text:
Talk:Pearland Independent School District

Closed sessions for school boards
PISD (Pearland Independent School District) board meetings may be addressed by the public, but basically this is a nod and smile session devoid of discussion. Substantive discussion and voting is done in closed session. Of course ultimate redress lies in the election process, but if the decision-making process is not open then on what basis do we vote? Information regarding the nature of the board, its powers and the rules governing its actions would be valuable. So too would a link to a site where the decisions and opinions of the board and its individual members are openly displayed ( were there ever to be such a site ). —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:12, 19 November 2007 (UTC)
 * But information must come from a Reliable source. This is not a website to publish original claims. WhisperToMe (talk) 22:06, 17 October 2009 (UTC)

Chinese names
From http://www.jiviolinschool.com/honorroll-wz-pic/hono-05.htm WhisperToMe (talk) 06:16, 15 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Pearland ISD = 珍珠城学区
 * Pearland High School = 珍珠城高中


text:
Red bird-of-paradise

The red bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea rubra), also called the cendrawasih merah, is a bird-of-paradise in the genus Paradisaea, family Paradisaeidae.

Description
Large, up to 33 cm long, brown and yellow with a dark brown iris, grey legs, and yellow bill. The male has an emerald green face, a pair of elongated black corkscrew-shaped tail wires, dark green feather pompoms above each eye, and a train of glossy crimson red plumes with whitish tips at either side of the breast. The male measures up to 72 cm long, including the ornamental red plumes that require at least six years to fully attain. The female is similar but smaller in size, with a dark brown face and has no ornamental red plumes. The diet consists mainly of fruits, berries and arthropods.

Distribution
An Indonesian endemic, the red bird-of-paradise is distributed to lowland rainforests of Waigeo and Batanta islands of Raja Ampat, West Papua. This species shares its home with another bird-of-paradise, the Wilson's bird-of-paradise. Hybridisation between these two species has not been recorded.

In popular culture

 * The red bird-of-paradise is depicted on the front side of 1992 edition of Indonesia 20000 Rupiah banknote.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Red bird-of-paradise


text:
Kazemabad, Zeberkhan

Kazemabad (, also Romanized as Kāz̧emābād) is a village in Ordughesh Rural District, Zeberkhan District, Nishapur County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 25, in 5 families.

title: Kazemabad, Zeberkhan


text:
General Biology/Getting Started/History and Origin of Life

Properties of life

 * 1) Organization: Being structurally composed of one or more cells, which are the basic units of life.
 * 2) * prokaryote: no nucleus
 * 3) * eukaryote: membrane bound nucleus.
 * 4) Sensitivity: respond to stimuli.
 * 5) Energy Processing
 * 6) Growth and Development
 * 7) Reproduction
 * 8) * hereditary mechanisms to make more of self; DNA based.
 * 9) Regulation, including homeostasis.
 * 10) Evolution.

Origin of life: 3 hypotheses
-However, this would imply that some other origin of life was likely because it would have had to happen elsewhere before it could be transported here, and the only difference would be that life did not originate on Earth. -This is often criticized for the improbability of life being produced by a chemical reaction caused by lightning, along with the ability of any produced DNA to be in a sequence that could reproduce a working life model. It is also attacked for religious reasons, as it bypasses things like the idea of a supreme being directly creating humans. It also seems unlikely to some that such huge changes are possible in evolution without evidence of a credible "in-between” stage. Many of the stages of man are disputed due to their somewhat shaky grounds. For example, bones from other animals or species have been mistaken for humanoid while complete skeletons have been put together from a limited number of bones. -This is often attacked for many of the same reasons that religion is attacked, and is often regarded as superstitious and/or unscientific.
 * Extraterrestrial origin (panspermia): meteor, comet borne from elsewhere in universe
 * evidence of amino acids and other organic material in space (but often both D & L forms)
 * questionable bacterial fossils in Martian rock
 * Spontaneous origin on earth: primitive self-replicating macromolecules acted upon by natural selection ((macro)Evolution is one example of this)
 * Special creation: religious explanations (Intelligent Design is one popular example of this.) These explanations contend that life was created by God (or perhaps some other Intelligent Designer).
 * Proponents of Intelligent design suggest that the vast complexity of life could only have been intentionally designed while other creationists cite biblical support.

 * It is debated whether schools should teach one hypothesis over another when discussing the origin of life. However, since they are all accepted hypotheses in some respect, this wikibook will include both of them without favoring one over the other.

The early earth
It is believed that the Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
 * Heavy bombardment by rubble ceased about 3.8 billion years ago.
 * Reducing atmosphere: much free H
 * also H2O, NH3, CH4
 * little, if any, free O2
 * with numerous H electrons, require little energy to form organic compounds with C
 * Warm oceans, estimated at 49-88 °C
 * Lack of O2 and consequent ozone (O3) meant considerable UV energy

Chemical reactions on early earth
 * UV and other energy sources would promote chemical reactions and formation of organic molecules
 * Testable hypothesis: Miller-Urey experiment
 * simulated early atmospheric conditions
 * found amino acids, sugars, etc., building blocks of life
 * won Nobel prize for work
 * experiment showed prebiotic synthesis of biological molecules was possible

Issues
 * Miller later conceded that the conditions in his experiments were not representative of what is currently thought to be those of early earth
 * He also conceded that science has no answer for how amino acids could self-organize into replicating molecules and cells
 * In the 50 years since Miller-Urey, significant issues and problems for biogenesis have been identified. This is a weak hypothesis at this time.
 * Conclusion: Life exists, we don't know why.

Origin of cells
Cells are very small and decompose quickly after death. As such, fossils of the earliest cells do not exist. Scientists have had to form a variety of theories on how cells (and hence life) was created on Earth.
 * Bubble hypothesis
 * A. Oparin, J.B.S. Haldane, 1930’s
 * Primary abiogenesis: life as consequence of geochemical processes
 * Protobionts: isolated collections of organic material enclosed in hydrophobic bubbles
 * Numerous variants: microspheres, protocells, protobionts, micelles, liposomes, coacervates
 * Other surfaces for evolution of life
 * deep sea thermal vents
 * ice crystals
 * clay surfaces
 * tidal pools

The RNA world?

 * DNA → RNA → polypeptide (protein)
 * Catalytic RNA: ribozyme
 * discovered independently by Tom Cech and Sid Altman (Nobel prize)
 * catalytic properties: hydrolysis, polymerization, peptide bond formation, etc.
 * Self-replicating RNA molecule may have given rise to life
 * consistent with numerous roles for RNA in cells as well as roles for ribonucleotides (ATP)
 * relationship to bubble-like structures is uncertain

The earliest cells
Cyanobacteria
 * Microfossils
 * ~3.5 by
 * resemble bacteria: prokaryotes
 * biochemical residues
 * stromatolites
 * Archaebacteria (more properly Archaea)
 * extremophiles: salt, acid, alkali, heat, methanogens
 * may not represent most ancient life
 * Eubacteria
 * cyanobacteria: photosynthesis
 * atmospheric O2; limestone deposits
 * chloroplasts of eukaryotes

Major steps in evolution of life

 * Prebiotic synthesis of macromolecules
 * Self replication
 * RNA? (primitive metabolism)
 * DNA as hereditary material
 * 1st cells
 * Photosynthesis
 * Aerobic respiration
 * Multicellularity (more than once)


text:
Wikiversity:Username

When you create a new account, so you can log in, one of the things you'll have to do is pick a username. This page gives some advice on this. Essentially, try to choose a neutral username with which you'll be happy, and which will not cause offense or unnecessary confusion.

See also: Why create an account and Changing username.

What usernames are for
A user name is used to credit you with each edit you make. This is partly for copyright purposes and partly for accountability. Some other reasons can be found at Why create an account.

