text:
School talk:Language and Literature

Reformatting in General
Okay, this entire page is really starting to get on my nerves--can anyone help me out with the extremely overdue reformatting job? Also, I am saving copies of the original formatting to my computer if we need to revert at any point. Oh, by the way--kudos to whoever designed our layout, and please don't misunderstand me when I say the formatting is getting on my nerves--this really is a fabulous page, I'm just trying to make it a little easier to navigate. --Trinity507 01:13, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

I'm moving the "Did You Know" and "Notable Quotes" to a different page--I think they're cluttering up the page as it is now. --Trinity507 20:06, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

I haven't had time to move these to their own page recently, so I'll post them here for now...--Trinity507 16:48, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

Wikiversity language courses

 * Russian
 * Introduction to Sanskrit Language (stub)
 * Introduction to Swedish
 * Common phrases
 * Mandarin
 * Latin stream
 * Introduction to Latin
 * Introduction to Arabic
 * Introduction to Breton
 * Learning Finnish
 * Introduction
 * Common phrases
 * Introduction to Filipino
 * Hindi
 * Introduction to Italian
 * Introduction to the Dutch Language
 * Introductory Ancient Greek Language
 * Japanese question words
 * Portuguese Alphabet
 * Rules of Esperanto grammar
 * Spanish
 * ESL for Primary School
 * Introductory Esperanto
 * Learning the Basics of French
 * Introductory Korean
 * Korean writing system
 * Aztec language
 * Maya language
 * Kernewek Onan

Reformatting Divisions/Departments section
I found the list of our departments and divisions extremely confusing, so I am trying to reformat it -- I noticed we had several "dead links" (notably the Mandarin topic when we already have a Chinese one!) -- I am going to delete these from our list of topics but paste the links here on the discussion page so that the responsible users can clean up a bit. If anyone has any comments/questions/objections to my reformatting job, please let me know (and change it yourself, of course!) --Trinity507 05:17, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

Here is a copy of the old page if we should revert, but I spent a lot of time and effort on reformatting it and, personally, I think it looks great - a lot less confusing! I alphabetized languages and moved the "dead links" and disputed pages into their own categories for the time being. Okay, the old page was:

Departments and divisions

 * School of Linguistics
 * English language
 * English Studies Department
 * Literary Studies Department
 * Foreign language learning
 * Writing
 * History
 * Slavic
 * Brythonic Celtic Languages Division
 * The Breton Language
 * The Cornish Language
 * Klingon
 * Tolkien
 * Southeast Asian Languages
 * South American Languages Division
 * The Aymara Language
 * The Quechua Language
 * British novel
 * British poetry
 * American poetry
 * List of all projects and courses offered
 * Topic:Chinese
 * Topic:Mandarin
 * Topic:Korean
 * Topic:Japanese
 * German
 * French
 * Hebrew
 * Arabic
 * Topic:Portuguese
 * Italian
 * Indonesian
 * Topic:Spanish
 * Topic:Turkish
 * Department of Germanic Studies(under major construction)

Signed, Trinity507 06:06, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

Language and Literature: Which Portal?
So, which portal does this school actually belongs to? Humanities or Social Sciences? And what about School:Linguistics? I don't think that two schools are necessary for almost the same subject (for example, learning foreign languages can be both listed in this school and in the Linguistics school). I wouldn't like participants to split in two. :) --Ђорђе Д. Божовић 15:34, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The School of Language and Literature is part of the Humanities. The School of Foreign Language Learning is part of the Practical Arts and Sciences. The School of Linguistics is part of the Social Sciences. These three schools should cooperate and avoid duplication of effort. --JWSchmidt 16:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

 * OK, thank you very much. But yet, there is a topic Language Acquisition within this school, and it aims to be very similar (I'd say almost identical) with School of Foreign Language Learning, doesn't it? --George D. Bozovic talk 16:48, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

This Page Looks Amazing!
this page looks amazing! --Smithgrrl 06:24, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, thank you. :) I like to work in a colourful environment. :D I believe that a nice-looking school would attract more people than a boring ugly one. --George D. Bozovic talk 15:00, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm so copying this for the school of law! This is really an excellent page.--AdamG 22:11, 29 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Check it out: School:Law. Thanks again!--AdamG 23:02, 29 September 2006 (UTC)

An idea
I have an idea for collaboratively writing a play but I'm not sure what page would be an appropriate location on which to start this project. Any ideas? CDinAshton 00:19, 6 October 2006 (UTC)
 * It sounds like a great idea. Start with the first thing that comes into your head (Collaborative play writing?), it can always be changed later. --JWSchmidt 01:30, 6 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Perhaps you can make a subpage of the Writing Centre or something like that? --George D. Bozovic talk 20:34, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

Eager to get involved
I'm brand new to Wikiversity, and slightly disoriented, but I'd love to get involved. I've studied several foreign languages, and my education is in English and Linguistics (and History). How do I get involved in this School? Jade Knight 07:54, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I'd like to create a Department of English Language (which would fit in both this School and possibly the Linguistics School), which would coordinate non-literary aspects of English. Is this a good idea, or should we have English Linguistics, Old English, Middle English, etc., all in completely separate departments?  Jade Knight 09:59, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Hi there. Have you seen Topic:English Studies (it's currently empty) on the school page? Perhaps that fits your interests? Feel free to contribute. --George D. Bozovic talk 12:07, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, I saw that, but don't know what to make of it—I'm not entire sure what "English Studies" means; I could see that applying to literature as well as language, or it could be a regional grouping, contrasting "English Studies" with "American Studies", etc. Should I go about creating a page for an English Language department, then?  Jade Knight 19:55, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Neither do I know. :) It was named like that when Wikiversity was still held at the Wikibooks, long time ago. I believe that the term "English studies" would cover the English language and literature as well as the culture (mythology and religion, history, etc.) of the English-speaking nations, wouldn't it? "Slavonic studies" works in that way for the Slavonic peoples (its primary topic is studying the Slavonic languages, but also the Slavonic culture trivialy). So, Topic:English language could be a subdivision of Topic:English Studies, don't you think? --George D. Bozovic talk 20:40, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * That makese sense. Jade Knight 20:56, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

I've created an English Language Division. Please list it somewhere. The Jade Knight 23:54, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

 * You may create the Topic:English Studies page. Then list it there. :) --George D. Bozovic talk 20:42, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I think that's silly. English Language is currently a division of the Languages and Literature School (and, in fact, is one of only like 2-3 divisions/departments the School has).  It's silly to create another Division just to advertise a Division when the School could advertise the created Division well enough as it is.  The Jade Knight 01:17, 10 October 2006 (UTC)

Course listing?
The main page for the School should either have a listing of courses/projects, or a link to a page which contains such a list. Jade Knight 21:24, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

