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Special Relativity/Aether

Introduction
Many students confuse Relativity Theory with a theory about the propagation of light. According to modern Relativity Theory the constancy of the speed of light is a consequence of the geometry of spacetime rather than something specifically due to the properties of photons; but the statement "the speed of light is constant" often distracts the student into a consideration of light propagation. This confusion is amplified by the importance assigned to interferometry experiments, such as the Michelson-Morley experiment, in most textbooks on Relativity Theory.

The history of theories of the propagation of light is an interesting topic in physics and was indeed important in the early days of Relativity Theory. In the seventeenth century two competing theories of light propagation were developed. Christiaan Huygens published a wave theory of light which was based on Huygen's principle whereby every point in a wavelike disturbance can give rise to further disturbances that spread out spherically. In contrast Newton considered that the propagation of light was due to the passage of small particles or "corpuscles" from the source to the illuminated object. His theory is known as the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's theory was widely accepted until the nineteenth century.

In the early nineteenth century Thomas Young performed his Young's slits experiment and the interference pattern that occurred was explained in terms of diffraction due to the wave nature of light. The wave theory was accepted generally until the twentieth century when quantum theory confirmed that light had a corpuscular nature and that Huygen's principle could not be applied.

The idea of light as a disturbance of some medium, or aether, that permeates the universe was problematical from its inception (US spelling: "ether"). The first problem that arose was that the speed of light did not change with the velocity of the observer. If light were indeed a disturbance of some stationary medium then as the earth moves through the medium towards a light source the speed of light should appear to increase. It was found however that the speed of light did not change as expected. Each experiment on the velocity of light required corrections to existing theory and led to a variety of subsidiary theories such as the "aether drag hypothesis". Ultimately it was experiments that were designed to investigate the properties of the aether that provided the first experimental evidence for Relativity Theory.

The aether drag hypothesis
The aether drag hypothesis was an early attempt to explain the way experiments such as Arago's experiment showed that the speed of light is constant. The aether drag hypothesis is now considered to be incorrect.

According to the aether drag hypothesis light propagates in a special medium, the aether, that remains attached to things as they move. If this is the case then, no matter how fast the earth moves around the sun or rotates on its axis, light on the surface of the earth would travel at a constant velocity.

The primary reason the aether drag hypothesis is considered invalid is because of the occurrence of stellar aberration. In stellar aberration the position of a star when viewed with a telescope swings each side of a central position by about 20.5 seconds of arc every six months. This amount of swing is the amount expected when considering the speed of earth's travel in its orbit. In 1871, George Biddell Airy demonstrated that stellar aberration occurs even when a telescope is filled with water. It seems that if the aether drag hypothesis were true then stellar aberration would not occur because the light would be travelling in the aether which would be moving along with the telescope.

If you visualize a bucket on a train about to enter a tunnel and a drop of water drips from the tunnel entrance into the bucket at the very centre, the drop will not hit the centre at the bottom of the bucket. The bucket is the tube of a telescope, the drop is a photon and the train is the earth. If aether is dragged then the droplet would be travelling with the train when it is dropped and would hit the centre of bucket at the bottom.

The amount of stellar aberration, α is given by:

 * $$tan(\alpha) = v \delta t / c \delta t$$

So:

 * $$tan(\alpha) = v / c$$

The speed at which the earth goes round the sun, v = 30 km/s, and the speed of light is c = 300,000,000 m/s which gives α = 20.5 seconds of arc every six months. This amount of aberration is observed and this contradicts the aether drag hypothesis.

In 1818, Augustin Jean Fresnel introduced a modification to the aether drag hypothesis that only applies to the interface between media. This was accepted during much of the nineteenth century but has now been replaced by special theory of relativity (see below).

The aether drag hypothesis is historically important because it was one of the reasons why Newton's corpuscular theory of light was replaced by the wave theory and it is used in early explanations of light propagation without relativity theory. It originated as a result of early attempts to measure the speed of light.

In 1810, François Arago realised that variations in the refractive index of a substance predicted by the corpuscular theory would provide a useful method for measuring the velocity of light. These predictions arose because the refractive index of a substance such as glass depends on the ratio of the velocities of light in air and in the glass. Arago attempted to measure the extent to which corpuscles of light would be refracted by a glass prism at the front of a telescope. He expected that there would be a range of different angles of refraction due to the variety of different velocities of the stars and the motion of the earth at different times of the day and year. Contrary to this expectation he found that there was no difference in refraction between stars, between times of day or between seasons. All Arago observed was ordinary stellar aberration.

In 1818 Fresnel examined Arago's results using a wave theory of light. He realised that even if light were transmitted as waves the refractive index of the glass-air interface should have varied as the glass moved through the aether to strike the incoming waves at different velocities when the earth rotated and the seasons changed.

Fresnel proposed that the glass prism would carry some of the aether along with it so that "...the aether is in excess inside the prism". He realised that the velocity of propagation of waves depends on the density of the medium so proposed that the velocity of light in the prism would need to be adjusted by an amount of 'drag'.

The velocity of light $$ v_n$$ in the glass without any adjustment is given by:

 * $$ v_n = c / n $$

The drag adjustment $$ v_d$$ is given by:

 * $$ v_d = v (1 - \frac {\rho_e}{\rho_g}) $$

Where $$ \rho_e$$ is the aether density in the environment, $$\rho_g$$ is the aether density in the glass and $$v$$ is the velocity of the prism with respect to the aether.

The factor $$(1 - \frac {\rho_e}{\rho_g})$$ can be written as $$ (1 - \frac{1}{n^2})$$ because the refractive index, n, would be dependent on the density of the aether. This is known as the Fresnel drag coefficient.

The velocity of light in the glass is then given by:

 * $$ V = \frac {c}{n} + v (1 - \frac{1}{n^2}) $$

This correction was successful in explaining the null result of Arago's experiment. It introduces the concept of a largely stationary aether that is dragged by substances such as glass but not by air. Its success favoured the wave theory of light over the previous corpuscular theory.

The Fresnel drag coefficient was confirmed by an interferometer experiment performed by Fizeau. Water was passed at high speed along two glass tubes that formed the optical paths of the interferometer and it was found that the fringe shifts were as predicted by the drag coefficient.

The special theory of relativity predicts the result of the Fizeau experiment from the velocity addition theorem without any need for an aether.

If $$V$$ is the velocity of light relative to the Fizeau apparatus and $$U$$ is the velocity of light relative to the water and $$v$$ is the velocity of the water:

 * $$ U = \frac {c}{n} $$

 * $$ V = \frac {c/n + v}{1 + v/nc}$$

which, if v/c is small can be expanded using the binomial expansion to become:

 * $$ V = \frac {c}{n} + v (1 - \frac{1}{n^2}) $$

This is identical to Fresnel's equation.

It may appear as if Fresnel's analysis can be substituted for the relativistic approach, however, more recent work has shown that Fresnel's assumptions should lead to different amounts of aether drag for different frequencies of light and violate Snell's law (see Ferraro and Sforza (2005)).

The aether drag hypothesis was one of the arguments used in an attempt to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment before the widespread acceptance of the special theory of relativity.

The Fizeau experiment is consistent with relativity and approximately consistent with each individual body, such as prisms, lenses etc. dragging its own aether with it. This contradicts some modified versions of the aether drag hypothesis that argue that aether drag may happen on a global (or larger) scale and stellar aberration is merely transferred into the entrained "bubble" around the earth which then faithfully carries the modified angle of incidence directly to the observer.

References

 * Rafael Ferraro and Daniel M Sforza 2005. Arago (1810): the first experimental result against the ether Eur. J. Phys. 26 195-204

The Michelson-Morley experiment
The Michelson-Morley experiment, one of the most important and famous experiments in the history of physics, was performed in 1887 by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University, and is considered to be the first strong evidence against the theory of a luminiferous aether.

Physics theories of the late 19th century postulated that, just as water waves must have a medium to move across (water), and audible sound waves require a medium to move through (air), so also light waves require a medium, the "luminiferous aether". The speed of light being so great, designing an experiment to detect the presence and properties of this aether took considerable thought.

Measuring aether
A depiction of the concept of the “aether wind”. Each year, the Earth travels a tremendous distance in its orbit around the sun, at a speed of around 30 km/second, over 100,000 km per hour. It was reasoned that the Earth would at all times be moving through the aether and producing a detectable "aether wind". At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analysing the effective wind at various different times, it should be possible to separate out components due to motion of the Earth relative to the Solar System from any due to the overall motion of that system.

The effect of the aether wind on light waves would be like the effect of wind on sound waves. Sound waves travel at a constant speed relative to the medium that they are travelling through (this varies depending on the pressure, temperature etc (see sound), but is typically around 340 m/s). So, if the speed of sound in our conditions is 340 m/s, when there is a 10 m/s wind relative to the ground, into the wind it will appear that sound is travelling at 330 m/s (340 - 10). Downwind, it will appear that sound is travelling at 350 m/s (340 + 10). Measuring the speed of sound compared to the ground in different directions will therefore enable us to calculate the speed of the air relative to the ground.

