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Dwarf planet

A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit around the Sun, massive enough to be gravitationally rounded, but insufficient to achieve orbital dominance like the eight classical planets of the Solar System. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto, which for decades was regarded as a planet before the "dwarf" concept was adopted in 2006.

Dwarf planets are capable of being geologically active, an expectation that was borne out in 2015 by the Dawn mission to and the New Horizons mission to Pluto. Planetary geologists are therefore particularly interested in them.

Astronomers are in general agreement that at least the nine largest candidates are dwarf planets – in rough order of size,, , , , , , , , and. Considering the ten largest candidates adds. Of these ten, two have been visited by spacecraft (Pluto and Ceres) and seven others have at least one known moon (Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Salacia), which allows their masses and thus an estimate of their densities to be determined. Mass and density in turn can be fit into geophysical models in an attempt to determine the nature of these worlds. Only one, Sedna, has neither been visited nor has any known moons, making an accurate estimate of mass difficult. Some astronomers include many smaller bodies as well, but there is no consensus that these are likely to be dwarf planets.

The term dwarf planet was coined by planetary scientist Alan Stern as part of a three-way categorization of planetary-mass objects in the Solar System: classical planets, dwarf planets, and satellite planets. Dwarf planets were thus conceived of as a category of planet. In 2006, however, the concept was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as a category of sub-planetary objects, part of a three-way recategorization of bodies orbiting the Sun: planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies. Thus Stern and other planetary geologists consider dwarf planets and large satellites to be planets, but since 2006, the IAU and perhaps the majority of astronomers have excluded them from the roster of planets.

History of the concept
Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets. Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid (from Greek, meaning 'star-like' or 'star-shaped') for the smaller bodies and began to distinguish them as minor planets rather than major planets.

With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine major planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years, Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had only one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.

In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away. Many of these shared several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, the plutinos. It became clear that either the larger of these bodies would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified, much as Ceres had been reclassified after the discovery of additional asteroids. This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including subplanet and planetoid, started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets. Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain classified as a planet.

Eris (then known as ) was discovered in January 2005; it was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth planet. As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006. The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by the Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi: They proposed an intermediate category for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Beside dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared their orbits.

Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars, the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed.

In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, some scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight.

NASA announced in 2006 that it would use the new guidelines established by the IAU. Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other likely dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate "überplanets" (the dominant eight) from "unterplanets" (the dwarf planets), considering both types "planets".

Name
Names for large subplanetary bodies include dwarf planet, planetoid (more general term), meso-planet (narrowly used for sizes between Mercury and Ceres), quasi-planet, and (in the transneptunian region) plutoid. Dwarf planet, however, was originally coined as a term for the smallest planets, not the largest sub-planets, and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers.

Alan Stern coined the term dwarf planet, analogous to the term dwarf star, as part of a three-fold classification of planets, and he and many of his colleagues continue to classify dwarf planets as a class of planets. The IAU decided that dwarf planets are not to be considered planets, but kept Stern's term for them. Other terms for the IAU definition of the largest subplanetary bodies that do not have such conflicting connotations or usage include quasi-planet and the older term planetoid ("having the form of a planet"). Michael E. Brown stated that planetoid is "a perfectly good word" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non-planet is "dumb", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids, but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet. The second resolution, 5B, defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called "classical planets". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets. Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.

In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French planète naine, Spanish planeta enano, German Zwergplanet, Russian karlikovaya planeta (карликовая планета), Arabic kaukab qazm (كوكب قزم), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (矮行星), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성 / 矮小行星) or waehangseong (왜행성 / 矮行星), but in Japanese they are called junwakusei (準惑星), meaning "quasi-planets" or "peneplanets" (pene- meaning "almost").

IAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as "the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward, perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their pluton.

On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a new term, plutoid, and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids. Other departments of the IAU have rejected the term: "...in part because of an email miscommunication, the WG-PSN [Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid. ... In fact, a vote taken by the WG-PSN subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting has rejected the use of that specific term...""

The category of 'plutoid' captured an earlier distinction between the 'terrestrial dwarf' Ceres and the 'ice dwarfs' of the outer Solar system, part of a conception of a threefold division of the Solar System into inner terrestrial planets, central gas giants and outer ice dwarfs, of which Pluto was the principal member. 'Ice dwarf' also saw some use as an umbrella term for all trans-Neptunian minor planets, or for the ice asteroids of the outer Solar System; one attempted definition was that an ice dwarf "is larger than the nucleus of a normal comet and icier than a typical asteroid." Since the Dawn mission, it has been recognized that Ceres is an icy body more similar to the icy moons of the outer planets and to TNOs such as Pluto than it is to the terrestrial planets, blurring the distinction, and Ceres has since been called an ice dwarf as well.

Criteria
The category dwarf planet arose from a conflict between dynamical and geophysical ideas of what a useful conception of a planet would be. In terms of the dynamics of the Solar System, the major distinction is between bodies that gravitationally dominate their neighbourhood (Mercury through Neptune) and those that do not (such as the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects). A celestial body may have a dynamic (planetary) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight, which results in the body acquiring a round shape. Because this requires a much lower mass than gravitationally dominating the region of space near their orbit, there are a population of objects that are massive enough to have a world-like appearance and planetary geology, but not massive enough to clear their neighborhood. Examples are Ceres in the asteroid belt and Pluto in the Kuiper belt.

Dynamicists usually prefer using gravitational dominance as the threshold for planethood, because from their perspective smaller bodies are better grouped with their neighbours, e.g. Ceres as simply a large asteroid and Pluto as a large Kuiper belt object. Geoscientists usually prefer roundness as the threshold, because from their perspective the internally driven geology of a body like Ceres makes it more similar to a classical planet like Mars, than to a small asteroid that lacks internally driven geology. This necessitated the creation of the category of dwarf planets to describe this intermediate class.

Orbital dominance
Stern & Levison introduced a parameter $Λ$ (upper case lambda) in 2000, expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit. The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where $Π$ will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in $5.97 × kg$ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.

Using this parameter, Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to "clear the neighbourhood around their orbits": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol $1⁄m$ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where $[†]$ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where $Λ$ is deemed to be cleared.

Jean-Luc Margot refined Stern and Levison's concept to produce a similar parameter $Λ = k m2 a− 3⁄2$ (upper case Pi). It is based on theory, avoiding the empirical data used by $k = 0.0043$ $µ = m⁄M − m$ indicates a planet, and there is again a gap of several orders of magnitude between planets and dwarf planets.

There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept.

Hydrostatic equilibrium
Enough internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and enough plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles. Larger objects, where gravity is significant but not dominant, are potato-shaped; the more massive the body, the higher its internal pressure, the more solid it is and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is enough to overcome its compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. Then, a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet.

If an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid on its surface would form a surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. The body will have a spherical shape if it does not rotate and an ellipsoidal one if it does. The faster it rotates, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. If such a rotating body were heated until it melts, its shape would not change. The extreme example of a body that may be scalene due to rapid rotation is, which is twice as long on its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces gradually slow its rotation until it is tidally locked; that is, it always presents the same face to its companion. Tidally locked bodies are also scalene, though sometimes only slightly so. Earth's Moon is tidally locked, as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants. Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other, as are Eris and Dysnomia, and probably also Orcus and Vanth.

There are no specific size or mass limits of dwarf planets, as those are not defining features. There is no clear upper limit: an object very far out in the Solar System that is more massive than Mercury might not have had time to clear its neighbourhood; such a body would fit the definition of dwarf planet rather than planet. Indeed, Mike Brown set out to find such an object. The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving and retaining hydrostatic equilibrium, but the size or mass at which an object attains and retains equilibrium depends on its composition and thermal history, not simply its mass. An IAU 2006 press release question-and-answer section estimated that objects with mass above $[‡]$ and radius greater than 400 km would "normally" be in hydrostatic equilibrium (the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity), but that all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation. This is close to what as of 2019 is believed to be roughly the limit for objects beyond Neptune that are fully compact, solid bodies, with ( $µ$ = $[§]$, $[#]$ = $1,950$ ) being a borderline case both for the 2006 Q&A expectations and in more recent evaluations, and with  being just above the expected limit. No other body with a measured mass is close to the expected mass limit, though several without a measured mass approach the expected size limit.

Population of dwarf planets

Though the definition of a dwarf planet is clear, evidence about whether a given trans-Neptunian object is large and malleable enough to be shaped by its own gravitational field is often inconclusive. There are also outstanding questions relating to the interpretation of the IAU criterion in certain instances. Consequently the number of currently conformed TNOs which meet the hydrostatic equilibrium criterion is uncertain.