Choosing a username
The best username is typically your real name, a longstanding Internet pen name, or a new username that you use only for Wikiversity or Wikimedia projects, depending on how much of your anonymity you want to preserve while editing. Usernames are case sensitive. If you choose a username where the first character is a letter it will be capitalized when your account is created. This means that if you choose "john smith", the account created will be "John smith". If you want your username to be consistently capitalized remember to use capitalization for each part, like "John Smith".

Please pick a username that is helpful in a world-wide learning environment. That means picking a name that is appropriate for all ages, you are comfortable writing under, and are comfortable being associated with. Remember that a controversial name, while fun, may color other users' perception of you. People should be able to judge you purely on your contributions, not an emotional response to a potentially controversial nickname. Avoiding such names is in your own interest. So do please be careful. Remember you are working as part of a community. Show everyone else the respect for their beliefs that you expect them to show yours.

Using real names
If you choose to use your real name you should be aware that this can lead to harassment outside of Wikiversity. Some people have ended up switching from their real name to a pseudonym and perhaps regret not using an untraceable pseudonym from the start. If you choose not to use your real name, you are welcome to use a name-like pseudonym instead.

If you wish to use your real name, but it appears that it might violate any of the rules on inappropriate usernames, please contact a custodian. A mutually acceptable solution can very likely be found.

Inappropriate usernames
Inappropriate usernames include both clear and masked names. Fairly or unfairly, the line between acceptable and unacceptable user names is drawn by those who find the username inappropriate, not by the creator of the name. Please don't try to find this line.

Wikiversity does not allow certain types of usernames, including the following:

Confusing, misleading, or troublesome usernames: Names of well-known living or recently deceased people (e.g. Chuck Norris, Ken Lay) unless you are that person. If you are, say so on your user page.
 * Names that can be confused with other contributors. (If someone else is using a nickname that you wish to use, please consider using either an alternative pseudonym or your real name instead, or simply do not use a nickname. In the unlikely event that someone else is editing Wikiversity with your real name, please add a middle name or initial or some other way of distinguishing between you and the existing contributor)
 * Names that include commonly used Wikimedia software or Wikiversity community terms, or imply an official position on Wikiversity. Prohibited username components include, but are not limited to words resembling the following:
 * "Custodian","Administrator", "Admin", "System operator", "Sysop", "Moderator", or any other name which implies an official role or role greater than that of a standard user.
 * "Rollback" or "Revert", "Edit war", "POV", etc.
 * "Delete", "Upload", "Pagemove", "Redirect", or other editing processes or abstractions
 * "Vandal", "Hacker", "Spammer", "Troll", or other names that may give the impression that you intend to cause trouble
 * "Bot", "Robot", "Script", "Initialize", "Automated", "Daemon", etc., unless the name is intended as a designated bot account. Names that imply bot accounts may be blocked, and the user may be requested to contact an administrator to confirm that the account is indeed a bot account.
 * Any visible toolbar buttons, namespaces, or other technical terms which may be confusing to inexperienced users or otherwise imply a capacity different than that of a normal user.
 * Also, beware that the letters capital i and lower case L, and the numeral 1 look exactly the same (I/l/1) in certain fonts, as do upper/lower case O and the numeral 0 (O/o/0). This should be taken into account, and creative use of one in place of the other (I where L would be expected and vice versa) is discouraged, given its past misuse, an infamous example of which can be read about here.
 * Names that are extremely lengthy (usually over 40 characters) or contain a long sequence of characters without spaces

Inflammatory usernames: Wikiversity does not allow potentially inflammatory or offensive user names. Inflammatory usernames are needlessly discouraging to other contributors, and disrupt and distract from our task of creating an effective learning environment. This includes, but is not limited to:

 * Names that promote or imply hatred or violence
 * Names that are recognized as slurs or insults
 * Names that refer to symbols of hatred, including historical figures or events that are widely associated with such
 * Names that refer to or imply sexual acts or genitalia, including slang, innuendo, and double entendre
 * Names that refer to or allude to reproductive or excretory functions of the body
 * Names that promote or refer to violent or otherwise illegal real-world actions (e.g terrorism, organized crime)
 * Names mentioning or referring to illnesses, disabilities, or conditions (e.g. AIDS, Amputation, Asperger syndrome, etc.)
 * Names that contain profanity, obscenities, or other potentially offensive language (including non-English profanities)
 * Names of religious figures such as "God", "Jehovah", "Buddha", or "Allah", which may offend other people's beliefs
 * Names that promote a controversial or potentially inflammatory point of view
 * Misspellings, or spellings of any of the types of names above with "cr34+1v3 sub5717u710nz" (creative substitutions)

Harassing or defamatory usernames: Harassment and defamation in any form is inappropriate at Wikiversity; your username is not an exception. In particular, your username is not a vehicle to attack other users with whom you have a disagreement. Your username should not be used to insult or mock other users, usernames, articles, or actions. Additionally, a username should not be used to defame other people, companies or groups, regardless of whether they edit Wikiversity. Nor should usernames divulge the personal information of other users. This can include parts of a name formatted similarly to a telephone number, social security number, or street address.

Usernames that closely resemble any used by notorious vandals: Any usernames that are similar to those that have been used in the past by vandals will likely be blocked on sight. Generally, such names are difficult to choose accidentally.

Usernames intended for spamming or advertisement: Accounts with usernames that advertise a particular website, company, etc. (e.g. "visit [name of url]" ) are discouraged and may be blocked.

E-mail addresses: Using your e-mail address as your username is not a good idea. FDL'ed Wikimedia Foundation project content is extensively copied and the sites themselves are some of the most visited sites in the world. Any edit you make on a Wikimedia Foundation project will have your username attached to it, and using your email address will make you a tempting target for email spam. Additionally, usernames containing<EMAIL_ADDRESS>etc. are blocked on sight, as such a name may misleadingly imply that a user is a member of the Wikimedia Foundation. There is no official policy regarding whether to block non-"wikiversity" email addresses, so it is left to the discretion of the blocking admin.

Trademarked names: Trademarked names, especially sports teams like the Miami Heat, the Carolina Hurricanes, and the New York Yankees (whether it's whole or just the team) should not be used in a username.

Rationale
The primary purpose of usernames is to identify and distinguish contributors. This facilitates communication and record-keeping. The username is not a forum to be offensive or make a statement. No one has a right to any particular username. While colorful, interesting, or expressive names may add to the pleasure of Wikiversity, they are not essential. This might include legitimate names and long-established internet pseudonyms that can be misconstrued.

Signatures
Through the Preferences, one can choose a nickname used in signatures, independent of the actual username (connected to a User: page). In general, the same rules apply for signatures as for usernames. A signature should not be misleading.

For more information on signatures, read the official guideline at Sign your posts on talk pages.

Changing inappropriate usernames
If enough people complain about your username (through talk pages or email) the bureaucrats will change it. Neither complaints nor name changes should be arbitrary, but usernames that are offensive to a significant number of people will be changed, not without notice, but without appeal.

Co-operative contributors should normally just be made aware of our policy via a post on their talk page. Voluntary changes (via Changing username) are preferred: users from other countries and/or age groups may make mistakes about choosing names -- immediate blocking or listing on RfC could scare off new users acting in good faith.

Where a change must be forced, we first discuss it. This can take place on either (A) the user's talk page, (B) a subpage of the user's talk page, or (C) a sub page of Community review. It should be listed on Community review in the appropriate section. The user should also be made aware of the discussion by posting a civil notification message on their talk page.

For uncontroversial cases where the user is actively editing, the decision can be taken in a day or two. For more controversial cases where the user is less actively editing, a week is more appropriate. For highly controversial cases, or cases where the user has left Wikiversity, discussion might well take a month.

After an appropriate time for discussion, a custodian can take a judgement on the name in question. They should only take action if their judgement is that a "rough consensus" has arisen that the username is inappropriate. This will involve blocking the inappropriate username, for which see Blocking policy.