If the speed of the sound cannot be directly measured, an alternative method is to measure the time that the sound takes to bounce off of a reflector and return to the origin. This is done parallel to the wind and perpendicular (since the direction of the wind is unknown before hand, just determine the time for several different directions). The cumulative round trip effects of the wind in the two orientations slightly favors the sound travelling at right angles to it. Similarly, the effect of an aether wind on a beam of light would be for the beam to take slightly longer to travel round-trip in the direction parallel to the “wind” than to travel the same round-trip distance at right angles to it.

“Slightly” is key, in that, over a distance such as a few meters, the difference in time for the two round trips would be only about a millionth of a millionth of a second. At this point the only truly accurate measurements of the speed of light were those carried out by Albert Abraham Michelson, which had resulted in measurements accurate to a few meters per second. While a stunning achievement in its own right, this was certainly not nearly enough accuracy to be able to detect the aether.

The experiments
Michelson, though, had already seen a solution to this problem. His design, later known as an interferometer, sent a single source of white light through a half-silvered mirror that was used to split it into two beams travelling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams travelled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle on small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructive interference based on the length of the arms. Any slight change in the amount of time the beams spent in transit would then be observed as a shift in the positions of the interference fringes. If the aether were stationary relative to the sun, then the Earth's motion would produce a shift of about 0.04 fringes.

Michelson had made several measurements with an experimental device in 1881, in which he noticed that the expected shift of 0.04 was not seen, and a smaller shift of about 0.02 was. However his apparatus was a prototype, and had experimental errors far too large to say anything about the aether wind. For a measurement of the aether wind, a much more accurate and tightly controlled experiment would have to be carried out. The prototype was, however, successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible.

He then combined forces with Edward Morley and spent a considerable amount of time and money creating an improved version with more than enough accuracy to detect the drift. In their experiment the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms, increasing the path length to 11m. At this length the drift would be about .4 fringes. To make that easily detectable the apparatus was located in a closed room in the basement of a stone building, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a huge block of marble, which was then floated in a pool of mercury. They calculated that effects of about 1/100th of a fringe would be detectable.

The mercury pool allowed the device to be turned, so that it could be rotated through the entire range of possible angles to the "aether wind". Even over a short period of time some sort of effect would be noticed simply by rotating the device, such that one arm rotated into the direction of the wind and the other away. Over longer periods day/night cycles or yearly cycles would also be easily measurable.

During each full rotation of the device, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind) and perpendicular to the wind twice. This effect would show readings in a sine wave formation with two peaks and two troughs. Additionally if the wind was only from the earth's orbit around the sun, the wind would fully change directions east/west during a 12 hour period. In this ideal conceptualization, the sine wave of day/night readings would be in opposite phase.

Because it was assumed that the motion of the solar system would cause an additional component to the wind, the yearly cycles would be detectable as an alteration of the magnitude of the wind. An example of this effect is a helicopter flying forward. While on the ground, a helicopter's blades would be measured as travelling around at 50 km/h at the tips. However, if the helicopter is travelling forward at 50 km/h, there are points at which the tips of the blades are travelling 0 km/h and 100 km/h with respect to the air they are travelling through. This increases the magnitude of the lift on one side and decreases it on the other just as it would increase and decrease the magnitude of an ether wind on a yearly basis.

The most famous failed experiment
Ironically, after all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what might be called the most famous failed experiment to date. Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's 1887 article in the American Journal of Science reported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement but "since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity" they concluded that the measured velocity was approximately one-sixth of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and "certainly less than one-fourth". Although this small "velocity" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of aether, it was later said to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.

Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication. Kennedy and Illingsworth both modified the mirrors to include a half-wave "step", eliminating the possibility of some sort of standing wave pattern within the apparatus. Illingsworth could detect changes on the order of 1/300th of a fringe, Kennedy up to 1/1500th. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminate magnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expanding invar to eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Others from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated possible side effects, or both. All of these with the exception of Dayton Miller also returned what is considered a null result.

Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments with Dayton Miller. Miller worked on increasingly large experiments, culminating in one with a 32m (effective) arm length at an installation at the Mount Wilson observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, he used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. He consistently measured a small positive effect that varied, as expected, with each rotation of the device, the sidereal day and on a yearly basis. The low magnitude of the results he attributed to aether entrainment (see below). His measurements amounted to only ~10 kps instead of the expected ~30 kps expected from the earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due to partial entrainment, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation.

Though Kennedy later also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding 1/10 the drift measured by Miller, and no seasonal effects, Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz and others at a meeting reported in 1928 (ref below). There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Lorentz recognised that the results, whatever their cause, did not quite tally with either his or Einstein's versions of special relativity. Einstein was not present at the meeting and felt the results could be dismissed as experimental error (see Shankland ref below).

In recent times versions of the MM experiment have become commonplace. Lasers and masers amplify light by repeatedly bouncing it back and forth inside a carefully tuned cavity, thereby inducing high-energy atoms in the cavity to give off more light. The result is an effective path length of kilometers. Better yet, the light emitted in one cavity can be used to start the same cascade in another set at right angles, thereby creating an interferometer of extreme accuracy.

The first such experiment was led by Charles H. Townes, one of the co-creators of the first maser. Their 1958 experiment put an upper limit on drift, including any possible experimental errors, of only 30 m/s. In 1974 a repeat with accurate lasers in the triangular Trimmer experiment reduced this to 0.025 m/s, and included tests of entrainment by placing one leg in glass. In 1979 the Brillet-Hall experiment put an upper limit of 30 m/s for any one direction, but reduced this to only 0.000001 m/s for a two-direction case (ie, still or partially entrained aether). A year long repeat known as Hils and Hall, published in 1990, reduced this to 2x10 -13.

Fallout
This result was rather astounding and not explainable by the then-current theory of wave propagation in a static aether. Several explanations were attempted, among them, that the experiment had a hidden flaw (apparently Michelson's initial belief), or that the Earth's gravitational field somehow "dragged" the aether around with it in such a way as locally to eliminate its effect. Miller would have argued that, in most if not all experiments other than his own, there was little possibility of detecting an aether wind since it was almost completely blocked out by the laboratory walls or by the apparatus itself. Be this as it may, the idea of a simple aether, what became known as the First Postulate, had been dealt a serious blow.

A number of experiments were carried out to investigate the concept of aether dragging, or entrainment. The most convincing was carried out by Hamar, who placed one arm of the interferometer between two huge lead blocks. If aether were dragged by mass, the blocks would, it was theorised, have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen.

Walter Ritz's Emission theory (or ballistic theory), was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether, more intuitive and paradox-free. This became known as the Second Postulate. However it also led to several "obvious" optical effects that were not seen in astronomical photographs, notably in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in an interferometer.

The Sagnac experiment placed the MM apparatus on a constantly rotating turntable. In doing so any ballistic theories such as Ritz's could be tested directly, as the light going one way around the device would have different length to travel than light going the other way (the eyepiece and mirrors would be moving toward/away from the light). In Ritz's theory there would be no shift, because the net velocity between the light source and detector was zero (they were both mounted on the turntable). However in this case an effect was seen, thereby eliminating any simple ballistic theory. This fringe-shift effect is used today in laser gyroscopes.

Another possible solution was found in the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction hypothesis. In this theory all objects physically contract along the line of motion relative to the aether, so while the light may indeed transit slower on that arm, it also ends up travelling a shorter distance that exactly cancels out the drift.

In 1932 the Kennedy-Thorndike experiment modified the Michelson-Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very long. In this version the two ends of the experiment were at different velocities due to the rotation of the earth, so the contraction would not "work out" to exactly cancel the result. Once again, no effect was seen.

Ernst Mach was among the first physicists to suggest that the experiment actually amounted to a disproof of the aether theory. The development of what became Einstein's special theory of relativity had the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction derived from the invariance postulate, and was also consistent with the apparently null results of most experiments (though not, as was recognised at the 1928 meeting, with Miller's observed seasonal effects). Today relativity is generally considered the "solution" to the MM null result.

The Trouton-Noble experiment is regarded as the electrostatic equivalent of the Michelson-Morley optical experiment, though whether or not it can ever be done with the necessary sensitivity is debatable. On the other hand, the 1908 Trouton-Rankine experiment that spelled the end of the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction hypothesis achieved an incredible sensitivity.

References

 * W. Ritz, Recherches Critiques sur l'Electrodynamique Generale, Ann. Chim., Phys., 13, 145, (1908) - English Translation

 * W. de Sitter, Ein astronomischer Bewis für die Konstanz der Lichgeshwindigkeit, Physik. Zeitschr, 14, 429 (1913) - English Translation

 * The Michelson Morley and the Kennedy Thorndike tests of STR

 * The Trouton-Rankine Experiment and the Refutation of the FitzGerald Contraction

 * High Speed Ives-Stilwell Experiment Used to Disprove the Emission Theory

Mathematical analysis of the Michelson Morley Experiment
The Michelson interferometer splits light into rays that travel along two paths then recombines them. The recombined rays interfere with each other. If the path length changes in one of the arms the interference pattern will shift slightly, moving relative to the cross hairs in the telescope. The Michelson interferometer is arranged as an optical bench on a concrete block that floats on a large pool of mercury. This allows the whole apparatus to be rotated smoothly.