 * School:Language and Literature/List of projects and topics <-- Is this a good title, what do you think? It is half past midnight here in my time zone, I really can't judge properly now. :) --George D. Bozovic talk 22:30, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
 * "Course Catalog" would be a more clever title, but maybe less inclusive. "Course offerings" is another option.  It would be more inclusive to say "Project offerings" or "Project catalog", but I worry that most users won't recognize that they would find courses there.  The title you've come up with is functional, though I think we need to draw a distinction between Projects and Courses, and Topics, which are academic divisions/departments/etc.  It can be really confusing for new users to learn Wikiversity lingo.  Perhaps it would be better to say "List of Departments, Projects, and Courses Offered"?  Jade Knight 23:11, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't know. I have just put School:Language and Literature/Catalogue for now. Do you have any other ideas about the title? It would be great if it wasn't very long. --George D. Bozovic talk 12:01, 8 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I think that would be fine. The Jade Knight 19:18, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

Russian
According to academic V. G. Kostomarov, Russian is spoken by approximately 500,000,000 people. 159,000,000 of these are native Russian speakers, and the rest speak it as foreign language. Russian is taught in 120 countries. 20,000,000 people learn it daily. Each fourth book in the world is printed in Russian. (cited from the book "Руски језик" by Predrag Piper and Vucina Raicevic) --George D. Bozovic talk 14:28, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
 * According to Ethnologue, Russian has 145 million native speakers, and 110 secondary speakers. According to the Linguasphere, Greater Russian has 170 million native, and 150 secondary speakers.  Both of these are highly respected linguistic studies.  Ethnologue gives 380 million Spanish speakers, while the Linguasphere puts this number at 450 million.  Ethnologue gives over 300 million Hindi speakers, while Linguasphere gives about 900 million for the Hindi/Urdu language group.  Ethnologue gives 450 million Arabic speakers.  Arabic, Spanish and French are all official in more countries than Russian.  4 separate sources rank Russian as having 250-280 million speakers, being 5th or 6th in the world in terms of total speakership.  I would like to see the data backing up the claim that every 4th book in the world is printed in Russian, and comparable statistics from a reliable source stating how many countries French, Spanish and Arabic are taught in, and how many people learn them daily.  In the United States alone, which has 300 million citizens, Spanish is the most learned foreign language, and Russian isn't even in the top 3.  I would be very surprised if 20 million people were not learning Spanish every day.  It's fine to say that Russian is one of the top 10 most used languages in the world; I think that's fairly supportable.  But that it's the third?  This seems highly unlikely, considering the data available from multiple reliable linguistic sources.  The Jade Knight 21:46, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
 * My oppinion was fully based on Kostomarov's statement: "По этому критерию русский язык занимает третье (после китайского и английского) место в мире". I am sorry if it was not quite correct. --George D. Bozovic talk 15:45, 22 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I understand. In this case, it seems the book is somewhat off.  However, even if there were 600,000,000 Russian speakers and Russian was an official language in 35 countries, "most used" would still be a very subjective term.  It would be better to say "has more speakers" or "is taught in more countries", etc., as these are more objective and can be quantified better.  It is still possible (though I have some doubts about it) that Russian is taught in more countries or has more books printed in it than any language other than English or Chinese.  If we could find comparable statistics for other languages (particularly Spanish, French, and Arabic), we could accurately make such a comparison.  The Jade Knight 04:50, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Quenya Course.
Interested in setting up one. Some other too? Suggestions?--Elistir 14:30, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I believe other people will certainly appear later. Good luck. --George D. Bozovic talk 15:42, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks. I'm opem to suggestions (and for someone to help me explaining the exact procedures. Thanks.--Elistir 15:46, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

 * You might want to make a Department for Quenya first (Topic:Quenya), and then come up with a class to go in it. An example of a language Department (currently with no classes) is the French Department.  The Jade Knight 04:55, 23 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I see you've already set up a Department and Stream. Looks good.  The Jade Knight 04:58, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Lonely
Is it just me or does anybody else ever feel like theyre the only person here? I feel like we need to have a better way of communicating than user talk pages, anybody know of anything? AIM? Y!M?Elatanatari 17:36, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I've got AIM, WLM (MSN), GTalk, and Skype. The Jade Knight 08:52, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

Firefox Language Packs
Does anyone know where I can download Firefox language packs for Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Arabic, Indian, etc?

French: Is It a Department or a Division?
"School:Language_and_Literature" lists French as a Division; but "Topic:French" is ambiguous, a Title listing "French Division", but the accompanying Text reading "Welcome to the French Department at Wikiversity, part of the Center for Foreign Language Learning and the School of Language and Literature."

"Topic:Foreign_Language_Learning" does not speak of Divisions or Departments.

Does "Wikiconsistency" require that a distinction be made; and, if so, do the Naming_conventions point French, and perhaps other Areas of the School of Language and Literature in some clear direction?

Dionysios (talk), a Particapant in the Wikiversity School of Advanced General Studies, Date: 2007-03-31 (March 30, 2007) Time: 2102 UTC
 * At Wikiversity, Division and Department are more or less synonymous, excepting that, generally speaking, a Division is conceptually somewhat larger than a Department. Unless Wikiversity adopts a more firm stand at Naming conventions, I wouldn't worry about it too much.  The Jade Knight 07:56, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

Hebrew Language Division
The Hebrew Language division appears to be rather underdeveloped at the time. I think it should probably be listed under "tasks" because it is potentially valuable as a course but most of the pages are content-free, as of yet. Thanks a lot. Daviddwd (talk) 22:45, 1 August 2012 (UTC)

Mysterious wikicode in the page
I have removed the following mysterious wikicode from the page :

Can anyone explains to me what it is for ? Thanks.

--Thierry613 (discuss • contribs) 22:53, 24 February 2016 (UTC)

 * No clue! It looks like an early version of and . --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 02:07, 25 February 2016 (UTC)
 * Okay. Now, Wikidata is here --Thierry613 (discuss • contribs) 10:25, 25 February 2016 (UTC)

pluralization
"Languages and literatures" is generally the more-correct form when speaking of many different cultures, to emphasize diversity. Is anyone else in favor of formally changing the title of this school to the plural form? Nicole Sharp (discuss • contribs) 19:25, 5 June 2016 (UTC)

- I like the uses of the plurals! --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 02:58, 7 June 2016 (UTC)

Proposal
See : Colloquium. Amqui (discuss • contribs) 17:03, 8 February 2017 (UTC)

title: School talk:Language and Literature


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Chinese (Mandarin)/Greetings

Chinese, like all languages, has its own set of unique greetings which may be seemingly strange to learners of the language (this is particularly true if the two cultures are vastly different). Below, you will find commonly-used Mandarin greetings and farewells, along with corresponding pinyin pronunciations.

Hello

 * 你好. nǐ hǎo ; The standard "hello" greeting. Literally means "you good."
 * 您好. nín hǎo ; The same "hello" greeting as above, except that 您 (nín), like in many European languages, is the polite form of "you", used when addressing elders, or teachers etc.
 * 你好吗？　你好嗎？ nǐ hǎo ma? ; More often used following a greeting than not, however, this can be used as a "How are you?.
 * 您好吗？　您好嗎？ nín hǎo ma? ; The same as the "n ǐ hǎo ma? " above, again, except that this is used as a more polite form.
 * 你怎么样？你怎麼樣？ nǐ zěnmeyàng? ; "What's up?", "How are you doing?"
 * 幸会　幸會 xìnghuì! "Nice to meet you!" Used for the first meeting.
 * 久仰 jiǔyǎng ; An extremely polite greeting that is not commonly used between friends, but rather between professionals meeting for the first time.
 * 久闻大名　久聞大名 jiǔwéndàmíng ; This greeting should be reserved for use towards those whom you have extreme respect for, and is used for the first meeting. Literal translation: "Your name is famous" / "I have heard much about you".
 * 久仰大名 jiǔyǎngdàmíng ; The same as above one.