The three objects under consideration during the debates leading up to the 2006 IAU acceptance of the category of dwarf planet – Ceres, Pluto and Eris – are generally accepted as dwarf planets, including by those astronomers who continue to classify dwarf planets as planets. Only one of them – Pluto – has been observed in enough detail to verify that its current shape fits what would be expected from hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres is close to equilibrium, but some gravitational anomalies remain unexplained. Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto.

In order of discovery, these three bodies are:
 * 1)  – discovered January 1, 1801 and announced January 24, 45 years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006. Confirmation is pending.
 * 2)  –  discovered February 18, 1930 and announced March 13. Considered a planet for 76 years. Explicitly reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU with Resolution 6A on August 24, 2006. Five known moons.
 * 3)   – discovered January 5, 2005 and announced July 29. Called the "tenth planet" in media reports. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006, and named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 13 of that year. One known moon.

The IAU only established guidelines for which committee would oversee the naming of likely dwarf planets: any unnamed trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of 838 km at the maximum geometric albedo of 1) was to be named by a joint committee consisting of the Minor Planet Center and the planetary working group of the IAU. At the time (and still as of 2023), the only bodies to meet this threshold were and. These bodies are generally assumed to be dwarf planets, although they have not yet been demonstrated to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, and there is some disagreement for Haumea:

1. – discovered by Brown et al. December 28, 2004 and announced by Ortiz et al. on July 27, 2005. Named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 17, 2008. Two known moons and one known ring.

2. – discovered March 31, 2005 and announced July 29. Named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on July 11, 2008. One known moon.

These five bodies – the three under consideration in 2006 (Pluto, Ceres and Eris) plus the two named in 2008 (Haumea and Makemake) – are commonly presented as the dwarf planets of the Solar System, though the limiting factor (albedo) is not what defines an object as a dwarf planet. The astronomical community commonly refers to other larger TNOs as dwarf planets as well. At least four additional bodies meet the preliminary criteria of Brown, of Tancredi et al., of Grundy et al., and of Emery et al. for identifying dwarf planets, and are generally called dwarf planets by astronomers as well:

1. – discovered June 5, 2002 and announced October 7 of that year. One known moon and two known rings.

2. – discovered November 14, 2003 and announced March 15, 2004.

3. – discovered February 17, 2004 and announced two days later. One known moon.

4. – discovered July 17, 2007 and announced January 2009. One known moon.

For instance, JPL/NASA called Gonggong a dwarf planet after observations in 2016, and Simon Porter of the Southwest Research Institute spoke of "the big eight [TNO] dwarf planets" in 2018, referring to Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong,, and. The IAU itself has called Quaoar a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report.

More bodies have been proposed, such as and  by Brown;  and  by Tancredi et al., and  by Sheppard et al. Most of the larger bodies have moons, which enables a determination of their mass and thus their density, which inform estimates of whether they could be dwarf planets. The largest TNOs that are not known to have moons are Sedna,, and Ixion. In particular, Salacia has a known mass and diameter, putting it as a borderline case by the IAU's 2006 Q&A.

1. – discovered September 22, 2004. One known moon.

At the time Makemake and Haumea were named, it was thought that trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) with icy cores would require a diameter of only about 400 km (250 mi), or 3% the size of Earth – the size of the moons Mimas, the smallest moon that is round, and Proteus, the largest that is not – to relax into gravitational equilibrium. Researchers thought that the number of such bodies could prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond. This was one of the reasons (keeping the roster of 'planets' to a reasonable number) that Pluto was reclassified in the first place. Research since then has cast doubt on the idea that bodies that small could have achieved or maintained equilibrium under the typical conditions of the Kuiper belt and beyond.

Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets. In 2008, Tancredi et al. advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar as dwarf planets (Gonggong was not yet known), though the IAU did not address the issue then and has not since. Tancredi also considered the five TNOs, , , , and to most likely be dwarf planets as well. Since 2011, Brown has maintained a list of hundreds of candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets, based solely on estimated size. As of 13 September 2019, Brown's list identifies ten trans-Neptunian objects with diameters then thought to be greater than 900 km (the four named by the IAU plus, , , , , and ) as "near certain" to be dwarf planets, and another 16, with diameter greater than 600 km, as "highly likely". Notably, Gonggong may have a larger diameter ($91,000$) than Pluto's round moon Charon (1212 km).

But in 2019 Grundy et al. proposed, based on their studies of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, that dark, low-density bodies smaller than about 900–1000 km in diameter, such as Salacia and, never fully collapsed into solid planetary bodies and retain internal porosity from their formation (in which case they could not be dwarf planets). They accept that brighter (albedo > ≈0.2) or denser (> ≈1.4 g/cc) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid:

"Orcus and Charon probably melted and differentiated, considering their higher densities and spectra indicating surfaces made of relatively clean H2O ice. But the lower albedos and densities of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, 55637, Varda, and Salacia suggest that they never did differentiate, or if they did, it was only in their deep interiors, not a complete melting and overturning that involved the surface. Their surfaces could remain quite cold and uncompressed even as the interior becomes warm and collapses.  The liberation of volatiles could further help transport heat out of their interiors, limiting the extent of their internal collapse.  An object with a cold, relatively pristine surface and a partially collapsed interior should exhibit very distinctive surface geology, with abundant thrust faults indicative of the reduction in total surface area as the interior compresses and shrinks."

Salacia was later found to have a somewhat higher density, comparable within uncertainties to that of Orcus, though still with a very dark surface. Despite this determination, Grundy et al. call it "dwarf-planet sized", while calling Orcus a dwarf planet. Later studies on Varda suggest that its density may also be high, though a low density could not be excluded.

In 2023, Emery et al. wrote that near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 suggests that Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar underwent internal melting, differentiation, and chemical evolution, like the larger dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, but unlike "all smaller KBOs". This is because light hydrocarbons are present on their surfaces (e.g. ethane, acetylene, and ethylene), which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied, and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry. On the other hand, the surfaces of Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar have low abundances of CO and CO2, similar to Pluto, Eris, and Makemake, but in contrast to smaller bodies. This suggests that the threshold for dwarf planethood in the trans-Neptunian region is a diameter of ~900 km (thus including only Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Sedna), and that even Salacia may not be a dwarf planet. A 2023 study of shows that it probably has an extremely large crater, whose depth takes up 5.7% of its diameter: this is proportionally larger than the Rheasilvia crater on Vesta, which is the reason Vesta is not usually considered a dwarf planet today.

In 2024, Kiss et al. found that Quaoar has an ellipsoidal shape incompatible with hydrostatic equilibrium for its current spin. They hypothesised that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but that its shape became "frozen in" and did not change as it spun down due to tidal forces from its moon Weywot. If so, this would resemble the situation of Saturn's moon Iapetus, which is too oblate for its current spin. Iapetus is generally still considered a planetary-mass moon nonetheless, though not always.

Most likely dwarf planets
The trans-Neptunian objects in the following tables, except Salacia, are agreed by Brown, Tancredi et al., Grundy et al., and Emery et al. to be probable dwarf planets, or close to it. Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet; it is a borderline body by many criteria, (and is therefore italicized). Charon, a moon of Pluto that was proposed as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2006, is included for comparison. Those objects that have absolute magnitude greater than +1, and so meet the threshold of the joint planet–minor planet naming committee of the IAU, are highlighted, as is Ceres, which the IAU has assumed is a dwarf planet since they first debated the concept.

The masses of given dwarf planets are listed for their systems (if they have satellites) with exceptions for Pluto and Orcus.

Symbols
Ceres and Pluto  received planetary symbols, as they were considered to be planets when they were discovered. By the time the others were discovered, planetary symbols had mostly fallen out of use among astronomers. Unicode includes symbols for Quaoar, Sedna , Orcus , Haumea , Eris , Makemake , and Gonggong that are primarily used by astrologers: they were devised by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts. NASA has used his Haumea, Eris, and Makemake symbols, as well as the traditional astrological symbol for Pluto when referring to it as a dwarf planet. Symbols have been proposed for the next-largest named candidates, but do not have consistent usage among astrologers. The Unicode proposal for Quaoar, Orcus, Haumea, Makemake, and Gonggong mentions the following symbols for named objects over 600 km diameter: Salacia, Varda , Ixion , Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà and Varuna.

Exploration

As of 2024, only two missions have targeted and explored dwarf planets up close. On March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet. On July 14, 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons.

Ceres displays such evidence of an active geology as salt deposits and cryovolcanos, while Pluto has water-ice mountains drifting in nitrogen-ice glaciers, as well as a significant atmosphere. Ceres evidently has brine percolating through its subsurface, while there is evidence that Pluto has an actual subsurface ocean.