If the earth were moving through an aether at the same velocity as it orbits the sun (30 km/sec) then Michelson and Morley calculated that a rotation of the apparatus should cause a shift in the fringe pattern. The basis of this calculation is given below.

Consider the time taken $$t_1$$ for light to travel along Path 1 in the illustration:

 * $$t_1 = \frac{L_f}{c-v} + \frac{L_f}{c+v}$$

Rearranging terms:

 * $$\frac{L_f}{c-v} + \frac{L_f}{c+v} = \frac{2L_fc}{c^2-v^2}$$

further rearranging:

$$\frac{2L_fc}{c^2-v^2} = \frac{2L_f}{c}\frac{1}{1-v^2/c^2}$$

hence:

$$t_1 = \frac{2L_f}{c}\frac{1}{1-v^2/c^2}$$

Considering Path 2, the light traces out two right angled triangles so:

 * $$ct_2 = 2 \sqrt{L_m^2 + (vt_2/2)^2}$$

Rearranging:

 * $$t_2 = \frac{2L_m}{\sqrt{c^2-v^2}}$$

So:

 * $$t_2 =\frac{2L_m}{c} \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-(v/c)^2}}$$

It is now easy to calculate the difference ($$\Delta t$$ between the times spent by the light in Path 1 and Path 2:

 * $$\Delta t = \frac{2}{c} \left(\frac{L_m}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}-\frac{L_f}{1-v^2/c^2}\right)$$

If the apparatus is rotated by 90 degrees the new time difference is:

 * $$\Delta t^' = \frac{2}{c} \left(\frac{L_m}{1-v^2/c^2}-\frac{L_f}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}\right)$$

because $$L_m$$ and $$L_f$$ exchange roles.

The interference fringes due to the time difference between the paths will be different after rotation if $$\Delta t$$ and $$\Delta t^'$$ are different.

 * $$\Delta t^' - \Delta t = \frac{2}{c} \left(\frac{L_m+L_f}{1-v^2/c^2}-\frac{L_f+L_m}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}\right)$$

This difference between the two times can be calculated if the binomial expansions of $$\frac{1}{1-v^2/c^2}$$ and $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}$$ are used:

 * $$\frac{1}{1-v^2/c^2}= 1 + \frac{v^2}{c^2} + \left(\frac{v^2}{c^2}\right)^2 + ....$$

 * $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}= 1 + \frac{1}{2}\frac{v^2}{c^2} + \frac{3}{8}\left(\frac{v^2}{c^2}\right)^2 + ....$$

So:

 * $$\Delta t^' - \Delta t \approx \frac{L_f + L_m}{c}\frac{v^2}{c^2}$$

If the period of one vibration of the light is $$T$$ then the number of fringes ($$n$$), that will move past the cross hairs of the telescope when the apparatus is rotated will be:

 * $$n = \frac{\Delta t^' - \Delta t}{T}$$

Inserting the formula for $$\Delta t^' - \Delta t$$:

 * $$n \approx \frac{L_f + L_m}{cT}\frac{v^2}{c^2}$$

But $$cT$$ for a light wave is the wavelength of the light ie: $$cT = \lambda$$ so:

 * $$n \approx \frac{L_f + L_m}{\lambda}\frac{v^2}{c^2}$$

If the wavelength of the light is $$ 5 \times 10^{-7}$$ and the total path length is 20 metres then:

 * $$n = \left(\frac{20}{5 \times 10^{-7}}\right)10^{-8}$$

So the fringes will shift by 0.4 fringes (ie: 40%) when the apparatus is rotated.

However, no fringe shift is observed. The null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment is nowdays explained in terms of the constancy of the speed of light. The assumption that the light would have a velocity of $$c-v$$ and $$c+v$$ depending on the direction relative to the hypothetical "aether wind" is false, the light always travels at $$c$$ between two points in a vacuum and the speed of light is not affected by any "aether wind". This is because, in {special relativity} the Lorentz transforms induce a {length contraction}. Doing over the above calculations we obtain:

 * $$L_f=L_m{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}$$

(taking into consideration the length contraction)

It is now easy to recalculate the difference $$\Delta t$$ between the times spent by the light in Path 1 and Path 2:

 * $$\Delta t = \frac{2}{c} \left(\frac{L_m}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}-\frac{L_f}{1-v^2/c^2}\right)=0$$ because $$L_f=L_m{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}$$

If the apparatus is rotated by 90 degrees the new time difference is:

 * $$\Delta t^' = \frac{2}{c} \left(\frac{L_m}{1-v^2/c^2}-\frac{L_f}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}\right)=0$$

The interference fringes due to the time difference between the paths will be different after rotation if $$\Delta t$$ and $$\Delta t^'$$ are different.

 * $$\Delta t^' - \Delta t =0$$

Note: if the rest length $$L0_f \ne L_m$$ then $$L_f \ne L_m{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}$$ and then $$\Delta t^' \ne 0$$ and $$ \Delta t \ne 0$$ and, more importantly, $$\Delta t^' - \Delta t \ne 0$$. This is why Michelson took great pains in equalizing the arms of the interferometer.

Wave propagation in moving medium
To date, it is pointed out that the medium of light in Michelson-Morley experiment is the air. And the velocity of medium is zero. Therefore,

 * $$t_1 = \frac{L}{c-v} + \frac{L_f}{c+v}=\frac{2L}{c}$$
 * $$t_2=\frac{2L}{c}$$
 * $$\Delta t=0$$

After apparatus rotated 90°, there is no interference movement.

Coherence length
The coherence length of light rays from a source that has wavelengths that differ by $$\Delta \lambda $$ is:

 * $$x = \frac{\lambda^2}{2 \pi \Delta \lambda}$$

If path lengths differ by more than this amount then interference fringes will not be observed. White light has a wide range of wavelengths and interferometers using white light must have paths that are equal to within a small fraction of a millimetre for interference to occur. This means that the ideal light source for a Michelson Interferometer should be monochromatic and the arms should be as near as possible equal in length.

The calculation of the coherence length is based on the fact that interference fringes become unclear when light rays are about 60 degrees (about 1 radian or one sixth of a wavelength ($$\approx 1/2\pi$$)) out of phase. This means that when two beams are:

 * $$\frac{\lambda}{2 \pi}$$

metres out of step they will no longer give a well defined interference pattern. Suppose a light beam contains two wavelengths of light, $$\lambda$$ and $$\lambda + \Delta \lambda$$, then in:

 * $$\frac{\lambda}{2 \pi \Delta \lambda}$$

cycles they will be $$\frac{\lambda}{2 \pi}$$ out of phase.

The distance required for the two different wavelengths of light to be this much out of phase is the coherence length. Coherence length = number of cycles x length of each cycle so:

coherence length = $$\frac{\lambda^2}{2 \pi \Delta \lambda}$$.

Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction Hypothesis
After the first Michelson-Morley experiments in 1881 there were several attempts to explain the null result. The most obvious point of attack is to propose that the path that is parallel to the direction of motion is contracted by $$\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}$$ in which case $$\Delta t$$ and $$\Delta t^'$$ would be identical and no fringe shift would occur. This possibility was proposed in 1892 by Fitzgerald. Lorentz produced an "electron theory of matter" that would account for such a contraction.

Students sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction is equivalent to the Lorentz transformations. However, in the absence of any treatment of the time dilation effect the Lorentz-Fitzgerald explanation would result in a fringe shift if the apparatus is moved between two different velocities. The rotation of the earth allows this effect to be tested as the earth orbits the sun. Kennedy and Thorndike (1932) performed the Michelson-Morley experiment with a highly sensitive apparatus that could detect any effect due to the rotation of the earth; they found no effect. They concluded that both time dilation and Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction take place, thus confirming relativity theory.

If only the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction applied then the fringe shifts due to changes in velocity would be: $$n = (v_1^2 - v_2^2)/c^2 \times (L_f-L_m)/\lambda$$. Notice how the sensitivity of the experiment is dependent on the difference in path length $$L_f-L_m$$ and hence a long coherence length is required.

Recent Michelson-Morley experiments
Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light have become commonplace. New technologies, including the use of lasers and masers, have significantly improved measurement precision.

More recent experiments still, using other types of experiment such as optical resonators (Eisele et al. ), have shown that the speed of light is constant to within $$10^{-8}$$ m/s.

title: Special Relativity/Aether


text:
List of Australian Paralympic shooting medalists

Shooting first entered the Summer Paralympic Games in 1976. Australia has competed at every Paralympic shooting competition.

Medalists
As of the 2012 Games.

1976
Australia won 1 gold medal.

1980
Australia won 2 gold medals, 3 silver medals and 1 bronze medal.

1984
Australia won 9 gold medals.

1988
Australia won 3 gold medals and 1 silver medal.

1992
No Medals

1996
Australia won 1 silver medal.

2000
Australia won 1 silver medal.

2004
Australia won 1 silver medal and 1 bronze medal.

2008
No medals.

2012
Australia won 1 bronze medal.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Bulanikha

Bulanikha (Буланиха) is a rural locality (a selo) and the administrative center of Bulanikhinsky Selsoviet, Zonalny District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 2,463 as of 2013. There are 17 streets.