Good morning

 * 早 zǎo ; Also good morning.
 * 早安 zǎo'ān ; Seldom used in the Mainland.
 * 早上好 zǎoshàng hǎo.

Good afternoon

 * 午安 wǔ'ān ; note: seldom used in the Mainland. Mostly used in the Republic of China and the rest of the Chinese speaking world.
 * 下午好 xìawǔ hǎo! Seldom used in the Republic of China and in the Chinese speaking world.

Good evening / Good night

 * 晚安 wǎn'an ; Literally "Peace at night", Good night.
 * 晚上好 wǎnshang hǎo ; Good evening!

Good-bye

 * 再见　再見 zàijian ; Literally "See you again".
 * 明天见　明天見 míngtian jiàn ; Literally "See you tomorrow".
 * 拜拜 bāibāi/báibái ; From English "Bye-Bye". Widely used in Hong Kong, Taiwan and most urbanised parts of mainland China. 掰掰 (báibái) is the variant character form that is gaining popularity in ROC.
 * 回头见　回頭見 huítóujiàn : roughly equivalent to "see you soon", used in northern China.
 * 再会          再會 zàihuì : Literally "[we'll] hello again". Usually used in Shanghai or other parts of China, and sometimes used at the end of TV programs.

Chinese New Year Greetings

 * Xīnnián kuàilè 新年快乐　新年快樂 Happy New Year
 * gōngxǐ fācái 恭喜发财　恭喜發財 gongxi facai

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chinese (Mandarin)/Greetings


text:
͵Α

Numeral

 * 1) The Greek numeral representing the number one thousand (1000); typically romanized as the Roman numeral M.

title: ͵Α


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Holothuria hilla

Holothuria hilla is a species of sea cucumber in the subgenus Mertensiothuria of the genus Holothuria. Some common names include the contractile sea cucumber, the sand sifting sea cucumber and the tigertail sea cucumber, and in Hawaii it is known as the light spotted sea cucumber. It is found in the Indo-Pacific region and the Red Sea.

Description
Holothuria hilla is a cylindrical sea cucumber, tapering slightly at the posterior end. It can grow to a length of about 40 cm and a diameter of 5 cm. The integument is thin, soft and wrinkled. The dorsal surface is covered with longitudinal rows of tube feet modified into thorn-like conical papillae with broad bases, sometimes joined in pairs. These are creamy-white, in contrast to the pinkish, golden or brown background colour of the skin. The ventral surface is similar in colour but the papillae are ranged in four or five rows and are longer and yellowish. The mouth is on the underside and is surrounded by a ring of twenty, yellowish peltate tentacles. This species has Cuvierian tubules but does not expel them defensively as do some other species.

Distribution and habitat
This species is found in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the tropical west and central Indo-Pacific oceans, as far east as Hawaii, and even Panama. It is mainly found at less than 30 m, but occasionally as deep as 200 m, on sandy, rocky and coral substrates, in lagoons, seagrass meadows and flat areas.

Ecology
Holothuria hilla is a detritivore, raking sand into its mouth with its oral tentacles, extracting and digesting the bacteria, animal and vegetal particles, and voiding the sand through its anus. In this way it churns up significant areas of the seabed.

Reproduction is either sexual, when the male and female liberate their gametes into the water column, or asexual, by fission. Sexual reproduction mostly occurs at hotter times of year and asexual reproduction when it is cooler. In Réunion, where the species is rare, fission is the only breeding method that has been observed. The animal stops feeding and conceals itself while splitting; the missing parts regenerate and are often paler in colour than the original parts.

title: Holothuria hilla


text:
Talk:Pineland, Texas

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title: Talk:Pineland, Texas


text:
Introduction to graph theory/Lecture 1

Introduction
Although Graph Theory, and Combinatorics in general, has very few prerequisites, an introductory course must unfortunately start with many definitions. This lecture may therefore be a little dry, but it will provide the necessary backbone for the rest of the course.

What is a graph?
A lot of situations from the real world can usefully be described by means of a diagram consisting of a set of points together with various lines joining certain pairs of these points. For example, if you are planning a wedding, the points could represent your guests, with the lines representing pairs of people who it would be bearable to have sitting together. Another example is the Kevin Bacon Graph, in which points represent Hollywood actors, and lines represent collaborations between actors. Yet another example is a computer network, in which the points could represent the computers and printers, with lines representing physical and wireless connections.

A graph is a mathematical abstration of the above. Formally, a graph $$G$$ consists of a set of vertices $$V(G)$$, and a set of edges $$E(G)$$, where an edge $$E(G)$$ is a 2-element subset of $$V(G)$$. A graph is usually represented by a picture, in which the vertices are represented by points, and the edges by lines or curves joining  two elements.

Examples
Let $$V(G)=\{a,b,c,d,e\}$$, and let $$E(G)=\{ab,bc,cd,de,ae\}$$. (The edges are usually written as $$ab$$ rather than $$\{a,b\}$$ for ease of notation.) This can be depicted by the following picture:

For another example, let $$V(G)=\{1,2,3,4,5\}$$, and let $$E(G)=\{12,13,14,25,34,45\}$$. This can be depicted by the following picture:

Isomorphism
Given a particular graph, it can be depicted in countless ways, and there is usually no "best" way of depicting a graph. For example the second graph could also be depicted in the following way:. Note that this is still the same graph - the location of the vertices and edges in the diagram makes no difference to the graph.

This rearrangement of the vertices has shown a connection between our two graph examples. If we relabel the vertices of this new drawing in such a way that $$a=1$$, $$b=2$$, $$c=5$$, $$d=4$$ and $$e=3$$, we get the first diagram. In the vast majority of Graph Theory examples and results, the choice of labels for the vertices are pretty much irrelevant, and most graph theorists would see these two graphs as being the same. The relationship between these two graphs is an isomorphism, and they are said to be isomorphic.

Formally, an isomorphism from graph $$G$$ to graph $$H$$ is a mapping $$\phi:V(G)\to V(H)$$ which is one-to-one ($$\phi(u)=\phi(v)\iff u=v$$) , onto (for all $$h\in V(H)$$, there exists $$g\in V(G)$$ such that $$\phi(g)=h$$), and such that for any vertices $$u,v\in V(G)$$, the edge $$uv$$ is contained in $$E(G)$$ if and only if the edge $$\phi(u)\phi(v)$$ is contained in $$E(H)$$. Graphs $$G$$ and $$H$$ are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism from $$G$$ to $$H$$. Unless specified, we will not distinguish between isomorphic graphs.

Note that it is by no means easy to tell if two graphs are isomorphic. See Problem 1 on the problem sheet for examples.