Dawn had previously orbited the asteroid Vesta. Saturn's moon Phoebe has been imaged by Cassini and before that by Voyager 2, which also encountered Neptune's moon Triton. All three bodies show evidence of once being dwarf planets, and their exploration helps clarify the evolution of dwarf planets.

New Horizons has captured distant images of Triton, Quaoar, Haumea, Eris, and Makemake, as well as the smaller candidates Ixion,, and. One of the China National Space Administration's two Shensuo probes has been proposed to visit Quaoar in 2040.

Similar objects
A number of bodies physically resemble dwarf planets. These include former dwarf planets, which may still have equilibrium shape or evidence of active geology; planetary-mass moons, which meet the physical but not the orbital definition for dwarf planet; and Charon in the Pluto–Charon system, which is arguably a binary dwarf planet. The categories may overlap: Triton, for example, is both a former dwarf planet and a planetary-mass moon.

Former dwarf planets
Vesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, was once in hydrostatic equilibrium and is roughly spheroidal, deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified. Its dimensions are not consistent with it currently being in hydrostatic equilibrium. Triton is more massive than Eris or Pluto, has an equilibrium shape, and is thought to be a captured dwarf planet (likely a member of a binary system), but no longer directly orbits the sun. Phoebe is a captured centaur that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history due to radiogenic heating.

Planetary-mass moons
At least nineteen moons have equilibrium shape from having relaxed under self-gravity at some point, though some have since frozen solid and are no longer in equilibrium. Seven are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. These moons are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but do not fit the IAU definition because they do not directly orbit the Sun. (Indeed, Neptune's moon Triton is a captured dwarf planet, and Ceres formed in the same region of the Solar System as the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.) Alan Stern calls planetary-mass moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet, together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo ("planetary-mass object") also covers all three populations.

Charon
There has been some debate as to whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet. In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system. The IAU currently says Charon is not considered a dwarf planet but rather a satellite of Pluto, though the idea that Charon might qualify as a dwarf planet may be considered at a later date. Nonetheless, it is no longer clear that Charon is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Also, the location of the barycenter depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycenter of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun, but they are not considered a binary object. Thus, a formal definition of what constitutes a binary (dwarf) planet must be established before Pluto and Charon are formally defined as binary dwarf planets.

title: Dwarf planet


text:
Yuri Gavrilov

Yuri Vasilyevich Gavrilov (Юрий Васильевич Гаврилов; born 3 May 1953 in Setun, Odintsovsky District, Moscow Oblast) is a Russian football manager and a former midfielder who played for Dynamo Moscow and Spartak Moscow.

He made 46 appearances for the Soviet Union national football team and scored 10 goals. He also competed for the Soviet Union at the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain. His creative skills are immortalized by Konstantin Beskov's famous phrase "If you don't know what to do with the ball, pass it to Gavrilov". Yuri Gavrilov has his own football school in Moscow called SC Svyatogor.

Career
Gavrilov's football career started in Iskra Moscow football school when he was 7. He was invited by school director who saw Yury playing with other kids on the Iskra stadium. When he was 19, Konstantin Beskov took him to Dinamo Moscow from Iskra amateur team. But there was an expensive number of quality players in 1970s Dinamo, and Gavrilov couldn't find a permanent place in Dinamo squad.

Gavrilov followed Konstantin Beskov into Spartak Moscow in 1977. Gavrilov achieved the key playmaker role in new Spartak Moscow team built up by Beskov. After being winger in Dinamo, Gavrilov's new role in Spartak team let him show his best abilities and proved himself one of the all-time best Soviet football creative mid-fielders.

While he made a lot of good passes, he scored a lot of goals as well. Gavrilov was Soviet Top League top goal-scorer twice, scored 140 times during his career.

During his professional career Gavrilov played also for the Finnish club Porin Pallotoverit and Moldovan club FC Agro Chişinău.

In 2001 Gavrilov took charge of the DR Congo national football team for one game. He coached DR Congo in the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Ivory Coast.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yuri Gavrilov


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Wikijunior:Solar System/Venus

Venus Facts: Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet. This means that we think it was created in a similar way to our planet Earth and is made of rock.
 * Venera 7, the first space probe to land on Venus, was destroyed by the hostile conditions on Venus after only 23 minutes.
 * Almost all of the surface features on Venus are named after women.
 * A day on Venus is equal to 117 days on Earth.
 * It has been proposed that some microbes could live in Venus's clouds.

How big is Venus?
Venus is only slightly smaller than the Earth. This is one reason why Venus is sometimes thought of as Earth's "twin". Venus has a diameter of about 12,100 km. It has also been visited by many probes.

What is the surface like on this planet?
The surface of Venus is very different from the surface of the Earth. It is very dry and hot enough to melt lead. The pressure on the surface is very high. It is the same pressure as being 1 km (3,280 feet) below the surface of the sea on Earth.

Channels that look like rivers have formed on Venus. Scientists think these channels are formed from erupting lava. The lava flows along as it cools down, creating the channels. One feature only Venus seems to have is unusual volcanoes called arachnoids. These are volcanoes that have formed differently from other volcanoes we have found in the Solar System. We don't know exactly how they were formed. Venus also has volcanoes like those on Earth.

Parts of the surface of Venus look something like continents. The largest of these areas is called Ishtar Terra (land of Ishtar, from the Babylonian goddess who was similar to Venus). Deep basins like those under the Earth's oceans have also been discovered. On Venus, though, they have no water. Features like mountain ranges and meteor craters have also been found on Venus. One of the highest mountains on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is about 11 km taller than Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth.

On the night side of the planet, there is a strange effect called Ashen Light. For some reason, the dark side of Venus has a subtle glow. There are various theories about this. One of the earliest theories — now disproved, of course — was that there were aliens on Venus and they were celebrating a new Venusian emperor. Currently, one of the more believed ones is this: There is a high concentration of carbon dioxide. When it is hit by the ultraviolet rays of the sun, they change into carbon monoxide and oxygen, and emit green light. The entire chemical procedure is CO2 → CO + O.

How long is a day on Venus?
Venus rotates (spins around) even more slowly than Mercury. One full rotation of Venus takes about 243 Earth days. Venus also rotates in the opposite direction to most of the other planets in the Solar System. One day on Venus, from noon to noon, depends on the length of the year as well as the rotation time, and is about 117 earth days.

How long is a year on Venus?
One year on Venus is almost 225 Earth days long. This is less time than it takes Venus to rotate on its axis and less than two Venus days.

What is Venus made of?
The surface of Venus, its crust, is covered in nothing but rock. But, the core of Venus is made of nickel-iron. The atmosphere around Venus is very thick and is made of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and poisonous gasses that create high pressure and trap in heat.

How much would Venus's gravity pull on me?
If you were on Venus, it would pull you down almost as strongly as Earth. The atmosphere exerts a pressure at the surface more than 90 times Earth's normal sea-level pressure.

Who discovered Venus?
Because Venus is closer to the sun than we are on Earth, we always see it close to the sun in the sky. So it only appears for us just before sunrise in the eastern sky, or just after sunset in the western sky. Many cultures thought Venus in the morning and Venus in the evening were two separate things. The ancient Romans called the evening object Venus (after the goddess of love) and the morning object Lucifer (which means light bearer — a servant who walked ahead of the sun's chariot with a torch, to light the way). Nobody knows who first thought the two were a single object. The first known written description of them as one object was the Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa, from about three and a half thousand years ago — 1581 BCE.

About three thousand years later, in 1610, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei used a telescope to observe that Venus has phases, just as the moon does. Phases happen because only the side of Venus (or of the Moon) facing the Sun is lighted. The phases of Venus supported the theory of Copernicus that the planets go around the Sun. Then, a few years later in 1639, an English astronomer named Jeremiah Horrocks observed a transit of Venus. That's what it's called when Venus passes right between the Earth and the Sun, so that Venus is visible from Earth during the day as a tiny dot passing across the Sun. In 1761 a Russian astronomer, Mikhail Lomonsov, watching another transit of Venus, saw that Venus has an atmosphere.

Not much more was discovered about Venus until the 1920s. Then, a United States astronomer, Frank Ross, observed Venus using ultraviolet light — the light that causes sunburn — and for the first time saw the structure of the clouds on Venus.

However, there is only so much that can be learned about Venus by looking at it from Earth. The first successful pictures of Venus by a space probe were taken by Mariner 2 in 1962. Mariner 2 was the first space probe successfully sent to observe another planet. It showed two important things: Venus has practically no magnetic field, and Venus has temperatures of 490 to 590 K — that's as hot as the inside of a working oven on Earth!