Geography
Bulanikha is located 22 km north of Zonalnoye (the district's administrative centre) by road. Parizhskaya Kommuna is the nearest rural locality.

title: Bulanikha


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User:Ostrichyearning

Links

 * The 10,000 Challenge

To create

 * Kelso Bridge (sand) ✅
 * Drygrange Old Bridge (sand) ✅
 * Yair Bridge (sand) ✅
 * Mertoun Bridge (sand) ✅
 * Canongate Bridge (sand)
 * Twizel Bridge
 * Carlow's Bridge

Needs work

 * Leaderfoot Viaduct (sand) ✅
 * Tweed Bridge (sand) ✅
 * Union Bridge (Tweed) (sand)
 * Royal Tweed Bridge ✅

To create

 * Alexander Stevens (architect)
 * Louis Coiseau
 * Leslie Grahame Thomson (sand)

title: User:Ostrichyearning


text:
Template:Lts/Doc

Documentation
W:Template:Lts, M:Template:Lts, etc. on various is a smaller variant of  with pleasant output, for use especially also on browsers which don't support .

Usage
shows links for the specified template.

shows links for a template wrt the.

Comparison
We got a zoo of similar templates, pick what you like. This list is probably incomplete and intentionally omits variants with parameters like and redirections like [Template:Lt] :
 * On en.Wikipedia templates X0,..., X9:are sandbox templates for experimentation, that must occur in template space.
 * Templates such as that would generally include templates like these below that need to refer to template space. Normally, X0, X1, X2,... would be sub-templates of an esoteric template under development, and these are tools to deal with such situations from a test bed or discussion page.

title: Template:Lts/Doc


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Template talk:Mathematics bookshelf

I wonder if the book Primary School Mathematics should be on this shelf? (I know it is incomplete). I'm not sure how to do that, or if what the policy would be, but it seems weird the that High School one is here but the Primary School one is not.
 * Sure; put it on this page. It definitely needs the attention. BTW, don't worry about incompleteness; most of the books on this site are less than 1/3 is there. - SamE 03:15, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Organization
This template doesnt have any kind of subject-wise organization the way other bookshelf templates do. Should we add some? We could break it down into levels: Early, High-School, College, Graduate, etc... --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 16:18, 27 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Mathematics bookshelf


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Wikipedia:WikiProject Guild of Copy Editors/Copy Edit of the Month

 * The following event has concluded. Please do not modify this page. Comments should be made on the talk page.

The GOCE Copy Edit of the Month was a monthly contest that began in August 2012 and concluded in November 2013. The contest archives are located here.

Description
Every month, all editors will be allowed to submit a single article into the contest. No advance signup is required. Simply add your work if and when you complete it. Note, however, that all submissions must be from copy editing that occurred during the month of the contest. Only one article will be permitted per editor, but the submission can be changed up until 11:59 UTC of the last day of the month. During the subsequent month, editors will be able to vote on which of the submitted articles has the best copy edit, on whatever basis they choose to judge. This can include such factors as difficulty, how interesting the subject matter is, amusing mistakes corrected, or anything else. Votes can be changed as much as desired, up until 11:59 UTC of the last day of the month. The goal of this contest is to get members of the guild to work on more challenging copy edits, and for members to be able to share their work for informal review and comment. The articles submitted do not need to have a tag or be from the requests page to qualify. Any of our four million articles can be submitted if you think the work done is good.

Awards

 * The event above is closed. Please do not modify it. Comments should be made on the talk page.


text:
Churches in Colchester

Colchester in Essex, England, has a number of notable churches.

Butt Road Roman Church

Excavations in the 1980s for a new police station near the Maldon Road roundabout unearthed 371 Roman graves and a long narrow building. The building was built between AD 320 and 340. Oriented east to west, an apse was added to the east end in a later phase. The building was divided by a wooden screen and two rows of posts ran down the eastern half forming aisles. The building has been interpreted on strong circumstantial evidence as an early Christian church. If this is correct, it is probably the earliest known Christian church in Britain. The remains have been preserved and are visible from the public footpath.

St Helen's Chapel
Dedicated to Saint Helena, the 14th-century Chronicle of Colchester states that the chapel was founded by the saint herself and refounded by Eudo Dapifer in 1076. Most of the present building dates from the 12th and 13th centuries, incorporating Roman brick. Excavations in 1981 and 1984 in Maidenburgh Street, have shown that the Roman stone and brickwork under the north and east walls were part of a theatre. In the 14th century, chantries were established in the chapel, but it was closed in 1539 after the Dissolution of St John's Abbey and it went into secular use. It became a house, a school, a library, a Quaker meeting-house and a warehouse. In the 1880s, the Round family who owned the castle, had the chapel restored by William Butterfield. After use as a clergy meeting-room and a parish hall, it was used by the Castle Museum as a store. Since 2000, it has again been used as a place of worship by the Eastern Orthodox Parish of St Helen.

All Saints
All Saints’ Church is a twelfth-century church located in Colchester High Street. In 1953 it was declared a redundant church. The building is now the home of the Natural History Museum, Colchester. It is situated opposite Colchester Castle at MapRef TL 999252. The church has a fine flint-built tower of the 15th century. However the rest of the building was extensively rebuilt in the mid 19th century.

St Botolph's Priory

The Augustinian priory of St Botolph, generally called "St Botolph's Priory", was also established in the 11th century. This adopted the Augustinian Order in around 1200 and became the mother church of the order in Britain. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries the priory church of St Botolph became the parish church. It was also used by the Corporation on civic occasions until the English Civil War. In 1650 the church was described as burnt and ruined after the Siege of Colchester, and it has been left in ruins. Until the construction of a new church in 1837, parishioners attended All Saints’ Church instead, although burials continued in the churchyard.

St Giles, St John's Green
Originally built on part of St John's Abbey cemetery around AD 1150, contains work from every century since. It was declared redundant in 1956 and then used as a St. John Ambulance depot until 1975 when it was converted into a masonic centre.

Holy Trinity
Holy Trinity is the oldest surviving church building in Colchester. It is on Trinity Street in the city centre. Parts of the church tower are Anglo-Saxon, believed to date from about 1020. The Saxon doorway in the west side of the tower has a triangular head: a feature common in Anglo-Saxon windows but unusual in a doorway. An earlier church building may have existed on the site. The churchyard includes the graves of William Gilberd, discoverer of electromagnetism and physician to Elizabeth I, and the composer John Wilbye.

St James the Great
St James the Great is a Church of England church on East Hill in Colchester. The oldest part of the church is Norman, dating from the 12th century. The nave, tower, and two aisles were built between the 13th and 15th centuries. The chancel and the Chapels of Our Lady and Saint Peter and Saint Paul were added around 1500. The radical priest John Ball, a leader of the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 preached at the church.

St John's Abbey

The Benedictine abbey of St John the Baptist, generally known as "St John's Abbey," founded in 1096, had a late 11th-century church until the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the execution of its abbot in 1539. Now all that remains is the gatehouse on St John's Green, which dates from the 15th century, and the church of St Giles, used as the parish church of the abbey.

St Martin's
St Martin's is a 12th-century church that survives in its original Norman form. The church is on West Stockwell Street in the old Dutch Quarter. Its tower was damaged in the English Civil War and was never repaired. Today the church building is in the care of The Churches Conservation Trust and is used as a community venue. The key is available from the Colchester Borough Council museum service.

St Mary-at-the-Walls
On Church Street, to the east of Balkerne Hill is St Mary-at-the-Walls, built against the Roman walls and overlooking the western suburbs of the city. First recorded in 1206, the church has a notable history. It is the site where 23 Protestant martyrs were executed by burning in the reign of the Mary I. In the English Civil War a Royalist army used the church tower as a gun emplacement, which resulted in its destruction by New Model Army siege batteries. The theory that the tower gave rise to the nursery rhyme Humpty Dumpty is now probably disproved. The lower part of the tower is Norman; the upper parts were rebuilt in 1729 and the top in 1911. The rest of the church was rebuilt in 1872 to designs by Arthur Blomfield. Philip Morant, the Essex historian, was Rector 1737–70. There was a further major rebuild in 1872.

In 1978 the parish was united with Christ Church in a new building in Ireton Road. The old church was made redundant; the bell was moved to St Leonard's in Lexden and the organ to Brentwood Cathedral. In 1980 the building was reopened as Colchester Arts Centre.

St Nicholas
Saint Nicholas' church formerly stood on the High Street. The original church was 12th century and the church was rebuilt in the 14th century, and restored again between 1875 and 1876 to designs by Sir George Gilbert Scott. The church had the highest spire in Colchester. The Church of England had the church demolished in 1955 and sold the site for commercial redevelopment. The Colchester Co-operative Society built a department store ("St Nicholas House") on the site. The building has retail at the ground floor and permission for residential development on the upper floors.

St Runwald's
St Runwald's church is one of only three churches were ever dedicated to the Saint in Britain. The church in Colchester formerly stood as part of "middle row" in the High Street. It was demolished, along with other buildings in the row, in the 1860s. The church graveyard is in West Stockwell Street, behind Colchester Town Hall.