Necessary Definitions
There are various terms relating to the vertices and edges of a graph which, although obvious, need to be defined. Given vertices $$u,v$$ and edge $$uv$$ of graph $$G$$, edge $$uv$$ is said to join the vertices $$u$$ and $$v$$, which are called the endvertices of the edge. $$u$$ and $$v$$ are neighbouring or adjacent vertices of $$G$$, and are incident with edge $$uv$$.

The order of $$G$$ is the number of vertices, whereas the size is the number of edges.

The Degree Sequence
Given a vertex $$v\in V(G)$$, the degree of $$v$$ (denoted by $$d_G(v)$$) is the number of edges incident with $$v$$. The smallest degree of the vertices of $$G$$ is called the minimum degree of $$G$$ and is denoted by $$\delta(G)$$. The maximum degree is denoted by $$\Delta(G)$$.

In the examples above, each vertex has degree 2, so the minimum and maximum degree are 2. A graph in which every vertex is of degree $$k$$ is called $$k$$-regular, and a graph is called regular if it is $$k$$-regular for some $$k$$.

We now have our first theorem of the course. It is the belief of many proponents of Combinatorics that the best way to teach it is through problems. To that end, the theorems are not provided with full proofs in the lectures, but instead with a roadmap with which the student can find the proof themselves. At the end of each theorem a link is provided to a proof page.

Theorem 1: The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph $$G$$ is precisely twice the size of $$G$$.

Proof Roadmap: Let $$S=\{(v,e):v\in V(G), e\in E(G), v$$ incident with $$e\}\!\,$$. By considering how many elements of $$S$$ each vertex $$v$$ is part of, count the number of elements of $$S$$. Count the number of elements of $$S$$ again, this time by considering how many elements each edge $$e$$ is part of.

QED (Full Proof)

If the graph $$G$$ has vertices $$v_1,v_2,\ldots,v_n$$, then the degree sequence of $$G$$ is the sequence $$(d_G(v_1), \ldots, d_G(v_n))$$. For ease of notation, this sequence is often written in increasing order.

Common graphs
In the same way that the alternating, cyclic, dihedral and symmetric groups occur so often that it is useful to have fixed notation for them, similarly there are various graphs which it is useful to be able to describe easily.

Empty Graphs
The empty graph $$E_n$$ has $$V(E_n)=\{1,\ldots,n\}$$ and $$E(E_n)=\emptyset$$. That is to say that is has $$n$$ vertices and 0 edges. It is called the empty graph on $$n$$ vertices.

Complete Graphs
In contrast to the empty graph, the complete graph $$K_n$$ has every edge. That is to say that $$V(K_n)=\{1,\ldots,n\}$$ and $$E(K_n)=\{ij: 1\le i\le j\le n\}$$. It has $$n$$ vertices and $$\frac{n(n-1)}2$$ edges. It is called the complete graph on $$n$$ vertices.

Paths
The path graph $$P_n$$ has $$V(P_n)=\{1,\ldots,n\}$$ and $$E(P_n)=\{12,23,34,\ldots,(n-1)n\}$$. It has $$n$$ vertices and $$n-1$$ edges. It is called the path on $$n$$ vertices or simply the n-path.

Cycles
For $$n\ge 3$$, the cycle graph $$C_n$$ has $$V(C_n)=\{1,\ldots,n\}$$ and $$E(C_n)=\{12,23,\ldots,(n-1)n,1n\}$$. It has $$n$$ vertices and $$n$$ edges It is called the cycle on $$n$$ vertices or simply the n-cycle.

Subgraphs
A question of common importance in Graph Theory is to tell, given a complicated graph $$G$$, whether we can, by removing various edges and vertices, show the presence of a certain other graph $$H$$. In this case $$H$$ is said to be a subgraph of $$G$$. Formally, given graphs $$G, H$$ with $$V(G)\subseteq V(H)$$, $$G$$ is a subgraph of $$H$$ if $$E(G)\subseteq E(H)$$. The subgraph is said to be spanning if $$V(G)=V(H)$$, and induced if $$E(H)$$ consists of every edge of $$G$$ with both vertices in $$V(H)$$.

Cliques, Cycles and Paths
There are a few examples of subgraphs which are particularly important. These correspond to the special graphs mentioned above. Examples in this section will be subgraphs of the Kevin Bacon graph mentioned above.

Cliques
If subgraph $$H$$ of $$G$$ is isomorphic to a complete graph $$K_n$$ for some $$n$$, then $$H$$ is said to be a clique of $$G$$. Note that all cliques are induced subgraphs. A trivial example in the Kevin Bacon graph would be a subgraph H consisting of the entire cast of some film, with all edges present. Clique 1 is such an example with the film Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966). Cliques can also arise in other ways. For example, in Clique 2 each edge corresponds to a different film.

The size of the largest clique in graph $$G$$ is the clique number of $$G$$. The largest clique in the Kevin Bacon Graph probably consists of the largest cast of any film.

Independent Sets
If induced subgraph $$H$$ of $$G$$ is isomorphic to an empty graph $$E_n$$ for some $$n$$, $$H$$ is said to be an independent set of $$G$$. In other words, an independent set is a set of vertices between which no edges lie. For example, Angelina Jolie, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Drew Barrymore, Dennis Hopper, Eddie Murphy, Kevin Bacon, Kevin Spacey, Madonna, Mel Gibson and Shirley Maclaine form an independent set in the Kevin Bacon graph. The size of the largest independent set in graph $$G$$ is the independence number of $$G$$. In the case of the Kevin Bacon graph this probably consists of a collection of extras who have each appeared in one movie, these movies being different.

Cycles
If subgraph $$H$$ is isomorphic to a cycle $$C_n$$ for some $$n$$, then $$H$$ is a cycle of $$G$$. Here is an example of a cycle in the Kevin Bacon Graph which is currently an induced subgraph.

The size of the smallest cycle in a graph $$G$$ is the girth of $$G$$. The size of the largest cycle is the circumference of $$G$$. For the Kevin Bacon graph, the girth is 3, as Robert De Niro, Jodie Foster and Joe Pesci can attest. The circumference is a much harder question, but probably will consist of most of the vertices on the graph of degree at least 2.

Paths
If subgraph $$H$$ is isomorphic to a path $$P_n$$ for some $$n$$, then $$H$$ is a path of $$G$$. Here is an example of a path in the Kevin Bacon Graph which is currently an induced subgraph.

If the vertices at the end of the path are $$u,v$$, it is called a $$u,v$$-path. If there exists a path between $$u$$ and $$v$$, the distance between $$u$$ and $$v$$ is the length (number of edges) of the shortest $$u,v$$-path. The diameter of a graph is the longest distance between two points. If, as is commonly suggested, every actor can be connected to Kevin Bacon with at most 6 links, the diameter must be at most 12.

r-partite Graphs
A graph $$G$$ is said to be bipartite with vertex classes $$V_1$$ and $$V_2$$ if the vertex set of $$G$$ is the disjoint union of $$V_1$$ and $$V_2$$, and each edge joins a vertex of $$V_1$$ to a vertex of $$V_2$$. There is no edge joining two elements in $$V_1$$ (or in $$V_2$$). Similarly $$G$$ is r-partite with vertex classes $$V_1, V_2, \ldots, V_r$$ iff the vertex set is the disjoint union of the $$V_i$$, and no edge goes between vertices in the same class.