However, custodians may block inappropriate usernames on sight. Reports of obviously offensive usernames should be posted at Request custodian action.

Where inappropriate or borderline inappropriate usernames are coupled with vandalism, the username may be blocked indefinitely on sight: again, see Blocking policy.

Usernames that are designed to impersonate legitimate users may be blocked immediately. The IP address of these users should be left autoblocked.

Using multiple user accounts
It is recommended that users do not edit under multiple usernames, unless they have a very good reason.

Deleting your user account
Accounts with contributions cannot be deleted since this would allow another user to create the account, and claim authorship of those edits. It is not possible for your edits to be removed entirely. They can only be reassigned to something else so as not to violate the GNU Free Documentation License.

If you decide after creating an account, particularly if you did so using your real name, that you would rather be anonymous, you can have your account renamed. You can request this at Changing username. When this is done, your contributions list will be assigned to the new user name.

You may also request your user and talk page be deleted as explained at User page.

Any talk pages that you have signed will still display your former user name. These need to be changed manually by editing the pages concerned. If you feel strongly about your name no longer appearing on the site, you can edit these pages to remove your signature. The easiest way to find these is by clicking "what links here" from your user page. Administrators may hide revisions in page history. from non-administrators, and protecting private information can be a justification for that.

 * See also:  Right to vanish

title: Wikiversity:Username


text:
Talk:David Koch

Edit request May 2013
Some of this material by User:NMS Bill/Koch Industries/Corporate history should be integrated into this article on David H.Koch as it contains content on the history of Koch Industries.

Link rot
Add this tag.

Semi-protected edit request on 27 August 2019
The entry on David Koch needs to be less comically propagandistic and darkly lacking in credibility. As it stands, the entry is a potentially considerable indictment of an underlying lack of credibility of wikipedia as a whole.

This should be added:

The Aug. 27 2019 Guardian described David koch's activities in these terms: "Koch Industries, a private company, is the United States’ 17th-largest producer of greenhouse gases and the 13th-biggest water polluter, according to research from the University of Massachusetts Amherst – ahead of oil giants Exxon Mobil, Occidental Petroleum and Phillips 66. The conglomerate has committed hundreds of environmental, workplace safety, labor and other violations. It allegedly stole oil from Indian reservations, won business in foreign countries with bribery, and one of its crumbling butane pipelines killed two teenagers, resulting in a nearly $300m wrongful death settlement. The dangerous methane leakage, carbon emissions, chemical spills and other environmental injustices enacted by Koch’s companies have imperiled the planet and allegedly brought cancer to many people."

 * That Guardian article is an opinion piece and therefore not reliable as a source for statements asserted as fact.WP:RSOPINIONWritethisway (talk) 19:47, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

Use of name in phishing?
Is it appropriate to include warnings about phishing attempts using Mr. Koch's name when the message in question explicitly includes a link to this article on Wikipedia? The email in question is a fairly standard setup - "this millionaire died and left 2 million dollars to a bunch of randomly selected individuals." Completely uninventive BS, but it claims that you can verify that the grant exists. A section in the article explaining the scam might help save the people gullible enough to believe it. Rashkavar (talk) 05:11, 16 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree - they are floating around again now. Let's try. Springnuts (talk) 19:13, 1 April 2022 (UTC)
 * @Rashkavar, I found a suitable template and added something. Springnuts (talk) 19:19, 1 April 2022 (UTC)
 * No. This is a bad idea William M. Connolley (talk) 20:53, 1 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Agreed. No specific violation of WP:ISNOT, but the info is not encyclopedic. – S. Rich (talk) 22:03, 1 April 2022 (UTC)
 * @William M. Connolley and @S. Rich: well it was a bit WP:BOLD. But surely the information is (at least arguably) noteworthy; the issue is how to present it. I'll try something in the body of the article: see what you think. Springnuts (talk) 22:20, 1 April 2022 (UTC)

Work in progress: Personal life
and anyone else: I've rearranged the "Personal life" section to get it into chronological order. I still need to remove some unnecessary citations and probably add this source: https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/realestate/what-price-provenance.html Please feel free to jump in and take over. Cheers! YoPienso (talk) 17:54, 18 May 2020 (UTC)

 * The TV show Air Disasters on Smithsonian Channel, Season 2, Episode 10, Cleared for Disaster, covers the airline crash and Koch is interviewed. Would a reference to that episode be good to include? <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 19:35, 2 July 2023 (UTC)

Disinformation, climate-denial <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 11:04, 23 November 2022 (UTC)

 * This entry is astonishingly hushed about David Koch's involvement in disinformation and climate denial. There is a little mention of sources criticizing Koch, followed by some confusing muffled distraction.  The entry is evocative of Koch's history of muddying waters in order to stall for time on scientific information that could threaten his profits.  It appears to have been written by people in the echo-chamber think tanks Koch funds. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 11:09, 23 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Koch


text:
Talk:Calculus/Limits/An Introduction to Limits

Requests
While it's asked how | lim [x -> 0]{sin(x)/x} = 1 | can be proven, this isn't demonstrated - there also isn't an actual demonstration elsewhere online, nearly as I can determine. Shouldn't one be put in? --<IP_ADDRESS> 23:05, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Is there anyone interested in writing How to evaluate the limit of a real-valued funtion ? --wshun

I think we should put the formal definition of the limit right at the end of page. As it is the most difficult concept to full grasp. And we need some excercises.

The last example seems to imply that f(x) = (x^2 - 9)/(x - 3) is not the same as g(x) = x + 3. Why is this true?

Because you can't divide by zero; g(3) = 3 + 3 = 6, whereas f(3) = (3^2-9)/(3-3) = (0/0) = undefined. The functions will, however, be equal at all other points. (yes I edited your question to make my answer easier to articulate. :) )

BTW, I would consider completely deleting the introduction. It makes some questionable statements, and I can't see it as being anything but confusion for someone who doesn't know anything about limits already. --Xhad

Am I the only one that thinks that this whole thing is worthless without the Cauchy definition of a limit? You cannot proove any of the statements unless you define limits properly. The best way to define them is the Cauchy definition!!

arbitrary break
(x^2-9)/(x-3) has the problem of a loss of information as x approaches 3. The solution to this is rearranging the problem so that you are no longer dealing with having a small number on the denominator. This is the realm of computational mathematics, though, and I'm not sure if it's useful to put in a Calculus textbook. --Ronald Raygun

To me that sounds like something that would be appropriate for a Calc primer for physicists, but it seems beyond the scope of a typical Calculus course. --Xhad

It would be neat if someone would implement a parser that would feed this latex math notation to a graphing program... easy visualisation on the click of a function. -- Kowey 09:03, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Can any-one tell me that if we are taking x->0 and f(x)->L//then why are puting there an = in the answer when it should be ~(approximate value) --<IP_ADDRESS> 10:19, 27 June 2007

To answer the above question, it is because of the definition of a limit. Although we think of $$ \lim_{x \to c} f(x)$$ intuitively by the process of taking values of $$x$$ closer and closer to $$a$$, the limit is not formally related to the value of $$f(x)$$ at $$x=a$$, which may not even be defined. For instance, consider the function defined as follows:

$$ f(x) =\left\{\begin{matrix} 0 & \mbox{if } x\neq 1 \\ \mbox{27} & \mbox{if } x=1\end{matrix}\right. $$

By the definition of limit, $$ \lim_{x \to 1} f(x)=0$$, which is a really bad approximation of $$f(x)$$ at $$x=1$$. Greenbreen (discuss • contribs) 13:15, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

Possible inclusions for this page
- limits at infinity (horizontal asymptotes) - Infinite limits (e.g. vertical asymptotes) - Left/right handed limits - thinking of limits of indeterminant forms  (those that can be evaluated without Lhopitals rule)  - proofs of limit rules/one side limit theorem