St Peter's
In origin a Medieval church, St Peter's is on North Hill and largely consists of later Georgian material due to a major remodelling in 1758, but the building retains mediaeval fabric and underwent a further remodelling in 1895–96. During the Medieval period the church yard contained a large stone cross from which gospels were read during the Palm Sunday procession. The churchyard also contained a large marker stone on its northern side into the 1500s. The Medieval church also contained a large rood screen with a rood loft. The bells are rung every Thursday. Details of its history are available at the church.

St Leonard's-at-the-Hythe
St Leonard's-at-the-Hythe is a large medieval church at Colchester's Hythe river port. Along with St John's Abbey it was one of the two ecclesiastical buildings in Colchester which contained clocks. The church was the site of a battle during the 1648 Siege of Colchester, and its south door still contains firing loops for muskets. The church is now redundant, and is cared for by the Churches Conservation Trust.

Baptist Church
In Eld Lane, built in 1834 on the site of Colchester's first purpose-built Baptist chapel of 1711.

Strict Baptist Chapel
Formerly in Stanwell Street, demolished in 1971 to make way for Colchester's Inner Ring Road. The chapel was built in 1811 or 1812 for a new congregation, some of whom had seceded from the Baptists in Eld Lane. Colchester Elim Pentecostal Church (see below) used the chapel 1957–71.

Congregational Chapel
This red-brick chapel in East Stockwell Street was built in 1816–17. The chapel was built for Congregational minister Rev. Joseph Herrick, who was expelled from his previous meeting house in St Helen's Lane by the Unitarians in the congregation. It was refronted in 1834 with a pediment and Tuscan columns. After Herrick's death, his successor, Rev. Thomas Batty (father of Colchester artist Dora Batty), added new schoolrooms in 1868 and remodelled the chapel in 1875. It has been a Grade II-listed building since 1971.

Quaker Meeting House
A Grade II listed building in Church Street dating from 1803.

All Saints, Shrub End
The parish church of Shrub End; formerly part of Lexden, it became a separate parish in 1845. Designed in a revival of Decorated Gothic by D. R. French, the red-brick church has a tower with a slated spire. MapRef TL 970232. A more detailed look at the church can be found on the church's website on www.shrubendparish.co.uk

St Botolph's
The current church building was dedicated in 1837. It is built in the style of the old Norman building, with semicircular arches and Norman ornamentation and was designed by William Mason of Ipswich. The Church was nearly destroyed by fire in the 1943 air raids. It had its own team of fire watchers which dealt with several incendiary bombs.

Garrison Church
Built in Military Road in 1855 to hold services for soldiers going to the Crimean War, this large Grade II* listed timber church has space for a congregation of 500. It is now the Russian Orthodox Church. of St. John the Wonderworker.

St James the Less
This Roman Catholic Church of St James the Less and St Helen in Priory Street was designed by JJ Scoles, built in 1837 and enlarged in 1909–10. It is a Norman revival building with an apsidal chancel.

St John the Evangelist
The Church of St John the Evangelist Colchester was built in 1863 by Arthur Blomfield in the Decorated style. It is principally of red brick with yellow and blue brick and stone window tracery. It consists of a chancel and nave surmounted by a small bellcot at the west end. The chancel and its fittings and part of the nave were built with money collected in memory of J.T. Round. It has a boarded and tiled roof. In the late 1960s and into the 1970s, the modern housing estate of St John's was built and a further estate of Highwoods was developed in the 1980s. From 1980 under the leadership of Rev Brian Nicholson, the numbers of the congregation steadily grew. Mainly through the generous giving from the church family, the church was significantly extended in 1987. Following continuing growth in church membership, St Luke's was planted, meeting weekly in the community centre on Highwoods. In 2012 the church undertook a million pound plus building project, replacing the old pre-fab church hall with a new multi purpose Community Centre.

United Reformed Church
In Lion Walk, this Gothic Revival church was designed in a Geometrical Decorated Gothic style and built in 1863 for a Congregational community that had been meeting in Colchester since the 17th century. The 1884 Colchester earthquake damaged its steeple. The church became part of the new United Reformed Church in 1972.

St Barnabas' Church, Old Heath
Built on the site of a Victorian church, St Barnabas was built in 1949 to replace the original church which was in a state of disrepair. A small and friendly church, it has various services and masses during the week including a Parish Sung Mass on a Sunday Morning at 10am.

Castle Methodist Church
In Maidenburgh Street next to Colchester Castle, this 20th-century building was opened in 1970 on the site of the "great round meeting house" where John Wesley preached in the 18th century. A wooden pulpit that he used is preserved in the new church.

Colchester New Church
Colchester New Church at 175 Maldon Road was built in 1924. In 1967 the church building was expanded. The sanctuary was extended two metres in length, a new school room, and a new entrance porch were added. The designer of the new additions was architect Geoff P. Dawson.

Elim Pentecostal Church
Colchester's Elim Pentecostal congregation formed in 1930. A temporary tabernacle was built in Fairfax Road in 1931 and served until 1957, when the congregation moved to the former Strict Baptist Chapel in Stanwell Street (see above). When that chapel was demolished in 1971 to make way for a new road, the congregation had a new church built in Walsingham Road. The congregation now meets in a newer building on Clematis Way.

Greenstead Evangelical Free Church
Greenstead Evangelical Free Church is on Magnolia Drive on the Greenstead estate. It was built in 1963, making it almost as old as the estate itself. It is affiliated with the Fellowship of Independent Evangelical Churches.

title: Churches in Colchester


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Fateh Achour

Fateh Achour (فاتح عاشور; born 15 August 1994) is an Algerian footballer who plays for ASO Chlef in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1.

Career
In 2018, Achour signed a two-year contract with USM Bel Abbès.

In 2020, he signed a two-year contract with USM Alger.

In 2022, he joined ASO Chlef.

Honours
ASO Chlef
 * Algerian Cup: 2022–23

title: Fateh Achour


text:
Talk:Advanced Classical Mechanics

Author
Much of the textbook was written by Jeremy Heyl as part of his PHYS 350 (Classical Mechanics) course at UBC. Guy Vandegrift added sections to Hamilton's Equations.

Comment
I don't understand how to get to "classical mechanics" resources in order to learn basic topics like kinematics, dynamics, Newton Laws, rotating bodies and so on. I see that only "advanced classical mechanics" is covered here. It seems that whatever choice one make in the main school of physics page doesn't matter, because only advanced topics are covered. I think the structure of this school should be rethought, by also providing basic resources to physics newbies. Fabio Maria De Francesco (discuss • contribs) 11:39, 20 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Advanced Classical Mechanics


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Bagavdin Umakhanov

Bagautdin Mustafayevich Umakhanov (born 2 June 1971 in Khasavyurt) is a Russian former wrestler who competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics. He is the brother of Murad Umakhanov.

title: Bagavdin Umakhanov


text:
Talk:Man Power

External links modified
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title: Talk:Man Power


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List of Pacific hurricanes

This is a list of notable Pacific hurricanes, subdivided by reason for notability. Notability means that it has met some criterion or achieved some statistic, or is part of a top ten for some superlative. It includes lists and rankings of Pacific hurricanes by different characteristics and impacts.

Characteristics include extremes of location, such as the northernmost or most equator-ward formation or position of a tropical cyclone. Other characteristics include its central pressure, windspeed, category on the Saffir–Simpson scale, cyclogenesis outside of a normal hurricane season's timeframe, or storms that remain unnamed despite forming after tropical cyclone naming began in 1960. Another characteristic is how long a system lasted from formation to dissipation. These include the cost of damage, the number of casualties, as well as meteorological statistics such as rainfall point maximum, wind speed, and minimum pressure.

Retired names
Adolph and Israel were removed from the list of names during and after the 2001 season due to political sensitivities. Knut was removed from the list in 1988 for unknown reasons. Adele, Iva, and Fefa were also removed in 1970, 1988, and 1991 respectively for unknown reasons. Hazel was replaced in 1965. The name Isis was also pre-emptively removed from the lists of names for 2016 after being deemed inappropriate because of the eponymous militant group in 2015.

Costliest tropical cyclones
The following tropical cyclones have caused at least $500 million in damage, according to various sources. Tropical cyclones listed here are listed with the value from the source providing the highest value. Due to source variation and inconsistency, sources may state damage totals lower than what is listed, or even lower than the $500 million threshold.

Seasonal activity and records
In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's (CPHC) area of responsibility (AOR), the season with the most tropical cyclones is the 2015 season with 16 cyclones forming in or entering the region. A season without cyclones has happened a few times since 1966, most recently in 1979.

Lowest
Before 1971 and especially 1966, data in this basin is extremely unreliable. The geostationary satellite era began in 1966, and that year is often considered the first year of reliable tropical records. Intensity estimates are most reliable starting in the 1971 season. A few years later, the Dvorak technique came into use. Those two factors make intensity estimates more reliable starting in that year. For these reasons, seasons prior to 1971 are not included.

Naming history

Naming of tropical cyclones in the eastern north Pacific began in the 1960 season. That year, four lists of names were created. The plan was to proceed in a manner similar to that of the western Pacific; that is, the name of the first storm in one season would be the next unused one from the same list, and when the bottom of one list was reached the next list was started. This scheme was abandoned in 1965 and next year, the lists started being recycled on a four-year rotation, starting with the A name each year. That same general scheme remains in use today, although the names and lists are different. On average, the eastern north Pacific sees about sixteen named storms per year.