<!-- Mariner 5 measured the power of Venus' weak magnetic field, and Mariner 10 took ultraviolet pictures revealing huge wind speeds. Venera 3 was the first probe to land on Venera, but its communications failed before it reached the surface. However, Venera 4 managed to collect data while floating down to Venus. Venera 4 measured temperature, air pressure, density, and performed eleven chemical experiments analysing the atmosphere, which was found to be 95% carbon dioxide, all before landing on the surface. Unfortunately, before it did land on the surface, its battery ran out, making it useless. Venera 5 and 6 also conducted tests in a similar manner as Venera 4 but they were crushed by the air pressure once they reached 6 km above the surface. The distance from the surface of Earth to the lowest Cirrus clouds is also 6 km. The first successful landing on Venus was by Venera 7 in 1970. The surface temperature was measured to be 455 °C to 475 °C. However, because of the extremely high temperatures on Venus, Venera 7 malfunctioned within 23 minutes of landing. Venera 8 also landed on Venus, and performed additional tests. Venera 9, in 1975 orbited Venus while dropping a ground vehicle on the surface. These two combined produced an enormous wealth of information, including that the clouds of Venus form in 3 different layers of the atmosphere. Venera 10 was a repeat of Venera 9. NASA then sent two Pioneer spacecraft to see for itself. The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe (PVM) was designed to carry 4 probes to Venus and then release the probes, each going separate directions. The Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) orbited Venus. Both the PVM and the PVO conducted multiple experiments and gave information. Venera 11 and 12 flew by Venus and dropped ground vehicles on Venus to collect more information, however, that failed as the colour cameras and soil analysers both malfunctioned. In 1981, Venera 13 landed and took the first colour picture of Venus, and successfully analysed the soil. Venera 13 holds the record among space probes of lasting the longest on Venus, which was 127 minutes. Also in 1981, Venera 14 detected seismic activity on Venus. In 1984, Vega 1 and 2 were launched. Their main purposes were to mainly float in the atmosphere. They took pictures of a third of the planet, along with collecting more data about the atmosphere. The last Soviet Veneras, Venera 15 and 16 took very high resolution pictures of Venus in 1983. In 1990, the US launched a probe called Magellan, named after Ferdinand Magellan who explored the Caribbean islands in the 16th century. Magellan floated in Venus' atmosphere for 4 years before crashing partially vaporising and crashing into the atmosphere. During that time, it mapped 98% of Venus' surface. There were no more missions to Venus until the 21st century, when the European space agency (ESA) launched Venus Express. Venus Express orbited Venus from 2006 to the end of 2012. In the distant future, it is proposed that Venus should slowly begin to be inhabited by humans, but only after Mars has a population like the Earth. -->

Who is this planet named after?
Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love. Sometimes it can be seen shining brightly just before dawn or just after sunset, when it is called the Morning Star or Evening Star. Some people, like the Aztecs and the Greeks, gave Venus two names – one for the morning and one for the evening.

Because Venus and the Earth are the same size, scientists call Venus "Earth's sister planet". For a long time most scientists thought that Venus had plants, animals, and possibly even people. However because Venus is so hot we now know that it is impossible for anything to live there.

How long would it take people to get there?
It could take around a year and a half to get there. But it is very unlikely someone would go to Venus.

title: Wikijunior:Solar System/Venus


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/vtvest.no

Links

 * vtvest.no resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.

Additions

 * Displayed all 3 additions.


text:
Talk:Douglas Hodge

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080705125532/http://www.tinpanfilms.com/cast.htm to http://www.tinpanfilms.com/cast.htm
 * Added tag to http://unitedagents.co.uk/film/douglas-hodge/

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Requested move 20 March 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved.  Calidum   03:12, 1 April 2019 (UTC)

Douglas Hodge → Douglas Hodge (actor) – There is another Douglas Hodge, whose page was just created at Douglas Hodge (businessman), who is also very notable as he was the CEO of a firm with a trillion dollars in assets. 2604:2000:E010:1100:F189:DACE:66A3:89FE (talk) 20:02, 20 March 2019 (UTC) --Relisting.  SITH   (talk)   22:24, 27 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Support this move 2601:541:4500:1760:300D:DA3:8485:59CA (talk) 16:06, 25 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Not a vote. PC78 (talk) 07:55, 28 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The buisnessman article has just been created off the back of recent events, there is no reason at this time to suspect that the actor is not still the primary topic. No prejudice against revisiting this at a later date, but for now a hatnote on the actor's article should be sufficient. PC78 (talk) 07:55, 28 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose as the hatnote is sufficient to disambiguate between these two articles. – Þjarkur (talk) 20:56, 28 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Douglas Hodge


text:
Botswana Power Corporation Workers' Union

The Botswana Power Corporation Workers' Union (BPCWU) is a trade union affiliate of the Botswana Federation of Trade Unions in Botswana.


text:
Samar (1962 film)

Samar is a 1962 film. It was written and directed by and stars George Montgomery. It also starred Gilbert Roland.

Plot
Spain rules the Philippines with an iron hand in the 1870's and uses the island of Samar as a penal colony for unwanted political prisoners.

An American doctor and adventurer, makes himself unpopular, and is offered the post of doctor on the island, which he accepts; the alternative proposal being more unpleasant.

The colony is in a state of unrest, and decide to brave the jungles which is full of savage head hunters in a bid for freedom, away from their Spanish oppressors.

Cast

 * George Montgomery as Dr. John David Saunders
 * Gilbert Roland as Col. Juan Sebastian Salazar
 * Ziva Rodann as Ana Orteiz
 * Joan O'Brien as Cecile Salazar
 * Nico Minardos as Capt. De Guzman
 * Mario Barri as Sgt. Nanding
 * Henry Feist as Tominsino
 * Tony Fortich as Trustee
 * Johnny Cortez as Adring
 * Carmen Austin as School Teacher
 * Esperanza Garcia as Injured Woman
 * Danilo Jurado as Trustee (as Danny Jurado)
 * Luciano Lasam as Trustee
 * Pedro Faustino as Lasar
 * Joaquin Fajardo as Spanish Soldier
 * Pamela Saunders as Woman Convict (as Pam Saunders)
 * Rita Moreno as Woman Convict

title: Samar (1962 film)


text:
Sofar

Sofar may refer to:

 * Sofar bomb (SOund Fixing And Ranging bomb), a long-range position-fixing system that uses explosive sounds in the deep sound channel of the ocean
 * SOFAR channel (SOund Fixing And Ranging channel), a horizontal layer of water in the ocean centered on the depth at which the speed of sound is minimum
 * Sofar Sounds, music events company

title: Sofar


text:
Komnino railway station

Komnino is a non-operational PKP railway station in Komnino (Pomeranian Voivodeship), Poland.

title: Komnino railway station


text:
Sofya Raskhodnikova

Sofya Raskhodnikova (born 1976) is a Belarusian and American theoretical computer scientist. She is known for her research in sublinear-time algorithms, information privacy, property testing, and approximation algorithms, and was one of the first to study differentially private analysis of graphs. She is a professor of computer science at Boston University.

Education and career
Raskhodnikova completed her Ph.D. at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2003. Her dissertation, Property Testing: Theory and Applications, was supervised by Michael Sipser.

After postdoctoral research at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Weizmann Institute of Science, Raskhodnikova became a faculty member at Pennsylvania State University in 2007. She moved to Boston University in 2017.

Other activities
While a student at MIT, Raskhodnikova also competed in ballroom dancing. She has been one of the organizers of TCS Women, a community for women in theoretical computer science.

title: Sofya Raskhodnikova


text:
Talk:Douglas Harriman Kennedy

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120227060729/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-kennedy-20120226,0,3854060.story to http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-kennedy-20120226,0,3854060.story

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 20:02, 8 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added tag to http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/AP-source-NY-finds-no-child-abuse-of-Kennedy-heir-3458994.php

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20061107071151/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,212321,00.html# to http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,212321,00.html#

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title: Talk:Douglas Harriman Kennedy


text:
Talk:LPI Linux Certification/LPIC1 Exam 101/GNU & Unix Commands

Depending on the nature of the section on vi, you may want to merely link to vi


text:
Wiki Campus Radio/Users

9

 * Historybuff 14:06, 29 April 2007 (UTC)
 * CQ 16:13, 29 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Chrismo 02:45, 30 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Countrymike 06:23, 12 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Dionysios (talk), a Participant in the Wikiversity School of Advanced General Studies, Date: 2007-05-12 (May 12, 2007) Time: 200101 UTC
 * Laleena 22:10, 3 August 2007 (UTC) I would like to instruct history, maybe read a classics program, or proof read.
 * Dorothy Kernaghan-Baez 21:16, 27 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Nolhay 17:30, 30 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Vivelefrat 06:14, 7 May 2008 (UTC) for some french program
 * Hoogli 01:56, 28 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Smuchacz 23:44, 9 December 2010 (UTC)
 * David 02:51, 6 November 2008 (UTC). Created Music performances, a place where everyone can play or sing!
 * mikeu talk 19:51, 22 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Likith Raja Singh 22:51, 21 January 2019 (IST)
 * ...you...