Maybe this page needs to be broken up. Continuity is a whole topic, and the formal definition/proofs of limit rules could also be pulled to its own page. -- julius

dutch
Hey there, I'm making a dutch version of this book/chapter. I think I may have solved some presentational problems so if you like check out http://nl.wikibooks.org/wiki/Analyse:Limieten. Robert Zboray

LEDE
The section named Finding Limits starts as follows: ''Now we will concentrate on finding limits, rather than proving them. In the proofs above, we started off with the value of the limit. How did we find it to even begin our proofs?'' I find this confusing. There are no proofs above that I can see, only examples. And in those examples we did actually find the value of the limit. (I realize that this error is probably a rest from a previous re-dispositional edit..) Or am I missing something? In that case I apologize. /Hugo --<IP_ADDRESS> 20:31, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

You CAN divide by zero
EVERYONE LISTEN TO THIS. I'M TIRED THAT EVERYONE KEEPS TELLING THAT YOU CAN'T DIVIDE BY ZERO. Of course you can; it's a limit.

lim x/y = a. When y approaches zero, a = infinity.

 * Technically, you can divide by y in the limit as y approaches zero. You cannot divide by zero without the use of such a limit. Remember that:
 * $$\lim_{y \to 0} y \ne 0$$
 * The limit never allows y to actually take the value of zero, only to approach that value by infinitessimal amounts. As such, y never equals zero, but instead equals a value infinitessimally close to zero. The two quantities, while close, are not strictly the same. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 20:33, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

Whoa! I'm going to have to set this straight. You can't divide by zero, neither algebraically nor analytically. In algebra, the defining quality of the additive identity, zero, is that it has no multiplicative inverse (unless the set is trivially {0}).

PROOF:
 * Assume that zero has an multiplicative inverse, and let 0 * a = 1.
 * b*a + 1 = b*a + 0*a = (b + 0)*a = b*a  (assumption, distributive prop., def. of additive identity)
 * which means that 1 = 0, which is a contradiction whenever the set is not {0}.

Let's look at it analytically now. Remember, a limit has to be well-defined to exist. If it takes on different values depending on the way you approach the limit, then the limit doesn't exist. Back to your example:
 * lim(y->0) x/y. Without loss of generality, let x > 0 (if x = 0, then the limit is 0, and if x < 0, we can multiply it by -1)
 * lim(y->0 from the left-negative side) x/y < 0 and lim(y->0 from the right-positive side) x/y > 0
 * Therefore the limit is not well-defined. It doesn't exist.

Now, you could try to patch it by definition, but no matter what you'll be left with some "infinity" which isn't accounted for. Also, negative infinity is not equal to positive infinity... that's easy enough to see.

Lastly, to the point: $$\lim_{y \to 0} y = 0$$. If one uses the formal definition this is obvious. There is no actual "approaching" - that's just a simple way to think about it. "The two quantities, while close, are not strictly the same" - They are only different in that they have different names. (Sketch: Let the infinitesimal x (>0) be a number different from 0, so that x/2 is not 0. Then |y - 0| < x/2. Obviously y cannot be x, for x <= |x| = |x - 0| < x/2 is a contradiction.) The infinitesimal is a nice tool for investigating functions of limits, but technically it's not a number in the sense you're trying to use it. Mo Anabre 06:43, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I did simplify too much in my explanation, i should have taken the time to explain it properly. --Whiteknight (talk) 17:37, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Hello! Intuitively, zero is a special symbol (like $$\infty$$), that denotes empty expression. But if there is abscence of anything, what are you trying to compare with divident? Of course, division by zero can be defined artificialy, but AFAIK all such definitions lead to contradictions with other axioms. Exanode 15:16, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

There are two limit of each function (though sometimes both give the same result), one from the positive side and one from the negative side, so actually you can take the limit of x/y as y approaches 0. This is also a mistake in the text, which says that the limit of 1/(x-2) as x approaches 2 is undefined. The limit of this function from the negative side is negative infinity and the limit from the positive side is positive infinity.

TO: authors.
Please put some visualizations in the text. It's best to describe things like limits with graphics and give viewers an intuitive visual analogy.

I've seen some very interesting eLearning math courses with lots of graphical analogies. It made the concept of functions limit (among other things) easily understandable. Unfortunately the said courses are copyrighted and closed source.

 * That's a great suggestion! If you have images or visualizations that you would like to donate, or if you know where we can find free or open-source images that we can use, that would be great. Unfortunately, creating lots of images takes time, and we are all just volunteers here. If you would like to join our project and help out, it would be appreciated. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 21:24, 10 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Do you mean adding images to (for example) the Sqrtx216.gif function? There's a link to an image link there - I can't decide whether it is a old link that's been deleted or a request for a new link. DavidMcKenzie 15:40, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

Shouldn't we start with the values approaching a particular value? That makes it a lot easier to understand.

Conversation
For what it matters, after learning a little more about formal continuity, density isn't even required. For instance, every function on the integers is continuous (since as a subspace of R, they have the discrete topology). Also, something interesting for anyone reading the person down there below Eric119: the integers are complete. Mo Anabre 20:59, 1 November 2007 (UTC)

I changed it back. The density of the rationals in the reals is quite enough to justify a concept of continuity of f. Mo Anabre 17:48, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

I don't understand why this is wrong. If the domain of f is only the rationals, then, according to our definition of limits (which seems to have vanished from the article), no matter what delta we have there will exist irrational x such that 0 < |x - c| < delta and thus f(x) is not defined and therefore the condition |f(x) - L| < epsilon cannot be true. (And then there is no limit and therefore a discontinuity.) If there is a problem in all this, please let me know. Eric119 01:28, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

this is just wrong! The real number line is complete, meaning there are no holes. However, if we say f (x) = 2 and restrict the domain of f to rational numbers, there will be holes at the places corresponding to irrational numbers. There are irrational numbers between any two rational numbers, so all the rational numbers on which f is defined are isolated from each other. But, there are rational numbers between any two irrational numbers, so each hole must be at a single point. There are infinite irrational numbers over any interval, so there are an infinite number of infinitely small holes between any two points on the graph. The places where f is defined are also infinite and infinitely small. The function f has no limits defined anywhere, despite that any graph would look like a simple line.

application to calculus out of context
The "application to calculus" section references an example and several figures that don't exist. I presume that the section was copied over from some other source, and either the context and figures were neglected, or they were deemed a copyright violation and deleted (but the "application to calculus" section remained). Please rewrite this section so that it no longer references material that doesn't exist on wikibooks! Thanks! Luvcraft 17:26, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

application to calculus out of context another note
I think - that limit itself has no too much "independent" uses... Actually - it is instrument for establishment of strict differentiation theory... So - I would just abandon this item... Good illustration of use of limit concept could be concept of tangent line, or "moment velocity" vector... But - they are once more - from field of physics and geometry, and not - pure calculus... --Simonovsky Pavel 18:29, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

As x ->0 sin (1/x) ->0
Sin (1/x) has no limit as x approaches 0. I have sources. The chapter must be changed. Zginder 13:43, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Zginder, did you even read the section? I'm putting it back and fixing the _one_ error you didn't like. In the future please try to fix typos before deleting whole sections because of them. Mo Anabre 20:53, 1 November 2007 (UTC)

Problem with 'Limit rules'
Why are all the limit rules listed with no proofs? Shouldn't the be proven before they are given? <IP_ADDRESS> 04:38, 9 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Maybe the proofs can be put in an appendix with a working link from the 'Limit Rules' section or at the very end of the module. --Hamsterpoop 05:21, 29 October 2007 (UTC)
 * If it get some time here I'll try to come up with some of them, shouldn't bee too hard. <IP_ADDRESS> 20:41, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

Began Edit
I started editing the beginning of the page, trying to start the discussion of a limit in a way that I (modestly) felt was more engaging, and tried to integrate it with the rest of the text. I hope to come back and try to do more work.