Named storms per month
Specific seasonal data in the Eastern Pacific basin was first compiled in 1949. Therefore, seasons before 1949 are excluded from the "Most named" column.

Also, before 1971 and especially 1966, data in this basin is extremely unreliable. The geostationary satellite era began in 1966, and that year is often considered the first year of reliable tropical records. Intensity estimates are more reliable starting in the 1971 season. A few years later, the Dvorak technique came into use. Those two make intensity estimates more reliable starting in that year. For these reasons, seasons before 1971 are not included in the "Least named" column.

† Shared by more than five seasons. Source:

Off-season storms
The Pacific hurricane season runs from May 15 to November 30. Only systems that develop or enter during the off-season are included. The earliest off-season storm is Pali in 2016 whilst the latest off-season storm was Nine-C during 2015.

†Entered the basin on this date

Unnamed storms
Tropical cyclones have received official names in the Eastern and Central Pacific beginning in 1960. Since then, 6 tropical storms or hurricanes have formed that did not receive a storm name. (Note: The "2006 Central Pacific cyclone" is excluded, as its status has never been officially determined.)
 * Tropical Storm 4 (1962)
 * Tropical Storm 8 (1962)
 * Tropical Storm Four (1963)
 * "1975 Pacific Northwest hurricane"
 * Unnamed tropical storm (1996)
 * Unnamed tropical storm (2020)

Category 5
Since 1959, 20 Pacific hurricanes have attained Category 5 intensity. The only one to make landfall while at this intensity was Otis in 2023.

Category 4
Since 1900, 141 Pacific hurricanes have attained Category 4 intensity, of which five made landfall at that strength.

Category 3
Since 1970, 86 Pacific hurricanes have attained Category 3 intensity, of which three made landfall at that strength.

Duration records
This lists all Pacific hurricanes that existed as tropical cyclones while in the Pacific Ocean east of the dateline for more than two weeks continuously. Hurricanes John and Dora spent some time in the west Pacific before dissipating. John spent eleven days west of the dateline; if that time was included John would have existed for a total of 30 days and 18 hours, while including Dora's time in the west Pacific would mean that it existed for 18 days. One Atlantic hurricane, Hurricane Joan, crossed into this basin and was renamed Miriam, giving it a total lifespan of 22 days, but not all of that was in the Pacific. 1993's Greg formed from the remnants of Tropical Storm Bret (1993). Its time as an Atlantic system is excluded.

All of these systems except Trudy, Olaf, and Connie existed in both the east and central Pacific, and all except Olaf were hurricanes. Hurricane Trudy of 1990 is thus the longest lived eastern Pacific hurricane to stay in the eastern Pacific. Tropical Storm Olaf of 1997 is hence the longest-lived eastern Pacific tropical cyclone not to reach hurricane intensity.

No known tropical cyclone forming in the central north Pacific lasted for longer than 14 days without crossing into another basin. The tropical cyclone forming in the central Pacific that spent the most time there was Hurricane Ana (2014) at 12.75 days from formation to extratropical transition.

Before the weather satellite era began, the lifespans of many Pacific hurricanes may be underestimated.

From Atlantic to Eastern Pacific
This includes only systems which stayed a tropical cyclone during the passage or that maintained a circulation during the crossover.

It used to be that when a Pacific named storm crossed North America and made it to the Atlantic (or vice versa), it would receive the next name on the respective basin's list. However, in 2000 this policy was changed so that a tropical cyclone will keep its name if it remains a tropical cyclone during the entire passage. Only if it dissipates and then re-forms does it get renamed.

From Eastern Pacific to Atlantic
This includes only systems which stayed a tropical cyclone during the passage or that maintained a circulation during the crossover.

From Eastern Pacific to Western Pacific

Neither eastern Pacific tropical cyclones passing 140°W, nor central Pacific tropical cyclones crossing the dateline, are notable events. However, very few eastern Pacific proper cyclones that enter the central Pacific make it to the dateline.

† System ceased to be a tropical cyclone and regenerated at least once during its life span.

‡ System formed in the eastern Pacific, but was not named until it crossed into the central Pacific.

In addition, Hurricane Jimena of 2003 is recognized per NHC, CPHC and JTWC as a storm that existed in all three areas of responsibility, but isn't recognized by the JMA as an official western Pacific tropical cyclone.

From Western Pacific to Central Pacific

Tropical cyclones crossing from the western Pacific to the central Pacific are fairly rare, and this has happened only ten times. Of those ten times, six of them were storms which crossed the dateline twice; from the western to the central pacific and back (or vice versa). No tropical cyclone from the western Pacific has ever traveled east of 140°W.

† System crossed the dateline twice.

* Hurricane/Typhoon John formed in the eastern Pacific.

From Central Pacific to Eastern Pacific

Tropical cyclones crossing from the eastern Pacific to the central Pacific are routine; ones going the other way are not. That event has happened four times.

† System crossed 140°W more than once.

In addition to these, an unofficial cyclone formed on October 30, 2006 in the central Pacific subtropics. It eventually developed an eye-like structure. Its track data indicates that it crossed from the central to the east Pacific because it formed at longitude 149°W and dissipated at 135°W. NASA, which is not a meteorological organization, called this system a subtropical cyclone, and the Naval Research Laboratory Monterey had enough interest in it to call it 91C. The system has also been called extratropical. This cyclone is unofficial because it is not included in the seasonal reports of either Regional Specialized Meteorological Center.

Per lowest central pressure
The apparent increase in recent seasons is spurious; it is due to better estimation and measurement, not an increase in intense storms. That is, until 1988, Pacific hurricanes generally did not have their central pressures measured or estimated from satellite imagery.

* Estimated from satellite imagery

‡ Measured and adjusted

† Measured

~ Pressure while East of the International Date Line

Strongest storm in each month
Intensity is measured solely by central pressure unless the pressure is not known, in which case intensity is measured by maximum sustained winds.

† This tropical cyclone is the strongest to form in its month by virtue of its being the only known system.

California

 * After October or before June, 1854 – A system considered a tropical cyclone makes landfall just north of the Golden Gate.
 * October 2, 1858 – A hurricane makes a direct hit on Southern California before dissipating. The hurricane may or may not have made landfall in San Diego County, due to uncertainty in the track reconstruction. San Diego experienced hurricane-force winds, with torrential rainfall recorded all across Southern California.
 * After October or before June, 1859 – A system considered a tropical cyclone makes landfall between Cape Mendocino and San Francisco Bay.
 * September 25, 1939 – The 1939 California tropical storm makes landfall in San Pedro, California, killing 45 to 93 people.
 * September 6, 1972 – Tropical Depression Hyacinth makes landfall.
 * September 6, 1978 – Tropical Depression Norman makes landfall.

Hawaii

 * August 9, 1871 - Indigenous sources suggest that a Category 3 hurricane struck the Big Island and Maui.
 * August 7, 1958 – A tropical storm makes landfall on the Big Island of Hawaii.
 * August 7, 1959 – Hurricane Dot makes landfall on Kauai.
 * October 20, 1983 – Tropical Depression Raymond makes landfall on Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai.
 * August 3, 1988 – Tropical Depression Gilma makes landfall on Maui and Molokai.
 * September 11, 1992 – Hurricane Iniki makes landfall on Kauai, killing six throughout the islands.
 * September 14, 1992 – Tropical Depression Orlene makes landfall on the Big Island.
 * July 24, 1993 – Tropical Depression Eugene makes landfall on the Big Island of Hawaii.
 * August 8, 2014 – Tropical Storm Iselle makes landfall on the Big Island of Hawaii, killing one on Kauai.
 * July 24, 2016 – Tropical Storm Darby makes landfall on the Big Island of Hawaii.
 * September 12, 2018 – Tropical Storm Olivia makes landfall on Maui and Lanai.

Wettest tropical cyclones
All of these values are point maxima.