Connected Components
If graph $$G$$ has the property that for each pair of vertices $$u, v$$, there is some $$u,v$$-path, then $$G$$ is said to be connected. If $$G$$ is not connected, then it breaks down uniquely into several connected subgraphs. A maximal connected induced subgraph of $$G$$ is called a component.

A vertex whose deletion increases the number of components is called a cutvertex, whilst an edge with the same property is called a bridge.

Conclusion
This lecture contained a necessary initial set of definitions and concepts, along with some examples to simplify understanding. Next time we will ground these by investigating properties of bipartite graphs, and of a particular kind of graph called a tree.

title: Introduction to graph theory/Lecture 1


text:
Special Delivery

Special Delivery may refer to:
 * Special delivery (postal service), a postal service for urgent postal packets

Literature

 * "Special Delivery" (short story), a 1953 short story by Damon Knight
 * Special Delivery (novel), a 1997 novel by Danielle Steel
 * Special Delivery, a Thomas & Friends 2006 PC game

Music

 * Special Delivery (38 Special album), a 1978 album by .38 Special
 * Special Delivery (Dottie West album), a 1980 album by Dottie West
 * Special Delivery, an album by Milly y los Vecinos
 * "Special Delivery" (song), a song by rapper G. Dep
 * "Special Delivery", a song by the 1910 Fruitgum Company from the 1969 album Indian Giver
 * "Special Delivery", a song by The Offspring from the 2000 album Conspiracy of One
 * "Special Delivery", a song by Bridget Kelly, her debut single from 2012

Film

 * Special Delivery (1922 film), directed by Fatty Arbuckle
 * Special Delivery (1927 film), also directed by Arbuckle
 * Special Delivery (1946 film), produced by the United States Army Air Forces
 * Special Delivery (1955 film), directed by John Brahm
 * Special Delivery (1976 film), with Cybill Shepherd and Sorrell Booke
 * Special Delivery (1978 film), winner of the 1978 Academy Award for Animated Short Film
 * Special Delivery (1999 film), film with Brie Larson, Logan O'Brien and Penny Marshall
 * Special Delivery (2000 film), television film with Andy Dick
 * Special Delivery (2002 film), French film
 * Special Delivery (2008 film), television film with Lisa Edelstein & Brenda Song
 * Special Delivery (2022 film), South Korean crime action film
 * A Special Delivery, a 1916 film starring Oliver Hardy

Television

 * Special Delivery (TV series), a Nickelodeon block of programming that existed in the 1980s and early 1990s
 * Special Delivery, a 2008 web series on MySpaceTV
 * Brandy: Special Delivery, a 2002 reality show starring R&B-singer Brandy
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series The Backyardigans
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series Beavis and Butt-head
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series CSI: Miami
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series Pucca
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series PB&J Otter
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series Rugrats
 * "Special Delivery", an episode of the TV series Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!

Other uses

 * Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, a 2019 augumented reality video game

title: Special Delivery


text:
Electronics/Signal Modulation

Modulation and Mixing
Put simply, modulation is the change of an electric signal based on the change in another signal. Another way to look at it practically, is the use of electric signals to carry information.

mixing is the addition and subtraction of signals.

Magic equation: $$cos(x)cos(y) = \frac{cos(x - y) + cos(x + y)}{2}$$ Has strange effects on bandwidth and creates sidebands.

CW (Continuous Wave)

 * morse code

AM (Amplitude Modulation)
simpler than FM. An AM receiver detects the power of the radio wave, and amplifies changes in the power measurement to drive a speaker or earphones.

AM radio. known as medium wave. started in the 1920s. has a long enough wavelength that it diffracts and follows the curvature of the earth traveling a great distance. lower audio fidelity. used for broadcasts. Affected by light and solar flares, and works better during the night. Clear channel stations are allowed to broadcast all the time, but other stations are only allowed to broadcast during the day.

 * Crystal Radio: primitive radio consists of an antenna and a diode and a speaker in parallel.

SSB (Single SideBand)
AM with only one side band. carrier.The other one sideband block or can be use for other information transmission<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
FM (Frequency Modulation)
In FM modulation, frequence of carrier signal vairy according to the audio frequency signal(Which is our actual signal).
 * VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator): Oscillator that is controlled by voltage.

PM (Phase Modulation)
Change phase by modifying capacitor and inductor values. Since capacitors and inductors are 180 degrees out of phase.

title: Electronics/Signal Modulation


text:
samouk

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1) self-taught person; autodidact

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1) self-taught person; autodidact

Noun

 * 1) self-taught person; autodidact

Adjective

 * 1) self-taught

title: samouk


text:
Talk:Spanish/Pronunciation

Audio Recording
Speaking from personal experience from learning foreign languages, it is really useful to have an AUDIO recording of the pronunciation of the various sounds in a language.

Having approximations like "'A' as in 'father'" etc. is all very well, but it really is no substitute for hearing a native make the sound and then replicating it. Written words are subject to the variances of dialect and accent- for example while "Pen" might be pronounced "Pehn" in the UK and USA, in New Zealand it is pronounced "Piin". Reliance on written approximations of a sound is thus quite dangerous and restrictive for a self-learner of a language.

If you think about it, the reason books used these approximations back in the day, was that it was a BOOK BACK IN THE DAY. It's 2009 for freaks sake- on the internet!! The ability to integrate audio into the learning of a language is a marvellous opportunity that we should capitalise on! The old book format of self-learning was subject to the technological limitations of yesteryear. We should be availing of the ease of audio integration that is at our disposal to provide a dynamic language learning experience.

I therefore request that a native record each sound: perhaps saying the sound alone, then in a word, repeated, and then as a sound alone again. This could easily be inserted as an mp3 beside each individual sound. It will only really take about an hour's work or so and would REALLY contribute to learning that the wikibook seeks to provide!

All the best, Jack

Yes LOVECYNthia Powers (discuss • contribs) 22:49, 9 May 2020 (UTC)

Ch, Ll, Ñ
While Ch and Ll have now been added to "c" and "l" in the Real Academia Española dictionaries and other dictionaries, keep in mind that in ALL the Spanish-Spanish dictionaries, Ñ/ñ is a letter by its own, and hasn't (nor has a reason to) been eliminated from the order of M, N, Ñ, O in the dictionaries.

Common pronunciation of Ll
Is the 'proper' pronunciation of ll as 'gl' like in Italian actually exist in the Spanish-speaking world? It seems it exists solely academically.

More to the point, while the 'll' is often pronounced like the 'y' in English, in many areas it is actually closer to the 'zh' sound and, notably in many parts of Argentina, quite nearly the English 'sh' sound. Anecdotally, I have used both the 'y' and the 'zh' versions and have never had it questioned, even by academics. I believe the fair student can stick with either of these and avoid the unusual sounding 'gl'. Just an opinion.

<IP_ADDRESS> 18:00, 11 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I removed the whole "properly" nonsense. There are numerous proper ways to say the letter ll. Castilian Spanish is not any more "proper".