Thanks.

<IP_ADDRESS> (talk)

Formal Definition of a Limit
Was the formal definition of a limit completely removed, or moved somewhere else? If the former, why? RSiferd (talk) 05:11, 21 May 2008 (UTC)
 * It appears later in this "chapter" Calculus/Formal Definition of the Limit. And again, almost identically, at Calculus/Formal limits. --Mrwojo (talk) 19:22, 28 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I've merged them at Calculus/Formal Definition of the Limit. --Mrwojo (talk) 05:54, 13 January 2009 (UTC)

Video?
Does wikibooks have embedvideo extension installed?

It does not appear to. Should it? Or some other video extension? Can we request this?

Introduction to Limits Lecture

~serundeputy

Infinite oscillation is redundant
The section on infinite oscillation is very redundant. Maybe it could be shortened? <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 01:29, 7 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the comment. There are not many people working on the book right now, so it could be a few years before someone acts on this comment.  But you can feel free to be bold and remove any parts that you don't like.  Don't worry, people quickly look over things that change because of the whole "watchlist" setup, so even if your just learning calculus yourself or an old pro you can still be an equally valid contributor.  You can do so with or without an account, but I usually recommend having one, so you can configure your preferences. Thenub314 (talk) 16:00, 7 July 2010 (UTC)

About mentioning L'Hôspital's rule with example 6
L'Hôspital's rule was briefly mentioned for finding the $$\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\sin(x)}{x}$$. However, this is technically mathematically incorrect because it would require you to know $$\frac{d}{dx}\left[\sin(x)\right]$$. This limit is something one would find when trying to prove the derivative of $$\sin(x)$$, so this means using L'Hôspital's rule is incorrect for this particular limit. I was wondering if I should delete the mentioning of L'Hôspital's rule and make a dedicated page proving "the limit." I am asking here to be sure no one minds this. Musical Inquisit (discuss • contribs) 03:45, 13 July 2020 (UTC)


text:
User:Chris Zynda

Chris Zynda General Manger Shotcrete-Joseph Albanese concrete President Shotcrete Contractors Association past president American Shotcrete Association ACI Committee 506 - Shotcrete ACI 660 Shotcrete Certification Cal-trans approved underground examiner'''

title: User:Chris Zynda


text:
Dead Center (Eric Alexander album)

Dead Center is an album by tenor saxophonist Eric Alexander. It was recorded in 2004 and released by HighNote Records.

Recording and music
The album was recorded at the Van Gelder Studio on June 10, 2004. It was produced by Todd Barkan. The four musicians are tenor saxophonist Eric Alexander, pianist Harold Mabern, bassist John Webber, and drummer Joe Farnsworth. The arrangement of "Almost Like Being in Love" uses the harmony of "Giant Steps".

Release and reception
Dead Center was released by HighNote Records in 2004. The AllMusic reviewer compared it to "the moody and atmospheric mid-to-late-'60s work of fellow reedmen Wayne Shorter and Hank Mobley", and concluded that the album "finds Alexander revealing himself as a grounded and muscular improviser who never takes his eye off the target." On All About Jazz, Russ Musto said "Eric Alexander is one of the jazz tradition's strongest proponents, possessing an inviting sound and style that can be proudly called classic. On Dead Center he forges straight ahead with a satisfying program of standards and seldom heard original compositions by jazz masters".

Track listing
All compositions by Eric Alexander except where noted
 * 1) "One for Steve" – 6:49
 * 2) "Sonrisa" (Herbie Hancock) – 6:46
 * 3) "Almost Like Being in Love" (Frederick Loewe, Alan Jay Lerner) – 6:41
 * 4) "It's Magic" (Jule Styne, Sammy Cahn) – 6:25
 * 5) "A Few Miles from Memphis" (Harold Mabern) – 7:01
 * 6) "Search for Peace" (McCoy Tyner) – 8:03
 * 7) "Dead Center" – 6:14
 * 8) "I Could Have Danced All Night" (Loewe, Lerner) – 3:58

Personnel

 * Eric Alexander – tenor saxophone
 * Harold Mabern – piano
 * John Webber – bass
 * Joe Farnsworth – drums

title: Dead Center (Eric Alexander album)


text:
One Step Closer (U2 song)

"One Step Closer" is a song by Irish rock band U2, and is the ninth track on their 2004 studio album, How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb.

The song has a slow tempo, with lead vocalist Bono's lyrics centered on traffic images. The origins of "One Step Closer" date back to the recording sessions for their 2000 album All That You Can't Leave Behind. It was revived for Atomic Bomb, with Lanois introducing a pedal steel guitar in addition to guitars from the Edge and Bono, and musical influences varying from country music to the Velvet Underground making themselves felt. One recording of the song ran for more than 15 minutes, with Bono adding many verses that were subsequently dropped. Producer Jacknife Lee also contributed to the final version of the recording.

"One Step Closer" is billed in the album with thanks to Noel Gallagher of Oasis. The title of the song comes from a conversation Bono had with Gallagher about Bono's dying father, Bob Hewson. Bono asked, "Do you think he believes in God?" to which Gallagher replied, "Well, he's one step closer to knowing." As with most U2 songs, however, multiple readings are available, with the singer's feeling of being lost, but still drifting towards some kind of understanding, possible at any age. Verdicts varied based on the listener: Bono biographer Mick Wall felt the song was "clearly linked" to Bono's father, and made for "painful if beautiful listening," Chicago Tribune reviewer Greg Kot did not make the same Bono connection and felt that Lanois' "foggy atmospherics" masked a lack of ideas, while Christianity Today saw it as a "sadly uncertain, yet hopeful" depiction of Bono's father having a crisis of faith.

The song has never been performed in concert by U2. It was rehearsed before the Innocence + Experience Tour in 2015, but was ultimately not performed at any show.

Personnel
U2
 * Bono – lead vocals, guitar
 * The Edge – guitar, backing vocals
 * Adam Clayton – bass guitar
 * Larry Mullen Jr. – drums, percussion

Additional performers
 * Daniel Lanois - additional guitar, pedal steel guitar
 * Jacknife Lee – synthesisers

Production
 * Chris Thomas – original production
 * Daniel Lanois – original production
 * Jacknife Lee – additional production, mixing
 * Carl Glanville – recording
 * Chris Heaney – recording assistance

title: One Step Closer (U2 song)


text:
Wikiversity:Multiversity

This page discusses referring to Wikiversity as a multiversity.

Scholars do more than teach and learn. Scholar teach, learn, research, serve and play. To embrace this holistic nature of scholarship, we should use the term university or multiversity in our mission statement and other introductory pages.

Wikiversity could take ownership of the implications of its name and the creative members of the community who vision Wikiversity as a university by exploring various meanings and derivations of university. Many scholars could join in this project.

The concept "multiversity" allows more than one university to grow within the Wikiversity space. There can be a learning project university here and that can grow first. But there is so much more than can happen. An online community of independent scholarship networks university can grow here. There can be a development service university here. An interface amongst wiki-literate groups in many academic communities, universities, and associations can evolve here.

Calling it a multiversity doesn't mean that degree granting mechanisms have to be put in place. That can be in abeyance. The change from university to multiversity allows us to reconceptualize what is a university and bring free culture efforts in learning, research/discovery, and service amongst many communities into focus.

I think this community could greatly benefit and advance by dropping Wikiversity is not a university as a concept (and this limit is not in the scope statement of the approval--just not granting degrees is) and embrace Wikiversity, appropriately for the vision and possibility of wikiversity, as a multiversity.