Worldwide cyclone records set by Pacific storms

 * Highest official wind speed ever recorded in a tropical cyclone: Hurricane Patricia with maximum sustained winds of 215 mph.
 * Fastest intensification (1-minute sustained surface winds): Hurricane Patricia 55 m/s (120 mph, 105 kt, 195 km/h), from 40 m/s (85 mph, 75 kt, 140 km/h) to 95 m/s (205 mph, 180 kt, 335 km/h) in under 24 h

 * Farthest-travelling tropical cyclone: Hurricane John travelled for 13,180 km.
 * Tropical cyclone at Category 4 or 5 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale for the longest: Hurricane Ioke was at that intensity for 198 consecutive hours.

title: List of Pacific hurricanes


text:
Talk:Muriel Hazel Wright

Article reclassification
This article meets the qualifications for class C. The subject merits a rating of High importance to WP:Oklahoma.Bruin2 (talk) 21:42, 2 August 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muriel Hazel Wright


text:
Talk:Trinity College Chapel

DAB changes
Since as per wikipedia guidelines, I'm reinstating the text on the Chapel in Kandy to the article Trinity College Chapel, and creating a link on top,
 * 1) There is no major article for a Trinity College Chapel in Cambridge
 * 2) The link for the Trinity College Chapel in Cambridge takes you simply to the Trinity College, Cambridge article
 * 3) There isn't even a mention of a chapel in the Trinity College, Cambridge article (which probably means, no offence to anyone but, no one considered it significant enough to mention it)
 * 4) Before I created the article Trinity College Chapel, there was no previous article with the same name (which as per above probably means, again no offence to anyone but, no one considered it significant enough to create an aricle about the Trinity College Chapel in Cambridge)
 * 5) The only link to this page is from the Trinity College Kandy page.
 * 6) As stated in the article, the Trinity College Chapel "is unique among churches in Sri Lanka", "was the first open chapel in the world" etc. and is therfore quite significant in comparision and
 * 7) The fact that it is in Sri Lanka and belongs to a school doesn't diminish its significance
 * Trinity College Chapel redirects here. For other users, see Trinity College Chapel (Disambiguation).  --snowolfD4( talk /  @ ) 08:29, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trinity College Chapel


text:
Federal Correctional Institution, Gilmer

The Federal Correctional Institution, Gilmer (FCI Gilmer) is a medium-security United States federal prison for male inmates in West Virginia. It is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, a division of the United States Department of Justice. An adjacent satellite prison camp houses minimum-security male inmates.

FCI Gilmer is located in central West Virginia, 85 mi northeast of Charleston and 150 mi from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.


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Wikiversity:School and university projects

If you are a professor or teacher at a school or university, we encourage you to use Wikiversity and/or Wikipedia in your class, whether it's preschool, primary, secondary, tertiary, or non-formal.

 * List of projects
 * Outreach materials and introductions for educators

Overview
This page provides suggestions to guide teachers who want to have their students use Wikiversity in conventional brick and mortar classroom-type settings. Wikiversity participation can:
 * advance participant's knowledge;
 * create useful content and learning activities that can be shared around the world.

It is important to consider what your students will contribute here. Wikiversity is an experiment on how to make use of wiki technology to support education. If your project fits within that broad mission then you are welcome to make use of Wikiversity resources for your class.

If you feel you could utilize Wikiversity to facilitate your teaching and your students' learning, please feel free. There are a myriad of ways you can go about doing this, and quite a few ways this has already been done.

Learning management system
One way to utilize Wikiversity in a similar fashion to learning management systems (such as Moodle). Thus, you can use Wikiversity as a portal for your students' learning. For example, you can:
 * create a page for your course
 * post syllabi, assignments, syllabi, quizzes, study guides, readings (presuming they are GFDL compatable), reading lists, links, discussions, and so forth.

Learning by doing
Wikiversity has adopted a "learn by doing" model of education. When your students become editors of Wikiversity webpages they learn by collaborating on course-related projects and their effort will contribute online to a global effort to make all of human knowledge freely available.

Project collaboration
Wikiversity can also be used as a place to collaborate on projects. You and your students can write papers, conduct research, and discuss the subjects being studied and how best to study them.

Personal learning environment
You and your students can create accounts using their real name or a psuedonym and then utilize Wikiversity as their own personal learning environment whilst participating in the course.

Getting started
Wikiversity can be difficult for a newcomer to fathom. The welcome page provides an overview to help participants get started quickly. Most Wikiversity participants will also be helpful in guiding newcomers and explaining how we do things. However, for the sake of your class we strongly suggest that you yourself contribute here and become familiar with Wikiversity before sending your students. Your students will be much less likely to encounter problems here if you can give them appropriate guidance.

Welcoming committee
If you have any questions or need advice - click here to leave a message and someone from wikiversity will contact you and help you get started. Feel free to contact anyone from the welcoming committee (by clicking on talk next to the name) and type a message describing the project that you would like to start here:

 * mikeu (talk) - physical science, astronomy, history of science
 * JWSchmidt (talk) - science, Web 2.0, learning, fiction
 * Erkan Yilmaz (talk), general
 * James Neill (talk), Social sciences
 * , general

Scope
Introduction to Wikiversity covers basic concepts used for hosting education-oriented learning projects. Also see Wikiversity's mission. We work closely with sister projects. If your class activities involve content useful to encyclopedia style articles please see Wikipedia. If your project involves development of content potentially useful in a textbook, you may wish to review Wikibooks. Materials developed here during learning activties are easily ported as appropriate to other Wikimedia Foundation projects. Please have your students do real wiki editing that contributes to the Wikiversity mission of promoting learning. Please do not invent irrelevant or off-topic editing tasks that disrupt Wikiversity.

Practice editing
Practice editing before giving a wiki editing assignment to your students. Register a Wikiversity user account for yourself and spend some time editing. Perhaps you can help develop this survey: Wikimedia experience.

Search
Search for existing activities to determine if there are existing Wikiversity activities applicable to your needs. (see Browse) and use the search box on the top or sidebar. Start a Wikiversity webpage for your planned project and link to it appropriately from applicable portal pages.

Introductions
When you want to start such a project, please briefly describe what you are doing on this page under the "Current projects" heading and please leave a note at the Colloquium page. Please activate your user account's email and leave some contact information on your user page.

Help
Please make use of resources such as the help pages and use the Sandbox for any test or practice edits. If you need help, feel free to ask questions at the Colloquium.

Account names
Please do not create numerical accounts with university or school account numbers. While this may be initially convenient, it is better to use a real name or a pseudonym.

Copyrights
Please keep Copyrights in mind. Not everything on the Web is free for the taking, and even that which is may not be compatible with our licensing. This is true for text, sound files and images (see Uploading files). If your students will be working at Wikiversity by starting from your own course notes and other materials, be sure that you make it clear if it is acceptable to add your personal materials or your school's materials to Wikiversity webpages. Furthermore, check who owns your students' course work. If the owner is your institution, check that you have permission to contribute it under the GFDL license.

Course protection
Note that a course protection policy exists at Wikiversity in order to make sure that course materials can exist in stable state in accordance with your preferences, and so that people who are not running the course cannot disrupt the course. If you want to protect some Wikiversity pages from editing by participants outside of your course, add Template:Protected course to the pages.

Summary report
Once you have finished a project, we would very much appreciate reading a description of the results. This could be on a separate page if it is long, or on this page in the "Past projects" heading.

Original research
Wikiversity is creating guidelines that will allow participants to publish new ideas, discoveries or articles. See our relevant policies, Verifiability, Disclosures, Scholarly ethics, Original research.

Templates
We have a template that can be easily copied and adopted to create a wiki-syllabus for your course-related project on Wikiversity. See: class project boilerplate.

Student orientation
It is important to help 'orient' your students to Wikiversity. Here are some suggested resources:
 * Orientation
 * Help:The original tour for newcomers
 * What is Wikiversity?

Projects
Dozens of courses that are run in schools and universities develop material on Wikiversity, publish their course materials and student research here, or have class collaborations with other Wikiversity users as some of their assignments.

Transcluded from /List of projects/:

Wikibooks

 * Wikibooks:Guidelines for class projects

Wikipedia

 * Classroom assignments on the rise - Wikipedia Signpost (2006)
 * Educational content on Wikipedia - Wikipedia Signpost (2008)
 * Wikipedia:School and university projects
 * Wikipedia:WikiProject Classroom coordination

Wikiversity

 * Brick and mortar collaboration
 * Course outlines
 * Educational wikis
 * Help:101 things to do with your class on Wikiversity
 * Introduction to Wikiversity scholarship
 * Real world schools
 * Syllabus boilerplate - can be used when you start a Wikiversity project page for your course.
 * Wikiversity teachers


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User:Oloya william/sandbox

Oloya william(William willson willberforce) is a Ugandan by nationality born way back in 1988 on the 12th of May in the presence District of Nebbi Jonam county, Wadelai sub county in Mutir Parish. Oloya is a computer Engineer by profession and a Referee to Federation of Uganda Football Association(FUFA). He was born in the family of six, his father Mr.Onen Justo was a Civil Engineer their first born is called Acen, followed by Opio Fred, Atim Ruth, Oloya william, Oloya Regan and Ogera.

Currently Oloya works with Cyclops Technology Limited as a System Administrator in Kampla, the company deals in Vehicle tracking and fleet management system and he part times with Magic 100 fm(UBC) Radio as A sports Commentator and Analyst

title: User:Oloya william/sandbox


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Miss Earth Belgium

Miss Earth Belgium is a title given to a woman who is selected to represent Belgium at Miss Earth, an annual international beauty pageant promoting environmental awareness. The national pageant of Miss Earth for Belgium is conducted by Miss Exclusive to which Carousel Productions, the owner of Miss Earth, awarded the franchise in 2014. The winner of Miss Exclusive gets the title of Miss Earth Belgium.

The current titleholder is Daphné Nivelles who was crowned on 7th May 2022 and finished as part of the Top 8 semifinalists in Miss Earth 2022.

In Miss Earth 2021, Selena Ali represented her country and placed in the Top 20. She is the first-ever Belgian to be placed as a finalist in Miss Earth history, ending a 19-year drought for Belgium since joining Miss Earth in 2002.

2002-2013: Early years
Belgium debuted in Miss Earth in 2002 and the franchise was under the Miss Benelux contest until 2011. Miss Belgium International acquired the franchise from 2011 until 2013.