Hablan
it says that hablan is pronounced HA- BLAN not A- BLAN like it should be <IP_ADDRESS> 07:33, 23 March 2007 (UTC)
 * huh? Hablan is pronounced AH-blahn, with emphasis on the first syllable. This is the rule of stress for words ending in the letter N but that do not have an accent to signify stress.

alignment on page 5
The left and right columns have their "middle" aligned. This is confusing. They should have their TOP aligned.Š

d, touching teeth
"Between vowels, the tongue should be lowered so as to not touch the teeth (somewhat similar to the th in the)."

But the tongue does touch the teeth in the, in English - could this please be clarified? --Chriswaterguy (talk) 17:55, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

N
"Like n in no. Before p, b, f and v (and in some regions m) sounds as m in important..." never write n before a B or a P, always, mp and mb Bold text

What is "over-cultism"?
The section on the letter 'v' states that pronouncing 'v' like 'v' instead of 'b' is an 'over-cultism'. An internet search sheds absolutely no light on the meaning of this phrase. Curious students who doubt the veracity of this wiki page (because anyone can edit it) will wonder if the phrase 'over-cultism' might mean something along the lines of being a widely held belief thoroughly known to be wrong to those in the know. No one can be sure though. Is it a neologism? If 'over-cultism' is synonymous with 'common misconception', that might be a better word choice.

For me, a beginner, it seems possible that v is a sort of cross between an English v and b, with at least a different mouth shape from a Spanish 'b'. Does it vary region to region, or is it really so absolute?

<IP_ADDRESS> (discuss) 19:43, 29 August 2011 (UTC)

About Spanish "Q"
On this page it says that "qu" can substitute "cu" before "a" or "o". Is this true, and how common is it?

Reading/Literature
i love the spanish book! Learning all about speaking spanish? What a great book! it is the best book of my life! do you have a japanese one or a chinese one? please send a message soon! <IP_ADDRESS> (discuss) 13:25, 25 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spanish/Pronunciation


text:
Talk:David Davies (swimmer)

Nationality
I've reinstated the nationality flag. It is quite usual to have a nationality flag in the infobox of swimmers, divers & water polo players' pages (e.g. Grant Hackett, Klete Keller, João Havelange, Katie Hoff, Haley Ishimatsu, Jason Lezak, Yevgeny Lagunov, Roxana Maracineanu, Stefan Hirniak, Nelson Mora and many, many more - including three out of the four swimming featured articles: Kevin O'Halloran; Sandra Morgan; and Faith Leech). Yours, Daicaregos (talk) 16:26, 25 May 2009 (UTC)

 * I've just removed it per WP:MOSFLAG. All the flags of the other articles should be removed per that policy, including the FAs. The manual of style trumps all examples of articles.

 * On a seperate issue, I was just reverted on the basis David Davies is a "Welsh swimmer who swam for Wales". He's also a British swimmer who swam for Great Britain though so the arguement is void. The issue on the home nations nationality is an old chestnut - the gentlemens agreement has been that English/Scottish/Welsh etc goes in the lead and catergories, and their respective countries are given as the place of birth, but the nationality field of any infobox goes as British. It's always been a fair compromise. --Jza84 | Talk  22:56, 30 May 2009 (UTC)

 * With respect, it is not a "fair compromise" if the person's nationality is Welsh rather than "British". Yes, he swam for "Team GB" as it's misnamed (no such country!), but so what? He's Welsh by default. You confuse citizenship with nationality. I have a British passport and am a British citizen - no choice in that - but my nationality is Welsh not British. Enaidmawr (talk) 23:40, 30 May 2009 (UTC)

 * How does one acquire Welsh nationality? What is the criteria? What does the law say on such matters? Scholarly interpretations? Do you not think your politics have compromised your viewpoint? How does one become Welsh by default? Does anybody have British nationality? --Jza84 | Talk  00:02, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

 * As I said in the first post in this thread: It is quite usual to have a nationality flag in the infobox of swimmers, divers & water polo players' pages. And that includes three out of the four swimming featured articles. I note that you haven't even attempted to remove the nationality flags from any of the articles I highlighted. Why not, if you feel so stongly about it? This man is Welsh. The BBC call him a Welshman twice in the first two paragraphs here. Even the Torygraph talks of his 'beloved Cardiff' and note him as a 'proud Welsh speaker'. And here he is with the flag you don't think he has the right to show on his Wikipedia article. By the way, if you were to have looked at his medal record you would have seen that he is noted as a competitor for Great Britain (with flag!). There is your gentlemen's agreement. Once the flags have been removed from all the swimming articles noted above, I will personally remove it from this one too. Daicaregos (talk) 12:35, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

 * It may be "usual to have a nationality flag in the infobox of swimmers", however the template documentation clearly states "Do not use a flag template". Discussion should be held on the template talk page to get this changed if you think it is an issue. NO other British swimmer has a flag template in the nationality field due to this statement in the template documentation. Yboy83 (talk) 13:09, 1 July 2009 (UTC)

 * In response to Enaidmawr, it is "Great Britain" because Northern Ireland competes with Ireland under "Ireland" in swimming, so "United Kingdom" is not really acceptable. For swimming and the Olympics, the country's name is "Great Britain"; despite that that name refers to an island, not a political country. Hooperswim (talk) 22:12, 17 January 2011 (UTC)

WP:BRD
Transcluded from User talk:Daicaregos

I have undone your undoing of my edits to the David Davies page. I did not get rid of any of the biographical information present in my re-write, I simply moved it out of the introduction, to make the intro succinct. I made the intro to the article more generalized, so that it was an easier thing to read and better summarizes Davies importance/significance. I also tried to better separate his swimming for Great Britain and Wales. Also, there was a problem issue with one of the references, where it was implying that the linked reference was about the 2008 Olympics race, when, in actuality, the linked article was about the qualifying race Davies swam to get to the Olympics. There are other edits as well, designed to correct (Wales is the nation's name, not "Welsh"), or better locate (Barry is in Wales, UK, as well as the mentioned vale). Hooperswim (talk) 04:59, 16 January 2011 (UTC)

 * This edit was reverted per WP:BRD. BRD's full title is BOLD, revert, discuss cycle. Please do not add back a reverted edit until consensus is reached at the article's Talkpage. Some of the series of edits were uncontroversial, but some weren't. I have amended the controversial edits. Please gain consensus here before re-adding. Nationality in the infobox has been discussed already on this Talkpage. Further discussion was held at the infobox Talkpage (in which you participated) and nothing has changed since. It is established, reliably sourced, and AFAIK undisputed, that Davies self-identifies, and is known as, Welsh. I have removed the Union flag in the infobox per MOS:FLAGS, which says: "Do not use too many icons: When icons are added excessively, they clutter the page and become redundant …". MOS:DOB provides examples of how a biography should begin. It says “At the start of an article on an individual, his or her dates of birth and death are provided." For example: "Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist.". I have also amended Davies' place of birth, per WP:UKNOWGOV, which says “The top level frame of reference is the country within the UK (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) and is not ordinarily linked
 * Example Foo is a town in the X district of Barshire, England.”

