local ethnic perceptions). These panels are affixed sequentially (matching the story) on the side wall of the steps leading from the lagoon to the forecourt of the cathedral.

The cathedral's renovation is estimated to cost 750 million Francs; a fund raising campaign for realizing the funds was launched in March 2008.

Interior
The cathedral has a total area of 4300 m, with 3500 m of usable space. It can accommodate 5,000 devotees, with seating for 3,500, with the remainder being standing space. The cathedral accommodates a Christian room for prayer, salt catechesis, offices of the parish, residence for the clergy (the bishops and priests), a library, a religious museum, a conference hall and media rooms.

The cathedral has six stained glass windows covering a total surface area of 370 m, which were also designed by Aldo Spirito. The artistic imagery inside the cathedral is not only Biblical in theme but also has a special focus on the Ivorian peoples’ faith in Christianity. In addition, the interior of the cathedral is embellished with paintings of the Virtues, mosaics of the Sacraments and twelve panels made in polychrome ceramics. The stained glass panels were designed to withstand a wind pressure caused by wind velocity of 100 km/hour. The themes for each panel are related to the life of St. Paul.

There are large paintings near the altar, 200 cmx150 cm, which depict themes different from those drawn on the stained glass windows. The themes chosen are specific to the propagation of the Virtues of the Cross – Theological Virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity, and Cardinal Virtues of Temperance, Justice, Prudence and Courage, displayed through abstract and angelic figures. Mixed colour techniques have been used in painting on the canvas; mono or bi-color brushed in asymmetric positions have been used for the background while angels painted in bright colours are highlighted.

The notable feature of the stained glass window near the altar is the journey of St. Paul to Damascus. The stained glass panel on the left side wall facing the altar has features drawn on St Paul's lifetime activities; on the left side of the panel he is shown penning letters to the people of different denominations; the middle part shows his tour to Rome to be judged by the Pope, and at the lowest part is his giving sermon to people of various denominations. The panel on the right wall facing the altar is similar to the one of the left wall but is dated 28 October representing the earliest stage of interaction with the people of Grand Bassam, Côte d'Ivoire and the visiting evangelist in the process of proselytization.

Another alluring stained glass panel is of Jesus showing the way forward with a storm brewing in Lake Galillee. Also is a panel in which the evangelists are shown landing on the shores of Africa, joyously surveying the local people, the wild animals such as elephants and gazelles and the vegetation of palm trees.

title: St. Paul's Cathedral, Abidjan