2014-present: Miss Exclusive
Miss Exclusive acquired the franchise of Miss Earth and is considered to be the biggest pageant across Belgium. It was created in 2009 and the main winner gets to compete in Miss Earth, an annual international beauty pageant promoting environmental awareness. The pageant is under the directorship of Remi Esquelisse and Ken Stevens. Miss Earth is part of the Big Four international beauty pageants.

Traditionally, the winner of Miss Exclusive gets the title of Miss Earth Belgium and competes in the international Miss Earth pageant. The first winner of Miss Exclusive for Miss Earth is Emily Vanhoutte. In Miss Earth 2022 edition, Daphné Nivelles represented her country and managed to enter into the Top 8 finalist. It was the highest and second consecutive placement for a Belgian candidate in the pageant history.

Titleholders
The winner of Miss Exclusive gets the title of Miss Earth Belgium and competes in the international Miss Earth pageant. : Declared as Winner

Miss Supranational Belgium

title: Miss Earth Belgium


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User:Mu301/Learning blog/2007-01

January 2007

 * It has been a while since I posted here. I've been busy making telescope observations for the supernova page (which is still under development.)  I also added a supernova related activity section to observational astronomy and created a new page on extrasolar planets.  These two pages are now a featured learning resource at Portal:Physical Sciences.--mikeu 18:20, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Take a look at the image at right. The bright star near the center goes by the rather unimaginative name of HD 209458.  There is something about this star that is quite remarkable.  You can't tell by looking at the image, but this star is home to a planet {which  goes by the even less imaginative name of HD 209458 b.)  It is one of more than 200 planets that have been discovered outside of our solar system.  These distant planetary systems are the subject of one of the observational astronomy subpages that I recently started.  The first activity encourages someone interested in learning about this topic to participate in the systemic research collaboration and join a learning group here.  Learning projects like this bring up an interesting question about the role of research here at Wikiversity.  Since many of the projects that I'm working on or planning involve some kind of research I'll need to address this question.  In the next few days I'll start by writing up some more detailed descriptions of the projects that I have in mind.--mikeu 20:30, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Mu301/Learning blog/2007-01


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Acrolepia bythodes

Acrolepia bythodes is a moth of the family Acrolepiidae. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1919. It is found in South America.

title: Acrolepia bythodes


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Talk:Deepika Udagama

External links modified
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 21:37, 13 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Deepika Udagama


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Sexual Psychology

This textbook is meant to serve as an introduction to the psychological (primarily) and sociological (secondarily) study of human sexuality and related research on intimate relationships. It is appropriate for a undergraduate survey course in sexuality and presumes no prior knowledge.

Section 1 - Human Sexuality

 * 1) /Introduction and History/ - Sex. Motivation for human kind. This book will talk a lot about it.
 * 2) /Theories of Sexuality/
 * 3) /Who's Doing What/
 * 4) /Male and Female/
 * 5) /Intimate Relationships/
 * 6) /Sexually Transmitted Infections/
 * 7) /Special Topics/
 * 8) /Does Size Really Matter?/
 * 9) /Is there Really a 'G' Spot?/

Section 2 - Past Controversies

 * 1) /Sodomy/
 * 2) /Masturbation/
 * 3) /Premarital and Extramarital Sex/

Section 3 - Contemporary Controversies

 * 1) /Perversion/
 * 2) /Rape/
 * 3) /Pornography/
 * 4) /Sex Education/
 * 5) /Homosexuality, Bisexuality, Transgender/

/Bibliography/

title: Sexual Psychology


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Talk:Leeds/Archives/2014/December

Edit request: image caption
The image in the top corner of the page has the caption "Clockwise from top: Leeds Town Hall, Bridgewater Place, City Square and Roundhay Park." This implies that the top image is the Town Hall (correct), the right middle one is Bridgewater Place (correct), then, continuing clockwise, the bottom image is City Square. In fact the bottom image is Roundhay Park and the left middle one is City Square. Please fix. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:14, 1 December 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Leeds/Archives/2014/December


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1941 North Dakota Agricultural Bison football team

The 1941 North Dakota Agricultural Bison football team was an American football team that represented North Dakota Agricultural College (now known as North Dakota State University) in the North Central Conference (NCC) during the 1941 college football season. In its first season under head coach Stan Kostka, the team compiled a 2–7 record (2–4 against NCC opponents) and finished fourth in the NCC. The team played its home games at Dacotah Field in Fargo, North Dakota.

Prior to the 1941 season, the Bison had not won a game against a NCC opponent since 1938. The team broke the streak with two conference victories in 1941.


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Talk:Syrus Marcus Ware

Abolitionism
The article makes passing reference to 'abolitionism', which generally means slavery. Canada has not had slavery for the better part of two centuries, so I suspect that this is some new age usage of the term. It should either be clarified what it means in context, or replaced entirely with something more descriptive of what Syrus actually works towards.Fullmetalalch (talk) 03:03, 27 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Syrus Marcus Ware


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Talk:KrasAvia

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 10:37, 18 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Лого ГП КК «КрасАвиа».jpg

title: Talk:KrasAvia


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Talk:Ye Ethiopia Lijoch TV

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 13:21, 23 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Ethio kids logo (1).png

Huh?
I just translated this article into Norwegian bøkmal (I doubt the translation is amazing) and for some reason on both articles the article in the other language isn't accessible without changing the URL your on to access the article in the other language. So changing the ‘en’ to ‘no’ to access the Norwegian article, then changing ‘no’ to ‘en’ to access the English article again. I don’t understand why this happens. Can anyone tell me? JosephineG2012 (talk) 04:21, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Nvm JosephineG2012 (talk) 15:53, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ye Ethiopia Lijoch TV


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mèo

Etymology
From an onomatopoeic origin. Cognate with 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1)  cat

Etymology
, from the animal's cry. Compare 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) cat

Verb

 * 1) meow

title: mèo


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Ministry of Defence (Myanmar)

The Ministry of Defence (ကာကွယ်ရေးဝန်ကြီးဌာန; abbreviated MoD) is a government ministry in Myanmar (Burma), responsible for the country's national security and the armed forces (the Tatmadaw). The ministry has the largest share of the national budget among all government ministries, with a budget of $2.289 billion USD in 2013. As part of the Burma Sanctions Program, the United States government prohibits its citizens from doing business with the Ministry of Defence of Myanmar or its affiliates.

Departments

 * Union Minister Office
 * Department of International and Internal Affairs
 * Account Office
 * Directorate of Procurement

The Ministry of Defence also generates significant revenue from business interests, by owning and operating a large business conglomerate, the Myanmar Economic Corporation (MEC). MEC is owned by the Tatmadaw's Quartermaster General’s Office, and is a direct source of revenue for the Burmese military, even though earnings from MEC are not declared in the ministry's budget.

title: Ministry of Defence (Myanmar)


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Shed (album)

Shed is the debut studio album by American rock band Title Fight. It was released on May 3, 2011, through SideOneDummy Records. It received positive reviews, garnering an 81 on review aggregator Metacritic. It debuted at No. 8 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart.

Background
Compilation album The Last Thing You Forget was released in 2009. Bassist/vocalist Ned Russin said that since its release, the band members had "dropped out of school, seen the world and had life experiences".

Release
On January 20, 2011, it was announced that Title Fight had signed to independent label SideOneDummy Records, and would be releasing their debut album in the spring. On February 10, Shed was announced for release in May, revealing its track listing. In addition, the band gave away "27" as a free download on their Tumblr profile. Russin said that it would be "the first time we have a recording that's longer than seven minutes, so this is a long time coming". On April 27, the album's title-track was made available as a free download. Shed was made available for streaming on May 2, before being released the following day. On May 4, a music video was released for "27". In May and June, the band embarked on their first headlining US tour with support from Touché Amoré, The Menzingers, Dead End Path and Shook Ones.

In July 2011, the band went on a tour of the UK and Europe. On October 10, a music video was released for "Shed". In October and November, the band supported Four Year Strong on the AP Fall Tour. On November 21, a 7" vinyl was released featuring the outtakes "Missed" and "Dreamcatchers". On the same day, the group released a music video for "Coxton Yard". In February 2012, the band went on a tour of Japan, titled Alliance Trax A.T. Tour, alongside Foundation, Country Yard and Inside. In April and May, the group supported Rise Against on their US tour. In between dates on this tour, the band performed a number of headlining shows.

The song "Safe in Your Skin" had a surge in popularity in 2022 and 2023, mainly due to TikTok virality. It is now the band's most streamed song on Spotify, with 27 million streams as of November 2023.

Track listing
All songs written by Title Fight.

Personnel

 * Band
 * Jamie Rhoden – guitars, vocals
 * Ned Russin – bass, vocals
 * Shane Moran – guitars
 * Ben Russin – drums

 * Production
 * Walter Schreifels – production, vocals on "Safe In Your Skin"
 * Will Yip – sound engineer, mixing
 * Kim Rosen – mastering
 * Dirk Fritz – layout
 * Manny Mares – photography
 * Alex Dow – photography
 * Nathan Congleton – photography
 * John Garrett Slaby – artwork

title: Shed (album)