 * I have pipe-linked Davies' nationality to Welsh people, per Nationality of people from the United Kingdom, which states “Various different methods of referring to a UK citizen's nationality have been adopted …” (examples given include the pipe-link to English people). Should you disagree with these changes, the article should be reverted to the position prior to your recent edit, and consensus gained here before any further changes. Daicaregos (talk) 13:20, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * The British flag & 'Great Britain' should be restored to the infobox. GoodDay (talk) 18:19, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * It's a compelling, intelligent and well constructed argument, but hasn't quite swayed me. Daicaregos (talk) 19:19, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Why doesn't it persuade you? The guy swam for Team Great Britain. Besides, isn't Wales within the United Kingdom? GoodDay (talk) 19:55, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * If you'd bothered to read my post you would know the answer to your question. With which part of my argument do you disagree? BTW when did you first hear of 'the guy'? Rather recently, I guess? Daicaregos (talk) 20:41, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * It's best we leave it up to the editors who frequent Olympic swimming articles (like Hooperswim). Something that should've intially been done at Tom Pryce (concerning Formula #1 editors). BTW: I was just gonna ask when did you take a sudden interest in Olympic swimmers articles. GoodDay (talk) 20:47, 17 January 2011 (UTC)
 * I've left a note on your Talkpage. It would be inappropriate here. Daicaregos (talk) 17:56, 19 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey, Daicaregos, the reasons for why I included things no longer there:
 * In what country is the "Barry" that Mr. Davies was born in? Right now, the country appears to be the "Vale of Glamorgan". I'm also not a big fan of having 2-5 links for a city locations (i.e. city, county, state/province/region/area/time zone/etc. each separately) when 1 will get them to the actual locality of things, and if someone wants to know more about the next area up, they can get there from the city page. (I had added in "Wales, UK" to help localize it; with the UK on there because I fear that not many readers know where Wales is--just as many people seem to not understand that "Great Britain" and "United Kingdom" are not the same thing, sport-/swimming-wise.) Hence, one link to Barry, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales, UK.
 * I believe that each sport nationality a swimmer represents (or has represented) should be denoted in the infobox. The steps to change sport nationality are quite cumbersome, and consequently, most swimmers (and athletes in general) do not enter it lightly. Nor do they do it often, tending to have maybe 2 in a career, if they have more than 1. And generally speaking, Davies may identify as Welsh, but he mostly swims for Great Britain internationally; it is only in Commonwealth Games competition (once every 4 years?) where he swims for Wales, no?
 * And I went with moving away from "Welsh swimmer" to "swimmer from Wales", in the intro sentence because Davies is technically a "Welsh and British swimmer" (the current sentence should read "...Welsh Commonwealth and British Olympic swimmer..." as "Wales" does not compete at the Olympics.
 * The Olympics should be prioritized over the CWGs, as the Olympics are more universal.
 * And Davies still holds the British Records, no? (although I do understand why you switch to "held")
 * Hooperswim (talk) 22:05, 17 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Hiya Hooperswim. Thank you for discussing this. Your expansion of the article is welcome. However, please note that (per WP:LEAD) the lead serves both as an introduction to the article and as a summary of its most important aspects. Consequently, nothing should be in the lead that isn't in the main body of the article. Articles, especially biographies, are subject to personal choice only within Wikipedia policies. I set out above the policies, relevant to recent edits, that govern this article. Nevertheless, I am happy to answer your specific points: Barry is, of course, in Wales. Normally, it would be set out as "Barry, Wales", but the sentence carries on to say “Davies swam for Wales … ” and the preceding sentence says he is Welsh. If a reader is still unable to work out where Barry is, they can click on the link. I reiterate the relevant policy given above, WP:UKNOWGOV, which says "The top level frame of reference is the country within the UK (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) and is not ordinarily linked *Example Foo is a town in theX district of Barshire, England." Personal preference is, I'm afraid, trumped by policy. I thought it sounded redundant, but if you want the second sentence to say “Born in Barry, Wales, Davies swam for Wales at the 2002 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and represented Great Britain at the 2004 and 2008 Olympics. “ I wouldn't object. Infobox:  I reiterate the relevant policy given above, MOS:FLAGS, which says: "Do not use too many icons: When icons are added excessively, they clutter the page and become redundant …".British Swimming notes Davies' “Country of International Representation” as Wales. Davies' medal record notes him as a competitor for Great Britain, as well as for Wales. Although, your contention that competitors represent the island, rather than UK would mean that the Union Flag should be removed, as there is no flag to represent the island of Great Britain. I disagree with your argument that as Davies is a  "Welsh and British swimmer". He is a Welsh swimmer, who represents Wales and Great Britain at the sport. Consequently, the introduction should begin "David Davies (born 3 March 1985) is a Welsh … ". Whether it continues "...  Commonwealth Games and Olympic distance swimmer.", or is amended to something like " … distance swimmer.", or " … distance swimmer and British  record holder.", we can agree later. Davies swam at the Commonwealth Games and subsequently competed at the Olympics. The order of events should be maintained. Records: Although Davies still holds those records, the artilce will be incorrect immediately those records are broken by someone else. WP:RELTIME discusses events that will become out of date (there may be more appropriate policies or guidelines, if you know of them, please highlight them here). The example given there showed  a 'current' event that used the past tense. Best, Daicaregos (talk) 17:35, 19 January 2011 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 12:55, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified one external link on David Davies (swimmer). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:34, 5 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Davies (swimmer)


text:
User:PyshnyPhilipp/Boris Borisovich Rodoman

Boris Borisovich Rodoman (29 May, 1931) - Soviet and Russian geographer. Layed the foundations of a new branch of theoretical geography, which reflects unique characteristics of USSR and Russia. Creator of a "polarised biosphere" conception. Made a big impact on recreational geography thought. Author of more than 555 science and non-fiction papers. A legend of a Russian geography.

Boris Rodoman was born in Moscow, in Arbat district.

His father was an theater actor and director. Mother worked on a sewing factory, and after Boris was born, she became a housewife. In his childhood, Boris traveled a lot with his parents. In the age of 13 he systematically gone round Moscow by tram. In 1941 he was evacuated from Moscow to Western Siberia. After the war returned to Moscow.

In 1955 Boris Rodoman graduated from Moscow State University, geography faculty, department of economic geography. During his studies his main topics of research are types of geographical description and zoning, which helped him to start to develop his therotical geography methods.

In 1955-1959 worked in State comittee for geographical literature publishing (Geographgiz). In 1959-1962 Boris Rodoman comleted his PhD at the depertment of physical geography, Moscow State Univercity. During his studies he took part in MSU Polar Ural and Dnepropetrovsk expiditions.

In 1965-1984 worked in laboratory of economical zoning (MSU), where he took up the development of recreational and tourism problems in USSR geographical thought.