title: Wiki Campus Radio/Users


text:
Talk:Data Structures/Singly Linked Lists

multi threading in single linked list

this web page is very useful for my exams.thank you................update some examples related to the questions....................by vignesh


text:
Talk:Dolphy

Spanish descent
The article says he is of 'Spanish descent'. Is this descent enough to justify placing this article in the 'Spanish Filipinos' category? More detail in the article would be helpful. Thanks Hmains 22:42, 18 August 2006 (UTC)

Death
This actor is fighting for his life in the hospital, but anonymous editors are adding that he already died. Please stop doing so. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mvching (talk • contribs) 11:55, 22 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Add to that that they kept on changing the name of the person in this wiki. Respect the man whom the family lost.(talk)

"Kantutero ng Celebrity"??? - please remove out of respect. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 13:40, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

Edit request on 10 July 2012
Dolphy died today (JULY 10, 2012) and not JUNE 10

<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 13:47, 10 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Looks like the correct date is in the article, so marking this done. RudolfRed (talk) 15:58, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

Frequent Vandalism
Request made for page protection due to frequency of vandalism. WP:NO-PREEMPT Daxdigital (talk) 13:40, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

Edit request on 17 July 2012
"si romeo at si julieta" not included in the list of films; dolphy's leading lady is maritess revilla http://www.kabayancentral.com/video/others/cpotsrasj.html The movie can be purchased from the above website.

<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 00:48, 17 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Ryan Vesey Review me!  03:44, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120913080512/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/diaspora/diaspora/view/20081029-169043/Dolphy-at-80-World-Tour to http://globalnation.inquirer.net/diaspora/diaspora/view/20081029-169043/Dolphy-at-80-World-Tour

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 * Added archive https://archive.is/20101110070815/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/breakingnews/breakingnews/view/20101106-301789/Aquino-confers-decoration-on-Dolphy to http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/breakingnews/breakingnews/view/20101106-301789/Aquino-confers-decoration-on-Dolphy

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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:06, 20 September 2019 (UTC)
 * King of Philippine Comedy Dolphy portrait at Philippine National Museum.jpg

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 22:37, 5 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Manilajf0180 08.JPG

title: Talk:Dolphy


text:
Phostria euryleucalis

Phostria euryleucalis is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by George Hampson in 1918. It is found in Peru.

Description
The wingspan is about 42 mm. The forewings are dark brown with a cupreous gloss and hyaline (glass-like) stripes in and below the cell, as well as a spot above the base of vein 2, which is slightly irrorated (speckled) with brown. There is a broad oblique white band from below the costa beyond the middle to above the tornus. The hindwings are hyaline, the veins streaked with dark brown. There is a rather narrow dark brown terminal band with a cupreous gloss, narrowing to a point at the tornus.

title: Phostria euryleucalis


text:
Daruru language

Daruru is an Espiritu Santo language of Vanuatu. There are perhaps 100 speakers in Pelmol village of western Santo Island.

title: Daruru language


text:
1929 Iowa State Cyclones football team

The 1929 Iowa State Cyclones football team represented Iowa State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts (later renamed Iowa State University) in the Big Six Conference during the 1929 college football season. In their fourth season under head coach C. Noel Workman, the Cyclones compiled a 1–7 record (0–5 against conference opponents), finished in last place in the conference, and were outscored by opponents by a combined total of 135 to 54. They played their home games at State Field in Ames, Iowa.

Harry Johnson and Ed Schlenker were the team captains. Maynard Spear was selected as a first-team all-conference player.

title: 1929 Iowa State Cyclones football team


text:
Kapkaykent

Kapkaykent (Капкайкент; Къапкайгент, Qapkaygent) is a rural locality (a selo) in Kayakentsky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. The population was 1,020 as of 2010. There are 21 streets.

Geography
Kapkaykent is located 31 km southwest of Novokayakent (the district's administrative centre) by road. Dzhavankent and Bashlykent are the nearest rural localities.

Nationalities
Kumyks live there.

title: Kapkaykent


text:
Business English/Reading and Writing

Both reading and writing are important skills for anyone who wants to do business in English. Here is a list of suggested writing topics.

Topics for Mini-Research Papers

 * MBTI / Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator
 * The Campbell-Stone Restoration Movement World Convention National Profile Pages
 * Peter Drucker
 * The de Vinci Code
 * Stephen Covey and the Seven Habits of Highly Effective People
 * Moore’s Law
 * Different styles of leadership and leaders
 * Rasputin
 * Wal-Mart
 * Nonverbal communication
 * The origins of English
 * Today’s weather in (you choose the location)
 * Choose your own topic!

Use the Internet or traditional printed materials to find information about your chosen topic. Write like a reporter or historiographer and remember the six w’s: who, what, when, where, why, and how. The length of the paper should reflect the complexity of the issue, your English fluency, and your time available. One to two typewritten pages is typically an appropriate length.

Include a bibliography citing the Internet pages that you used as reference.

Use ONLY your own words, except for short, cited quotations. It is usually better to read about the subject, but the material aside, and write from your own memory. That is, don’t read your source material and write your essay at the same time.

English Language and Grammar Topics

 * Correct use of adjectives
 * Present simple vs. present progressive (continuous) tense
 * Using articles (a, an, the, …)
 * When to use “what” and when to use “that”

The directions are the same as above. Include examples whenever possible.

I saw an article in a newspaper of yesterday requesting for readers to put comments on the passage.

The whole group was against my sister for not turning up to a meeting which was very important to her.

We had an accident on our way to Zomba.

What happened to your sister who is now in prison?

When is the next meeting taking place?

That place is not good for your health.

Suggested writing topics

 * Describe your line of work and your responsibilities.
 * Write a history of your family.
 * Tell about a favorite memory, perhaps a childhood memory.
 * Describe the office or facilities where you work.
 * Describe a system or process that you are familiar with in your work.
 * Write a plan and analysis describing your goals in studying English.
 * Write up a business plan for a business that you might think about starting.
 * Write about something that you are passionate about.
 * Describe a visit to an English-speaking area.
 * Choose a topic and write about it for this Business English book.
 * Write about your favorite music, group, or artist.
 * What important things have you accomplished in your life?
 * What would you like to do when you retire?
 * What do you regret doing or not doing?
 * Read an article from the Wikipedia or other source and write a summary of it.

Reading
You can get practice reading at many places. Some websites that you might like to visit are the Wikipedia, New York Times (free and painless registration required, really, it's worth it), The Economist, (a British newsmagazine), and various English magazines that may be available where you live.

title: Business English/Reading and Writing


text:
User:Ohene Kofi Asare

Ohene Kofi Asare is a 19 year old Lad reading Automobile engineering in Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,Kumasi-Ghana. His interests are in Computer Systems(everything inclusive) and also Automotive machinery.

title: User:Ohene Kofi Asare


text:
Talk:Don Walker

untitled
I'm trying to create a disambiguation page for this name. hopefully I don't screw up anything. (Alleyward (talk) 02:51, 17 May 2008 (UTC))

Ok, after getting a message from a bot and reading the page if directed me to, I find I have indeed screwed up the history of this article. I apologise. (Alleyward (talk) 03:00, 17 May 2008 (UTC))

title: Talk:Don Walker


text:
Ivica Džolan

Ivica Džolan (born 11 October 1988) is a Croatian footballer who plays as a central defender for Novaki.

Club career
Džolan kicked off his career with the youth academy of Dinamo Zagreb and in 2007 joined NK Zagreb. After failing to make regular appearances for the side, he moved to second-tier club Rudeš in 2013. While at Rudeš, he attracted the interest of Dutch club Heerenveen.

After having played a friendly match for Osijek, Džolan signed for the Prva HNL side and penned a two-year contract on 7 July 2015. On 8 August 2016, he scored his only goal for the club in the 87th minute of a league match against Lokomotiva which saw Osijek win the match by 3–2.