See Wikiversity talk:Multiversity for discussion.

title: Wikiversity:Multiversity


text:
Help:FAQ/Overview

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A wiki is a collaborative collection of interlinked open content web pages, all of which can be visited and edited by anyone at any time. You could even edit this page by clicking the "edit" link, the third tab at the very top of this page, or edit only a section by clicking on "[edit]" to its right. If you don't have anything to add or correct on this page and you just want to see how it works, try making some test edits in the sandbox. See wiki and the Editing FAQ for more on wikis and editing.

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ja:ヘルプ:概要FAQ

title: Help:FAQ/Overview


text:
David Duke 1988 presidential campaign

In 1988, David Duke unsuccessfully ran for the presidency of the United States. Duke, a perennial Democratic candidate and Grand Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan announced his intention to seek Democratic nomination for 1988 presidential election on June 8, 1987.

Duke faced opposition from the Democratic Party and appeared on the primary ballot only in a few states. Duke was excluded from the primary debates and lost multiple lawsuits regarding his debate inclusion. His best performance in the Democratic primaries was 3.74% of the popular vote in the Louisiana primary although he did win the New Hampshire vice-presidential primary, but he had mistakenly filed for the vice-presidential primary believing that it had binding delegates.

Duke switched parties and became the presidential candidate for the Populist Party after former Representative George V. Hansen had rejected the party's nomination. Bo Gritz was initially selected to serve as his vice-presidential running mate, but withdrew as he had been told that Representative James Traficant was given the presidential nomination not Duke. Floyd Parker was selected to replace Gritz as Duke's running mate. Duke received 47,047 votes in the general election worth 0.05% of the popular vote.

After his presidential campaign Duke joined the Republican Party and was elected to the Louisiana House of Representatives. He ran for United States Senate as a Republican in 1990, 1996, and 2016. He also ran in the 1991 gubernatorial election and in the 1999 special election in Louisiana's 1st congressional district. Duke later stood as Republican presidential candidate in 1992.

Background
David Duke became the Grand Wizard of the white supremacist Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in 1974 and held the position until 1980. He ran for a seat in the Louisiana State Senate in 1975 and 1979, but lost both times. He left the Ku Klux Klan in 1980, after he was accused of trying to sell the organization's mailing list for $35,000. He founded the National Association for the Advancement of White People and served as its president after leaving the Klan.

He ran for the Democratic presidential nomination during the 1980 presidential election. Despite being six years younger than the required 35 years of age to run for president, Duke attempted to place his name onto the ballot in twelve states stating that he wanted to be a power broker who could "select issues and form a platform representing the majority of this country" at the Democratic National Convention.

Announcement
On June 8, 1987, Duke, standing beside around thirty supporters, announced on the steps of the Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta, Georgia, that he would run for the Democratic nomination for president. Duke had attempted to announce his campaign at two Atlanta hotels, but his reservation at both were cancelled as the hotel management stated that his appearance posed a threat to their safety. His candidacy was attacked with Paul G. Kirk, the Democratic National Committee chairman, stating that Duke's attempt at the party's nomination was "fraud on the process and the public", and that they would attempt to prevent him from gaining primary ballot access. Kirk compared Duke's candidacy to that of Lyndon LaRouche's many attempts at the Democratic nomination and how the Democratic Party had fought against LaRouche during his presidential campaigns as well.

Democratic primaries

Shortly after his announcement Duke appeared on an Atlanta WSGT radio station which caused multiple protests around the station and call-ins meant to disrupt the radio station. A week later he pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge of obstruction of a roadway from when he was involved in an incident during a civil rights march in Forsyth County in January.

Duke and Representative Pat Schroeder were excluded from a primary debate hosted on Firing Line and sponsored by PBS. He filed a lawsuit in US district court claiming that he was unfairly excluded from the debate, but it was rejected by Judge Gabrielle Kirk McDonald who stated that Duke had failed to pursue his lawsuit after filing it. When he was excluded from a debate hosted at Tulane University, he filed a lawsuit, but lost in two federal court cases and the 5th US Circuit Court of Appeals refused to stop the debate until Duke pressed his lawsuit further. He filed another lawsuit against the Democratic Party for not allowing him to participate at the debate at Tulane University stating that his right to freedom of speech was violated which was worth $100 million due to his demands of $10,000 for every registered Democratic voter in Louisiana, $1 million for his presidential committee, and $10,000 for each day he was denied "his candidacy equal rights". However, it was dismissed by a New Orleans federal judge in March 1988.

When Duke registered to appear on the New Hampshire presidential primary ballot, he attempted to hold two press conferences at the New Hampshire State House, but both failed due to a lack of media coverage. Republican presidential candidate Jack Kemp registered to appear on the ballot, becoming the first major candidate to do so, and held a press conference. Duke yelled "What are you going to do to end the massive racial discrimination against white people in America? When are you going to end affirmative action, which is a racial program discriminating against white people?" at Kemp while he was attempting to leave the room. Kemp told Duke that "I'm not a racist and I don't appreciate you asking!". Afterwards Duke held another press conference which received media coverage.

Duke attempted to speak before the Oklahoma Senate, but Senate President Pro Tempore Robert V. Cullison stated that Duke needed to be a bona fide candidate, which Cullison stated he was, have a senator sponsor him, and receive unanimous consent to speak. Senator Vicki Miles-LaGrange, one of two black members of the Oklahoma Senate, stated that Duke could probably find a sponsor in the Senate, but would not receive unanimous consent. Another presidential candidate, Stephen Koczak, attempted to speak before the Oklahoma Senate, but did not receive unanimous consent as multiple senators mistook Koczak for Duke. Koczak later spoke before the Oklahoma House of Representatives.

He appeared on the Democratic primary ballot in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia. Duke appeared on the ballot in both the New Hampshire presidential and vice-presidential primaries which he paid $2,000 for. He placed twelfth in the presidential primary with 264 votes, behind Michael Dukakis' winning 44,112 votes, but won the vice-presidential primary with 10,531 votes for 99.69% of the popular vote. He had been the only candidate to file for the vice-presidential primary and did so by mistake as he believed the vice-presidential primary had binding delegates.

Duke did not appear on the ballot in Florida due to the Presidential selection Committee and Charles Whitehead, the chair of the Florida Democratic Party, stating that he was a frivolous candidate. His campaign manager Ralph Forbes attempted to pay the $2,000 filing fee for Duke to appear on the Alabama primary ballot, but arrived at the Alabama Democratic Party's headquarters at 5:15 p.m. which was fifteen minutes after the deadline.

Duke, a white supremacist, opposed civil rights activist Jesse Jackson and led a Sunshine Coalition in opposition to Jackson's Rainbow Coalition. Duke lost in his home state of Louisiana to Jackson where he only received 4% of the vote. Jackson stated that "it would be devastating for the United States if he became president."

Populist Party
On March 7, 1987, Duke gave a speech at the Populist Party National Committee in Sewickly, Pennsylvania, in which he said "This was the largest pro-white demonstration I've ever seen," in regards to the 3,000 people there and "There are going to be tremendous opportunities to take this country back for the founding majority". On September 6, 1987, twenty-five state delegations met at the Populist Party's national convention and selected former Representative George V. Hansen, who was serving a prison sentence until October 1987, to serve as their presidential nominee and Hubert Patty to serve as their vice-presidential nominee. However, Hansen stated on August 31, that he would not accept the nomination. He stated that he wouldn't seek the presidency outside of the major parties and that there was no honor in running "some kind of abortive effort". Hansen rejected the party's presidential nomination on November 11.

On March 13, Duke won the presidential nomination of the Populist Party and the party gave its vice-presidential nomination to Bo Gritz. However, Gritz would later withdraw on March 31, stating that he had been told that Representative James Traficant had been given the presidential nomination. Gritz was replaced as the vice-presidential nominee by Floyd Parker. Duke had managed to take the nomination due to the Populist Party's financial and organizational failures at the time which caused him to run unopposed after all of his opponents had already withdrawn from the race.