In 1984 Boris Rodoman was fired from MSU. Since 1985 enviromental issues became his main field of study. In 1990 Rodoman obtained higer doctotal degree in Intitute for Geography of Russian Academy of Science. In this period of his science career, Boris Rodoman was actively inolved in scientific conferences, opinion journalism, non-fiction publications.


text:
Bassetlaw by-election

Bassetlaw by-election may refer to:

 * 1890 Bassetlaw by-election
 * 1968 Bassetlaw by-election

title: Bassetlaw by-election


text:
Radioactivity

Radioactivity
The nuclei of some atoms spontaneously disintegrate from one form of isotope to another until they reach a stable form. These atoms emit particles (alpha & beta) & photons (gamma rays) which are different in charge, size, penetrating power and ionization energy.

Half life of the isotope
The half - life of an isotope is the time needed to decay until half of it's mass remains. Here is an example. 50 grams of the radioactive isotope Carbon 14 with a half-life of 5,730 years after 5,730 years, 25 grams will remain. After another 5,730 years only 12.5 grams will remain and so on. When a radioactive isotope completely decays into a daughter isotope, it may decay into another isotope, or remain the same, depending on whether it is stable or radioactive.

Types of decay
There are three main types of radioactive decay; these include Alpha, Beta, & Gamma Radiation. Alpha and Beta decay are released in particles, while Gamma radiation is released in rays.

Gamma radiation is more penetrating than alpha & beta. An alpha particle can be stopped by a thin piece of paper and a beta particle can be stopped by a sheet of aluminium foil Gamma radiation can penetrate both with ease. The most efficient way to stop gamma rays is with and apron of lead (hence the wearing of a lead covering when you get a dental X-Ray). Here are some common radiation emitters: Americium-241
 * Alpha

Radon Strontium-90 Uranium-238
 * Beta
 * Gamma

Example of alpha decay

 * $${}^{226}_{88}Ra$$
 * $${}^{222}_{86}Rn$$
 * $${}^4_2He$$

Additional resources

 * Isotope lists, 97+

title: Radioactivity


text:
User:JIFRINCCJ/sandbox

MANAKUDY Manakudy is a small Villagein Rajakkamangalam Block in Kanniyakumari District of Tamil Nadu State, India. It comes under Puthalam Panchayath. It is located 11 KM towards South from District head quarters Nagercoil. 12 KM from Rajakkamangalam. 736 KM from State capital Chennai

Manakudy Colony Pin code is 629602 and postal head office is Puthalam.

Agastiswaram ( 5 KM ), Kovalam ( 5 KM ) , Parakkai ( 6 KM ) , Parakkai ( 6 KM ) , Melakrishnanputhoor ( 6 KM ) are the nearby Villages to Manakudy Colony. Manakudy is surrounded by Kanniyakumari Block towards East, Nagercoil Block towards North , Rajakkamangalam Block towards west , Thovala Block towards North.

Nagercoil is the near by Cities to Manakudy.

It is near to bay of bengal. There is a chance of humidity in the weather.

Demographics of Manakudy

Tamil And English is the Local Language here

HOW TO REACH

By Rail

Suchindram Rail Way Station, Kanniyakumari Rail Way Station and Nagercoil Rail Way Station are the very nearby railway stations to Manakudy.

By Road

Every 30 mins have a bus from Nagercoil Bus stand via Parakkai,Thengamputhoor,Puthalam

Schools

St.Andrews Primary School

Little Flower High School

title: User:JIFRINCCJ/sandbox


text:
Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2015 February 9

Template:Paris Metro/next

The result of the discussion was delete, there is nothing to merge Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 21:22, 19 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Paris Metro/next
 * Paris Metro/next branch
 * Paris Metro/next special
 * Paris Metro/connections
 * Paris Metro/eastern terminus
 * Paris Metro/western terminus
 * S-line

Propose merging Template:Paris Metro/next, Template:Paris Metro/next branch and Template:Paris Metro/next special with Template:S-line.

All redundant to the simpler and standard S-line template. In addition, S-line is already configured for Paris Métro stations and some stations [Edit: All stations. Apparently an IP removed all the remaining transclusions of these templates. Jc86035 (talk • contributions) Use {{ping|Jc86035}} to reply to me 04:09, 16 February 2015 (UTC)] have already been converted from these templates to S-line (such as Châtelet). Jc86035 (talk • contributions) Use {{ping|Jc86035}} to reply to me 14:50, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * delete the Paris Metro templates after replacing, we already have a system for this. Frietjes (talk) 17:29, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * added template:Paris Metro/connections, which is part of the same system. Frietjes (talk) 15:44, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Added Template:Paris Metro/eastern terminus and Template:Paris Metro/western terminus Jc86035 (talk • contributions) Use {{ping|Jc86035}} to reply to me 04:04, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

Template:Bolehall Swifts F.C.

The result of the discussion was 'delete per nom Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 12:00, 18 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Bolehall Swifts F.C.

Per WP:NENAN - bar the link to the parent article three other links just go to categories and the ground is a redirect to the parent article. Not currently a useful aid to navigation and for such a small club unlikely to be so in the future. Fenix down (talk) 13:08, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete Does not help navigation and unlikely ever to be improved upon as it's such a minor club. JMHamo (talk) 16:21, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

Template:Infobox sport event
Relisted at Templates_for_discussion/Log/2015_February_19. Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 15:22, 19 February 2015 (UTC)

Template:Constituent Communities of Schlüsselfeld

The result of the discussion was delete per nom Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 11:59, 18 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Constituent Communities of Schlüsselfeld

Unused, redundant template JMHamo (talk) 02:08, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * delete Frietjes (talk) 17:28, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

Template:Forza Rossa Racing

The result of the discussion was delete as unneed without a parent article Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 11:57, 18 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Forza Rossa Racing

Template based around a speculative race team, Forza Rossa, which had its article deleted for failing GNG. Has virtually no use since the team never materialised. QueenCake (talk) 00:12, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom. DH85868993 (talk) 02:04, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete Obviously has no use at the moment. I have have to refute the "never materialized" claim. They never planned to absolutely enter in 2015 in the first place. 2016 was their principal goal all along. Because some speculated that they might already enter in 2015 and that unsurprisingly didn't materialize the premature and incorrect conclusion is made that the team itself didn't materialize. Tvx1 (talk) 21:06, 9 February 2015 (UTC)


text:
Talk:David R. Ellis

Focus
This is a poorly written article that I am going to attempt to renovate. The focus of this article should be about the man and not so much his movies. To mention Snakes On A Plane as "gaining unusual hype on the internet" and leaving it there is almost disrespectful. I don't wanna step on any toes of authors that have previously written in this article. But consider this a disclaimer that changes are on the way CircuitChild (talk) 20:51, 18 January 2013 (UTC)

 * I made some edits to this page on 18 January 2013 but had other things that came up and could not finish the article. I noticed someone came behind me and made some other changes. I am removing this sentence that was added after my edits: "David was a wonderful family man, his family meant everything to him. " because it is objective. I will finish my edits on the article momentarily. CircuitChild (talk) 16:03, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Renovation completed. I made some significant changes to the article due to the poor ratings it had received and the fact that I found most of the original material to be quite objective, incorrect, and poorly written. I think my edit is a little better. If anyone has any issues my talk page is a click away. Cheers! CircuitChild (talk) 17:14, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on David R. Ellis. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130131083818/http://smodcast.com/episodes/111-2/ to http://smodcast.com/episodes/111-2/

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 17:57, 27 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:David R. Ellis