In March 2017, NK Osijek announced by their official website that Džolan's contract was terminated by mutual consent after he was deemed surplus by manager Zoran Zekić. Subsequently, he headed abroad for the first time and signed for Icelandic club Fjölnir. He scored 2 goals in 19 league matches for Fjölnir.

title: Ivica Džolan


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Elena Maria Vidal

The result of the debate was keep. Mailer Diablo 02:16, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Elena Maria Vidal
Delete - prod tag deleted without explanation by author. Does not seem to be notable enough. Also clearly vanity. Wickethewok 23:41, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Keep and cleanup, 186 ghits for "Elena Maria Vidal", 778 for "Elena Vidal" . "Madame Royale" ranks 274,912 on Amazon. That should be some measure of her notability. — Kimchi.sg | Talk 00:02, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Cleanup and keep I agree with Kimchi.sg. I'd rather see this article improved, as Vidal seems to be notable. Perhaps appropriate and  tags is a better way to go? Gwernol 00:43, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Definitely keep I concur with Kimchi.sg and Gwernol. This is a notable historian and author. User:Georgette

 * Keep and cleanup. Notable per the Amazon listings and rankings. (Also, while the article appears to be vanity, kudos to the author for keeping good NPOV in writing it.) —C.Fred (talk) 04:31, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Keep and looks like it has been cleaned up.  --<IP_ADDRESS> 16:31, 24 March 2006 (UTC)


text:
orat

Etymology
, from, from.

Verb

 * 1) to plough

Etymology
From. Compare 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1)  private parts

title: orat


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Life Sciences topics

 * Nobel Prize Report - short podcast about the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology (link does not work any more 2008/11/18)
 * The 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription.
 * Getting to know pathogens - introduction to the concept of microbial disease
 * Telemedicine in French-speaking Africa - RAFT, a network of educational television and telemedicine in French-speaking Africa
 * Allelopathy is the chemical property of a given plant that allows it to suppress the growth of other plants, similar to herbicides.
 * Darwinism as religion - is evolution taught as religion in public schools?
 * Cell Biology - Exploring cell biology. Independent study with projects.
 * Phage project - participants access phage gene databases and participate in phage genomics research projects.
 * Encyclopedia of life - Explore cooperation between education-oriented Biology websites.
 * Life origins - abiotic origin of life, endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotes, origin of action potentials, origin of the human species, origin of human language.
 * Pluripotent stem cells - What are the prospects for medical therapies using embryonic stem cells?
 * Wikiversity Genomics Database - Database of information on genome characteristics.
 * The Science Behind Parkinson's - A learning and researching project for sharing emerging knowledge and insights.
 * Seminar in Biological Mechanisms of Aging and Cancer - explore the biological mechanisms that underly aging and cancer.


text:
Sudlaneh Rural District

Sudlaneh Rural District is in the Central District of Quchan County, Razavi Khorasan province, Iran. Its capital is the village of Aliabad.

Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the rural district's population was 18,985 in 4,512 households. There were 18,246 inhabitants in 5,043 households at the following census of 2011. The 2016 census measured the population of the rural district as 17,088 in 5,234 households. The most populous of its 48 villages was Farkhan-e Olya, with 2,062 people.

title: Sudlaneh Rural District


text:
User:Audiori

Wikipedia used to be fun. I started writing articles shortly after the website came into existence. I used to look at the list of "most wanted articles" and almost randomly pick a topic, research it as much as possible and begin writing. Others would join in and help me improve it or correct something if I got something wrong. It was a lot of fun. I probably had hundreds of articles under my belt (with my original user name) and was even asked to be an admin at one time. I turned it down because I didn't have enough time.

Back then, the goal of the administrators (and most of the editors) was to continually grow the database by adding more and more articles. It was thought better to expand Wikipedia and include more and more information than it was to find every little nitpicking reason to delete articles or remove someone's work. I was told by administrators on many occasions that when someone has a complaint with a specific article they should find ways to improve it before looking to delete it. If it needs more citations, they should be the ones looking to find them before anything else happens. If it needs more information, the editor that feels that way should be trying to find it and add it to the article. If they can't find it themselves, then they can ask for help. If no one can find it, then it should be considered for deletion.

Obviously, anything that could be challenged or disputed like a political comment had to be challenged and include sources. The same thing would happen with articles about non-noteworthy persons, movies or CDs. A band making cassette tapes in their garage was not worthy enough. A guy writing a blog could not be called an author. At the same time, bands with releases that were available worldwide and showed up on music reviews pages were acceptable. Makes perfect sense.

As time went on however, it seems that this goal has changed. The goal now, at least of some editors, is to remove as many articles as possible - or at least, articles that the contributor doesn't like. Band X can make all kinds of claims and go unnoticed, while Band Z gets deleted because their CDs aren't for sale at Amazon. Others expect citations about every little meaningless piece of information in one article, while ignoring hundreds of other articles that make similar claims. It's no longer about constantly expanding the database of information, but limiting it by only what a handful of people deem appropriate to include. It has become boring for that reason. What fun is it to spend hours working on an article and then have some dumbass that couldn't care less about the subject come along and delete because they don't care about it? Audiori (talk) 22:16, 2 December 2012 (UTC)

title: User:Audiori


text:
Category talk:User en-4

Conflicting Userboxes
Template:User_en-4 and this one differ. TheJF 20:46, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Category talk:User en-4


text:
Leon Wiśniewski

Leon Wiśniewski (29 March 1937 – 27 April 1985) was a Polish field hockey player. He competed in the men's tournament at the 1960 Summer Olympics.

title: Leon Wiśniewski


text:
Cookbook:Jam (recipe)

Ingredients

 * 2 cups soft, fleshy fruit like strawberries, peaches, cherries, plums, blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, etc.
 * ¼ cup or less lemon juice
 * ½ teaspoon of butter
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar (or 3 cups for bitter or sour fruits)
 * Pectin (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Clean the fruit, remove any stones, leaves, or other inedible parts, and wash it. If the fruit is not a small berry, then cut it up into small pieces.
 * 2) Crush the fruit, then sprinkle with lemon juice and butter and stir well.
 * 3) Pour the mixture into a sufficiently large cooking pot. Traditionally a copper pot is used, but any other cooking pot will do fine.
 * 4) Bring the mixture slowly to the boil on a full rolling boil, stirring regularly. Pour in sugar, and add pectin if needed.
 * 5) Depending on the fruit, you will need to boil the mixture for about an hour. The jam is ready when it is thick enough. Check this by pouring a drop of the jam onto a cold plate. It should turn sticky and not be too runny.
 * 6) To preserve the jam well, you should pour it into glass flasks or containers that have been sterilized by boiling them in water. You can also pasteurize the containers by washing them with boiling water. The inside of lids as well as the flasks should be washed if the latter method is used. The jam should be poured rapidly into the still-hot containers. The containers should be sealed with lids. In this case it's best to let the air bubble that is in the flask traverse the still-hot jam by turning it upside-down after the lid has been placed on. This is to disinfect the air bubble. Or, instead of a lid, the jam can be protected by pouring molten paraffin on top of it, and closing of the jar with a paper that is held with a rubber band.
 * 7) Serve with bread, toast, English muffins, or pancakes.

ספר מתכונים/ריבות וג'לי Kookboek/Confituur

title: Cookbook:Jam (recipe)


text:
Talk:List of Yoruba people

The added details
Hi Editors, on the topic of the details being appended to the names on this List article, can it be suggested that we instead opt for using subsections as much as possible to convey the particulars of a person who has found themselves on the list? For example, the music section has pre and post 2000s subsections as opposed to adding ", post 200s", or ", 90s musicain" per name. It also seems like this will do a great job of keeping the page looking clean. There is also a new practice of adding links to non-names on the page such as careers like "forward" and "striker", which makes it seem like a new mini article is being constructed from some of the names. What do you think about cleaning up these appended text details and instead providing specifics for each listed person only via use of subsections? I think it would be a great way to keep the page visually inviting. -Oluwatalisman (talk) 04:33, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Yoruba people


text:
vastuu

Etymology
., shortened from.

Noun

 * 1) responsibility, charge
 * 2)  liability
 * 1)  liability
 * 1)  liability

title: vastuu


text:
Tsuneya Yuzaki

Tsuneya Yuzaki (born 10 February 1941) is a Japanese field hockey player. He competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics, the 1964 Summer Olympics and the 1968 Summer Olympics.

title: Tsuneya Yuzaki


text:
Talk:Clifford Honey Thurston

External links modified
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I have just modified 2 one external links on Clifford Honey Thurston. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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title: Talk:Clifford Honey Thurston


text:
Song Myung-soon

Song Myung-soon is a former officer of the Republic of Korea Army. She began her career in the Women's Army Corps and rose to command one of its battalions. She has since worked at the South Korean-United States Combined Forces Command and in the offices of the South Korean Joint Chiefs of Staff. In December 2010 Song became the sixth South Korean woman to be promoted to the rank of brigadier-general and the first to come from a combat arm. She was placed on the reservist forces two years later.

Early life and career
Song was born in 1958. She attended Yeungnam University and graduated with a bachelor's degree in political science and foreign affairs. Later in her career Song attended Kyonggi University from which she received a master's degree in national security. Song joined the Republic of Korea Army's Women's Army Corps (WAC) in 1981. At the time of her initial basic training she was mother of a young child and later described it as a challenging time.