Arkansas initially refused to allow Duke onto the general election ballot due to sore loser laws as he had run in the Arkansas Democratic primary, but later allowed him onto the ballot. On September 27, 1988, he was removed from a Paramus restaurant by its owner after making an unannounced campaign event where he was to debate a Libertarian Party member at it after another restaurant cancelled his event after learning about him.

Economics
The platform of the Populist Party called for the repealing of the income tax and the abolition of the Federal Reserve. Duke supported mandatory birth control for welfare recipients as it would give them incentive to have less children. He supported the creation of a flat tax of 10% and supported the abolition of the Internal Revenue Service.

Foreign policy
Duke supported apartheid in South Africa stating that "even the blacks there have infinitely more rights than the blacks on the rest of the African continent" and that he believed that apartheid was the only system in that could be used in South Africa for the country to "still operate, to function, to survive". He also wanted to end all sanctions against South Africa. Duke believed that the United States should be neutral towards Israel, asserting that the United States' alliance with Israel had "damaged our country terribly" and that the alliance had "pushed the Arabs into the arms of the communists". Duke supported the blockade to Nicaragua and the aid to the Contras. He also supported the Strategic Defense Initiative.

Racism and equality
Duke opposed affirmative action stating that "white people face the most intensive racial discrimination literally in the last 100 years". He also opposed desegregation busing stating that "we have white children sent to these crime-filled, racist, drug-laden environments". Duke stated about racism that "if you define a racist as a person who simply loves his own people and wants to preserve his own heritage and his own values, then I would say that I was one". Duke also stated that desegregation busing and affirmative action caused a "terrible decline" in America's educational system.

The platform of the Populist Party called for the rejection of the Equal Rights Amendment and opposed rights for gay people. The platform also called for repealing the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. Duke stated that illegal immigrants brought 40-60% of illegal drugs to the United States. Duke stated that "the homosexual lobby is preventing a frank discussion of AIDS and appropriate steps to suppress the epidemic".

Aftermath
On December 5, 1988, Duke changed his political affiliation to Republican and ran in a special election for a seat in the Louisiana House of Representatives, which he won on February 18, 1989. Duke later ran for United States Senate as a Republican in Louisiana in the 1990, 1996, and 2016 elections. He also ran in the 1991 Louisiana gubernatorial election and in the 1999 special election in Louisiana's 1st congressional district to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Representative Bob Livingston.

On December 4, 1991, Duke announced that he would seek the Republican presidential nomination against incumbent President George H. W. Bush during the 1992 presidential election. He initially considered launching an independent third-party presidential campaign using the Republican primary as a springboard, but chose not to continue his campaign after he dropped out of the Republican primaries on April 19, 1992, stating that "Perot's candidacy would preclude other third-party candidacies". During the primary campaign he had won 119,115 votes worth 0.94% of the popular vote.

Results
Duke received 47,047 votes from twenty states with his best results coming from the southern states. He came third in place in states like Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Mississippi.

title: David Duke 1988 presidential campaign


text:
1949 Wimbledon Championships – Boys' singles

Staffan Stockenberg defeated John Horn in the final, 6–2, 6–1 to win the boys' singles tennis title at the 1949 Wimbledon Championships.


text:
Talk:Motilal Nehru

Birthplace?
Where was he born? Britannica says Delhi, other language Wikipedias say Agra, and other sources say Allahabad. Most dead tree sources say Agra but some say Allahabad. A while back, the English article had Agra but was then changed to Dayal Pur and then to Garden Grove (sic). I'm changing it back to Agra but hope someone can get something definitive on it. —  AjaxSmack   17:40, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

I have searched thoroughly on the net and have found six sources that say Delhi. Even thought there are sources that say Agra and Allahabad, the most number were Delhi. Even the official sit of The Congress says this and hence I've replaced Agra with Delhi and listed the 6 references. Rajayuv (talk) 07:11, 10 November 2010 (UTC)

Too many Red Links!
This article contains too many Red Links! But I have now mended it and now there are no red links!! Rajayuv (talk) 06:51, 10 November 2010 (UTC)

There has been some doubts on the origins of Nehru Family??
There has been some doubts in place regarding the origin of Nehru Family as some claim that they were not Kashmiri Brahmins and they adopted the name Nehru as a reminisient of their Persian origin. Father of Motilal Nehru, Ganga Dhar as claimed, was actually City Kotwal of Delhi officed at Lahori Gate under Moghul Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar regime during first mutiny in 1857; and his actual name was Ghiyasuddin GhaziDenisovan (talk) 18:56, 22 April 2014 (UTC). He adopted this alias as "Ganga Dhar" to escape East India Company killings after a long fight.

some of the links are as follows : http://forums.sulekha.com/forums/coffeehouse/father-of-moti-lal-nehru-the-story-of-gangadhar.htm Readers need to be cautious about these claims and must do their own research in order to arrive at conclusion.<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:02, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

 * No, the claims are false. To the best of my knowledge the claims about the origin of Nehru family originate from now closed website swordoftruth.com (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20020808145538/http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/oldarchives/rgandhi.html http://wayback.archive.org/web/20021027071233/http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/oldarchives/motnd.html) with contributions by some A. Ghosh.  The writings combine some facts and lot of imagination.

 * The Nehru family was always recognized by other Kashmiri Pandits as being one of them and the same is true about Feroze Gandhi and the Parsis.

 * Malaiya (talk) 19:55, 26 May 2016 (UTC)

Bar at Law
What does this mean? "He later qualified as "Bar at Law" from University of Cambridge and enlisted as a lawyer in the British Indian courts."

This appears to have been copied from another website which I found.

Is "Bar at Law" an Indian legal term? I can't find any record of it online. If so, why would he have gone to Cambridge to qualify as one? Jawaharlal Nehru certainly went to Trinity College, Cambridge to study engineering (there is a portrait of him in the college library). Did Motilal actually go there, or was he given an honorary degree later?

A law degree from Cambridge University is not a professional qualification and does not make one a British barrister or a solicitor. I should know because I have one myself. Nowadays it simply exempts you from the "academic" year of study when you do your legal training - to become a barrister you would still have to study at Bar School and do pupillage.Paulturtle (talk) 04:00, 17 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified (February 2018)
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Spouses and children of Motilal Nehru
Please elaborate from multiple resources: How many spouses/affairs Motilal Nehru had?? Please name the spouses and children. 2409:4042:4E0B:70D2:78C:26CD:A1F3:8BB6 (talk) 16:09, 8 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Motilal Nehru


text:
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User:Pratik128

Name:- Pratik Gupta. DOB:-22-07-2000 Place of Birth:-Ambernath City:-Ambernath State:-Maharashtra Country:-INDIA

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deiseil

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title: deiseil


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title: Scheibler (mountain)


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User:Caren Cooper/sandbox

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Artificial Intelligence

Welcome to the Wikibook about Artificial Intelligence.

Book Contents
The following is a first proposal for a basic layout. This is not yet complete, ideas are welcome. Discuss on the talk page or just add them here.

The book is laid out into 5 sections, with increasing detail and complexity. Each section contains a number of chapters. In addition to regular chapters, there are case-study chapters that investigate full and complex AI systems using several techniques from the regular chapters (as well as perhaps some new ones).