Song rose to command a battalion of the WAC and also its special forces unit. Song later worked at the joint South Korean-United States Combined Forces Command and served as commander of the 2nd Army Basic Training Centre and head of psychological warfare in the civil affairs department of Second Operations Command. By 2010 she held the rank of colonel and was serving with the joint civilian operations department of the offices of the South Korean Joint Chiefs of Staff.

General officer
In December 2010 Song became the sixth South Korean woman to be promoted to general officer rank in the South Korean army. She was the first South Korean female general to hold a combat position (the previous five women had all been from the nursing service). Song stated that "the roles of female soldiers and officers have become more important than before" and that the date of her promotion would be "a turning point in the military. I think that the military will pay more attention to employing and placing female soldiers in the right positions to create synergy".

In 2012 she was part of a delegation of South Korean officers that attended celebrations in Seoul of the 36th Armed Forces Day of the United Arab Emirates.

title: Song Myung-soon


text:
IB Spanish

Group 2 Spanish
Spanish B Higher Level (HL) suits someone who has studied the language for 4-5 years. Spanish Standard Level (SL) is suited to someone who has 2-5 years experience. Beginners should opt for Spanish ab initio. Native or bilingual speakers, if already doing English or French in Group 1, should take Spanish A2 in Group 2. This wikibook focuses on Spanish B HL and SL.

Differences between HL and SL
The structure of the course should be similar whether studying HL or SL. However, HL students should have more allocated teaching time and more homework. In addition, HL students should be exposed to more complex language, be introduced to a variety of literary styles and explore more culture. While a SL student would be expected to communicate orally and in writing in a variety of common situations and with a certain degree of fluency, a HL student would be expected to communicate orally and in writing in a wide variety of situations with clarity and fluency. SL and HL are differentiated by the recommended number of teaching hours, the depth of syllabus coverage, the study of literature at HL, and the level of difficulty and demands of assessment and assessment criteria. The core—with topics common to both levels—is divided into three areas and is a required area of study. • Communication and media • Global issues • Social relationships In addition, at both SL and HL, teachers select two from the following five options. • Cultural diversity • Customs and traditions • Health • Leisure • Science and technology

Also, at HL, students read two works of literature.

Syllabus
There is one Language B Guide that covers all (30+) languages taught in Group 2. This means that it is the responsibility of the teacher to design a course suitable for the needs of the students. Despite this freedom, there are two main strands around which a teacher can base his own course: Text Type (or Communicative Purpose) and Topics. In addition, the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing should be interlinked throughout the course.

Types of Text
The IB Spanish course is intended to prepare students to be able to understand and write a variety of types of texts, including: brochures, diary entries, police statements, anecdotes or short stories,  informal letters and emails, formal letters and emails, letters to a newspaper, news articles, opinion articles (editorials/columns), essays, reports, book reviews and film reviews. Students should also learn to write “spoken” texts such as interviews, speeches and conference presentations. The more complex texts should be reserved for HL students, for example: interviews, conference presentations, essays and creative writing.

Topics
Anything related to Hispanic culture, society and history can be studied, as well as issues relating to young people and the international community, for example:

El deporte, la salud, el ocio, la moda, el botellón, el papel de la mujer, el machismo, las relaciones personales, el amor, el turismo, el medio ambiente, la solidaridad, la globalización, la educación, la lectura, la tecnología, el internet, el espanglish, las comunidades indígenas, las fiestas, las tradiciones, la tauromáquia, el flamenco, los gauchos, el tango argentino, la gastronomía, el arte, el cine, el narcotráfico, la política, los conflictos internacionales, la inmigración.

Authentic Resources
It is very easy to find authentic resources in Spanish on the internet. For the news and current affairs use high quality websites such as http://www.rtve.es (Radio y televisión española), http://www.elpais.es, http://www.elmundo.es. Don’t limit yourself to articles; search in the archives for videos and podcasts too. http://www.youtube.com is fantastic for music videos (with lyrics), interviews with famous people, publicity, and is a lively source of background information on almost any topic. Films are a must for any student wanting to explore issues of culture and society. Films made in Spain and Latin America are becoming increasingly mainstream in the UK and are equally accessible to SL and HL students, for example: Volver, María llena eres de gracia, Amores Perros, Y tu mamá también, El orfanato, El laberinto del fauno, La lengua de las mariposas.

Literature
HL Students are required to read two "works" authentic literature, such as whole books or plays or collections of poems or short stories. Accessible authors to start with include Federico García Lorca (La casa de Bernarda Alba, Bodas de Sangre), Laura Esquivel (Como agua para chocolate), Carlos Fuentes (Aura). Extracts of lengthier works can be studied in order to gain an appreciation for different styles including Gabriel García Márquez (Cien años de soledad, Crónica de una muerte anunciada), Miguel Delibes (Cinco Horas con Mario), Fernando Fernán Gómez (Las bicicletas son para el verano), Jorge Luis Borges (Ficciones), Miguel de Cervantes (Novelas ejemplares), Juan Rulfo (Pedro Párramo), Pablo Neruda (Confieso que he vivido), Mario Vargas Llosa (La fiesta del chivo) Roberto Bolaño (Los detectives salvajes), Mario Benedetti (Aquí se respira bien), Luisa Castro (La segunda mujer).

Assessment and grading
Students sit two written exams: Paper 1 and Paper 2, each lasting 1hr30. In addition, a written assignment is produced under teacher supervision during the school year. Internal Assessment comprises Interactive Orals and an Individual Oral. Students are assessed throughout on their Language, Interaction and Message.

The grade boundaries shift slightly in every exam sessions, and remain to be established in the new program for initial testing in 2013.

Externally assessed written assignment: This paper, new to the curriculum for 2013, is written by students under teacher supervision, but submitted for external evaluation. For HL, the paper is based on the literature topics studied. For SL, it is based on a selection of three related non-literary readings which the student uses as a basis for the paper.

Paper 1 (Text Handling) 1hr30    25%
Section A) Reading Comprehension: 30-40 questions based on 4 texts (Texts A, B and C). Question types include true or false with a justification, looking for synonyms, inserting conjunctions, identifying which noun a pronoun refers to, matching titles with paragraphs, multiple choice, identifying the main purpose of the text. All answers should be exact words lifted from the text; do not try to explain or paraphrase. 1 mark is allocated to each question.

Paper 2 (Writing in Registers) 1hr30    25%
Students have a choice of 5 topics covering different areas of study and types of text. In addition, HL students have a second written item reacting to a short reading.

Internal Assessment  30%
Interactive Oral: At least 3 group orals should be assessed in the final year of the course and the best mark is put forward. Interactive Orals can take many forms, for example: a prepared presentation followed by questions, a formal debate, an informal discussion, a role-play, or a spontaneous response to a film-clip. Interactive orals are marked by the teacher. The more orals done in class, the less nerve-wrecking they become.

Individual Oral: The Individual Oral takes place in the final year and lasts 8-10 minutes. It is conducted and marked by the teacher and recorded for external moderation. The mark is added to the best Interactive Oral mark. Part 1 is a 3-4 minute presentation on a picture related to a curriculum theme. Part 2 involves 5-6 minutes of unprepared discussion with the teacher based on the picture's topic.

Extended Essay in Spanish
Students can choose to write their Extended Essay (la monografía) in Spanish as part of Group 2. The EE can be written either on aspects of Language, Culture & Society, or Literature. Students should read carefully the Extended Essay Guide (2009) and the Group 2 Subject Specific criteria. Writing the EE in Spanish is excellent preparation for university study of the language.

title: IB Spanish


text:
squadriglia

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1) squadron
 * 2) flight group of military aircraft
 * 3)  small team

title: squadriglia


text:
Piano Sonata No. 29

Piano Sonata No. 29 may refer to:

 * Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven), known as the "Hammerklavier"
 * Piano Sonata No. 29 (Tveitt)

title: Piano Sonata No. 29


text:
Talk:William P. Hobby Jr.

Edited
Made substantial changes in hopes of removing the stub status. --A little mollusk (talk) A little mollusk (talk) 04:02, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:William P. Hobby Jr.


text:
Wilson's Raid

Wilson's Raid was a cavalry operation through Alabama and Georgia in March–April 1865, late in the American Civil War. U.S. Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson led his U.S. Cavalry Corps to destroy Confederate manufacturing facilities and was opposed unsuccessfully by a much smaller force under Confederate Lt. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest.

Background and opposing forces
After his victory at the Battle of Nashville, U.S. Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas and his Army of the Cumberland found themselves with virtually no organized military opposition in the heart of the Confederacy. Thomas ordered Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson (who commanded the Cavalry Corps of the Military Division of the Mississippi, but was attached to Thomas's army) to lead a raid to destroy the arsenal at Selma, Alabama, in conjunction with Maj. Gen. Edward Canby's operations against Mobile. Selma was strategically important as one of the few Confederate military bases remaining in Southern hands. The town contained an arsenal, a naval foundry, gun factories, a powder mill, military warehouses, and railroad repair shops.

Wilson led approximately 13,500 men in three divisions, commanded by Brig. Gens. Edward M. McCook, Eli Long, and Emory Upton. Each cavalryman was armed with the formidable 7-shot Spencer repeating rifle. His principal opponent was Lt. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, whose Cavalry Corps of the Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Louisiana consisted of about 2,500 troopers organized into two small divisions, led by Brig. Gens. James R. Chalmers and William H. Jackson, two partial brigades under Brig. Gen. Philip D. Roddey and Colonel Edward Crossland, and a few local militia.

Raid
Wilson was delayed in crossing the rain-swollen Tennessee River, but he got underway on March 22, 1865, departing from Gravelly Springs in Lauderdale County, Alabama. He sent his forces in three separate columns to mask his intentions and confuse the enemy; Forrest learned very late in the raid that Selma was the primary target. Minor skirmishes occurred at Houston (March 25) and Black Warrior River (March 26), and Wilson's columns rejoined at Jasper on March 27.

On March 28, at Elyton, in present-day Birmingham, another skirmish occurred, and the U.S. Army soldiers destroyed the Oxmoor and Irondale iron furnaces. A detachment of General Emory Upton's division destroyed the C.B. Churchill and Company foundry in Columbiana and the Shelby Iron Works in Shelby on March 31, 1865.

Tuscaloosa
Wilson also detached a 1,500-man brigade under Brig. Gen. John T. Croxton and sent them south and west to burn the Roupes Valley Ironworks at Tannehill and Bibb Naval Furnace at Brierfield on March 31. They then burned the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, which was a prominent military school, on April 4. This movement diverted Chalmer's division away from Forrest's main force. Croxton continued his raid across Alabama, destroying several iron works and fighting Confederate General Benjamin J. Hill's brigade at Munford. He finally rejoined Wilson at Macon, Ga., on May 1, 1865.

Selma
On March 31, Forrest was routed by the larger, better-armed U.S. force at Montevallo. The cavalrymen under Chalmers had not arrived to reinforce Forrest, but he could not wait. U.S. soldiers overran Forrest's headquarters during the action, capturing documents that gave valuable intelligence concerning his plans. Wilson dispatched McCook to link up with Croxton's brigade at Trion (now Vance) and then led the remainder of his force rapidly toward Selma. Forrest made a stand on April 1 at Plantersville, near Ebenezer Church, and was routed once again at the Battle of Ebenezer Church. The Confederates raced toward Selma and deployed into a three-mile, semicircular defensive line anchored at both ends by the Alabama River.

The Battle of Selma took place on April 2. The divisions of Long and Upton assaulted Forrest's hastily constructed works. The dismounted U.S. soldiers broke through by afternoon, after brief periods of hand-to-hand combat; the inexperienced militiamen abandoning their positions and fleeing was the primary reason for the entire line breaking. General Wilson personally led a mounted charge of the 4th U.S. Cavalry against an unfinished portion of the line. General Long was severely wounded in the head during the assault. Forrest, who was also injured, and whose small corps was severely damaged, regrouped at Marion, where he finally rejoined Chalmers. Wilson's men worked for over a week to destroy military facilities. From there, Wilson's forces moved toward Montgomery, which they occupied on April 12.

West Point
Despite Robert E. Lee's April 9 surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia following the Battle of Appomattox Court House, the Army of Tennessee under the command of Gen Joseph E. Johnston had not yet surrendered the Confederate forces in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. Wilson planned to head east into Georgia to destroy the remaining arsenals and munitions and to cause any remaining local forces to "disintegrate." Wilson's success in this plan would be accelerated if his forces could secure at least one of several key bridges over the Chattahoochee River. One such bridge led into the town of West Point. Wilson separated his force to avoid any delay in the raid, sending a 3,700-man detachment under Colonel Oscar Hugh La Grange to capture both the bridge and the town. Simultaneously, Wilson ordered Upton's division to rush toward another strategically important bridge at Columbus, Georgia.

The Battle of West Point, Georgia, was fought on Easter Sunday, April 16, when Colonel Oscar Hugh La Grange's brigade attacked an earthwork defensive position named Fort Tyler that was defended by a couple hundred young men and teenaged Confederates under CS Brig. Gen. Robert C. Tyler. Determined to fight to the last ditch, the Confederates fought a wave of dismounted U.S. troops. The Confederates did not stand a chance as they were largely outnumbered and poorly armed, whereas the U.S. Army soldiers were armed with repeaters. The U.S. soldiers crossed over a ditch while the rebels hurled primitive hand-grenades and fired their weapons. Although the U.S. soldiers had to assault under the fire of one 32-pounder gun and two 12-pounders inside the earthwork, the fort was captured. Confederate Brig. Gen. Robert C. Tyler was mortally wounded by a sharpshooter, becoming the last general officer killed in the Civil War.

The defense of West Point was doomed to fail and had done so. With rebel prisoners, the fort, and the bridge in his hands, La Grange moved out to rejoin Wilson. The battle had been won for the United States at the cost of 36 casualties, both killed and wounded. The Confederates had lost 18 men killed, 28 wounded, and the remainder captured. With most of the dead southerners in the fort, one Yankee artilleryman said the dead Confederates wore "an awful look."

Columbus
In a separate battle on Easter Sunday, April 16, Wilson was victorious in the Battle of Columbus, Georgia, in which Upton's division clashed with Confederate forces at Columbus, capturing the city and its naval works and burning, then scuttling the incomplete ironclad ram, CSS Jackson. This engagement is regarded as the "Last Battle of the Civil War." On April 20, Wilson's men captured Macon, Georgia, without resistance, and Wilson's Raid came to an end. This was only six days before General Joseph E. Johnston's surrender of all Confederate troops in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida to William Tecumseh Sherman in North Carolina.

Aftermath and capture of Jefferson Davis
Wilson's Raid had been a spectacular success. His men captured five fortified cities, 288 cannons, and 6,820 prisoners, at 725 U.S. casualties. Forrest's casualties, from a much smaller force, numbered 1,200. Wilson completed the raid without destroying plantation property that characterized Sherman's March to the Sea of the previous year. Residents accused Wilson's men of sacking Selma after the battle. Still, the damage came from many sources, including street combat that continued into the night, 35,000 bales of cotton, and the Central Commercial Warehouse fired by Confederates as the city fell. Some U.S. soldiers and newly liberated formerly enslaved people engaged in plunder. After the first night, Wilson re-established discipline.

Upon conclusion of the raid, and following the surrender of all of the Confederate forces east of the Chattahoochee River by Johnston to Sherman, the hostilities in the theater ended. However, the pursuit of fleeing officials of the Confederate government commenced as Wilson's forces fanned out through the region. Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured on May 10, 1865, near Irwinville, Georgia.

title: Wilson's Raid


text: User:ClueBot III/Detailed Indices/User talk:ContinueWithCaution/Archives/%(15UTCamSat, 07 Feb 2015 00:50:45 +0000)07/%(022015228122am02UTC)45


text:
Talk:Christopher Backus

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Why does Wikipedia ask everyone for money when it is biased and leftist? Take from your communist supporters.
Wikipedia should be called Wokipedia. You get none of my money. 2600:1006:B005:5E02:802E:EBE4:350F:2B3E (talk) 21:21, 4 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christopher Backus


text:
Mhango

Mhango is a surname. It may refer to:

 * Banele Mhango (born 2003), South African chess master and coach.
 * Bazuka Mhango (born 1939), Malawian lawyer, educator and politician
 * Gabadinho Mhango (born 1992), Malawian international footballer
 * Geoffrey Du Mhango, Malawian economist, author, and politician
 * Winston Mhango (born 1988), Zimbabwean footballer
 * Yvonne Mhango, Malawian economist

Others

 * Margaret Mhango Mwanakatwe, Zambian politician and government minister

title: Mhango


text:
Talk:Douglas Peters

External links modified
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 05:10, 27 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Douglas Peters


text:
Template:Dynamic navigation noncentered

Parameter: BGCOLOR = colour of the heading of the navigation box TITLE  = heading of the navigation box CONTENT = contents of the navigation box. Use &#124; to separate links. It is not possible to include a pipe ("|") in the contents as this symbol is used to separate parameters. SMALLCONTENT = as per CONTENT but produces 90% fontsize WIDTH  = Optional parameter to limit width

title: Template:Dynamic navigation noncentered