Introduction
Overview
 * Preface
 * /How you can help/
 * What is Artificial Intelligence?
 * History of Artificial Intelligence
 * A chronological look at milestones in Artificial Intelligence

 * /AI Agents and their Environments/
 * Artificial intelligence paradigms and schools of thought

General concepts

 * Knowledge Representation
 * Semantic Networks

 * Logic
 * Representational perspectives
 * Zero-order logic: Propositional calculus
 * Attributional logic
 * First-order predicate logic
 * Second-order logic

 * Search
 * Exhaustive search
 * Depth-first search
 * Breadth-first search
 * Finite state automata
 * Heuristic search
 * Best-first search
 * A* Search
 * Bidirectional Search
 * Tabu Search
 * Beam Search
 * Adversarial search
 * Minimax Search
 * Alpha-Beta Pruning
 * Expectimax Search
 * Iterative Improvement
 * Hill Climbing

 * Probability: Describing the basics (philosophical and mathematical) of probability theory inference.

Basic AI topics

 * Planning, Decision making and Problem Solving: Expanding on the search chapter to show how simple agents and simple intelligent behavior can be created. Examples are solving a puzzle, navigating a small maze (with pits and monsters) or planning a trip to the supermarket.
 * Uncertainty: Introduction to reasoning, planning and decision making with uncertainty.
 * Case Study - Building a (relatively) strong game AI: Building a strong AI for some game (to be chosen) that combines techniques from the planning and uncertainty chapters. This should go deeper than the simplified algorithms that most books describe and actually produce a strong playing AI.

 * Inference in Logic: Backward and Forward chaining, Resolution and Logic Programming.
 * Knowledge Engineering: Ways to describe and store complicated knowledge. Databases, OO concepts, knowledge bases, representing space and time, inference from large datasets, diagnosis system etc.

 * Natural Language: Stuff like Markov models, POS taggers and CFG's.
 * Machine Learning (ML): The basic idea of Machine Learning is to study pattern recognition, make predictions, improve predictions based on examples or data. Example of Machine Learning concepts such as supervised learning, unsupervised learning, semi-supervised learning, reinforcement learning and deep learning.
 * Case Study - Deep Learning: Describes the use of deep architecture (i.e. Deep Belief Networks, Convolutional Neural Networks) in handwritten character recognition.
 * Case Study - Artificial Life: Describes an environment with several evolving agents and some different techniques to construct agents. This should be able to draw on and compare pretty much all the chapters from section 2 (including the natural language chapter).
 * Philosophical Issues for Artificial Intelligence: Discusses AI problems typically dealt with by philosophers, such as what is theoretically possible to achieve with AI, whether programs can be conscious, or feel pain, intentionality, and symbol grounding.

More advanced topics and techniques in AI

 * /Bayesian Decision Theory/
 * Neural Networks and related models
 * Natural Neural Networks and modeling of the Brain
 * Distributed Processing and other advanced Networks

 * Advanced Expert Systems: Expands on the basic expert systems explained in Knowledge Engineering in section 2. Includes more in depth explanation of Bayesian Networks than in the Machine Learning section.

 * Case Study - Data Mining: Describes mining a large dataset (perhaps some part of the wikipedia database) using machine learning algorithms, using software like Weka.
 * Case Study - Data Analysis: Describes manipulation of data using statistical computing tool such as R programming in K-means clustering, decision tree, random forest, adaptive boosting and support vector machine (supported by R Foundation, an open source software foundation).

 * Advanced Natural Language: A description of the various techniques for dealing with tenses, sentence focus, presuppositions, etc. in NLP and NLG. This focuses mostly on the underlying structure of language and how to translate into some logical language, rather than statistical methods and models.
 * Natural Language Learning: Deals with more advanced statistical models for learning to understand language.

 * Case Study - Dialogue System: Building system that can communicate (intelligently) in written natural language. In a nutshell, trying to pass the Turing test. Three basic paradigms; case based reasoning (like ALICE), Logic based (translating everything to and from some extended version of predicate logic) and some machine learning based solution.

Highly specific AI topics and techniques

 * Machine Vision: Interpreting visual data. Face recognition, 3d reconstruction etc.
 * Bayesian Decision Theory
 * Linear Discriminants and Perceptron
 * Support Vector Machines
 * Parameteric Techniques
 * Non-parametric Techniques
 * Speech Recognition, Text to Speech and OCR
 * Advanced Logics: Advanced logic systems.
 * Reinforcement Learning
 * Robotics: Detailed and technical introduction to the three basic paradigms of robotics. Deals with software and hardware. (Define: situated robotics.)

AI Circuits and algorithms

 * Theory of boolean intelligence
 * /1 - Bit Learner/
 * N-bit learning circuit
 * Circuit encoded in Java
 * My research results...

The Future of Artificial Intelligence

 * The Singularity: Will AIs ever have a greater intelligence than human beings?
 * Spiritual Machines vs. Rational Agents: Will AIs fix spirituality?

Appendices

 * Index, topics in alphabetical order
 * Resources, bibliography and further reading

title: Artificial Intelligence


text:
Portal:Literary Studies/Reading lists

Reading Lists for the School of Literature & English Studies

 * /English Literature - Read and discuss/ - participants form discussion groups
 * /English Literature - Read and write/ - participants read and then write essays

Collaborators

 * ...Alexander Tirk

Fiction

 * Major Authors
 * Louisa May Alcott
 * Margaret Atwood
 * Jane Austen
 * James Baldwin
 * Ray Bradbury
 * Anne Bronte
 * Charlotte Bronte
 * Emily Bronte
 * William S. Burroughs
 * Willa Cather
 * Michael Chabon
 * Raymond Chandler
 * Kate Chopin
 * James Fenimore Cooper
 * Philip K. Dick
 * Ralph Waldo Emerson
 * Ralph Ellison
 * James Ellroy
 * William Faulkner
 * F. Scott Fitzgerald
 * William Gaddis
 * William H. Gass
 * Charlotte Perkins Gilman
 * Nathaniel Hawthorne
 * Robert Heinlen
 * Joseph Heller
 * Ernest Hemingway
 * Frank Herbert
 * Aldous Huxley
 * Henry James
 * James Joyce
 * John Kennedy O'Toole
 * Jack Kerouac
 * Ken Kesey
 * Ursula LeGuin
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 * Herman Melville
 * Arthur Miller
 * Henry Miller
 * George Orwell
 * Edgar Allan Poe
 * Thomas Pynchon
 * Ayn Rand
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 * William Shakespeare
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 * Lawrence Sterne
 * Henry David Thoreau
 * Mark Twain
 * William T. Vollmann
 * Kurt Vonnegut
 * David Foster Wallace
 * Robert Penn Warren
 * Edith Wharton
 * Jeanette Winterson

 * Important Works
 * The Age of Innocence
 * Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay
 * Atlas Shrugged
 * Big Sur
 * Cannery Row
 * Catch 22
 * Catcher in the Rye
 * Confederacy of Dunces
 * Demon Box
 * Dr. Sax
 * Dune
 * East of Eden
 * Elmer Gantry
 * Empire Falls
 * Fahrenheit 451
 * For Whom the Bell Tolls
 * Hamlet
 * the Handmaid's Tale
 * Herland
 * Infinite Jest
 * Invisible Man
 * Kings Blood Royal
 * Last of the Mohicans
 * the Lathe of Heaven
 * LIttle Women
 * Look Homeward, Angel
 * Lost Horizon
 * Main Street
 * Memoirs of a Survivor
 * Moby Dick
 * My Antonia
 * Naked Lunch
 * Neuromancer
 * Nineteen Eighty-Four
 * Pride and Prejudice
 * Of Mice and Men
 * One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
 * On The Road
 * the Song of the Lark
 * Stranger in a Strange Land
 * The Beautiful and Damned
 * The Grapes of Wrath
 * The Great Gatsby
 * The Lord of the Flies
 * The Love of the Last Tycoon
 * The Martian Chronicles
 * The Old Man and the Sea
 * The Recognitions
 * The Rosy Crucifixion
 * The Satanic Verses
 * Sense and Sensibility
 * Sexing the Cherry
 * The Sun Also Rises
 * The Winter's Tale
 * Things Fall Apart
 * The Town and the City
 * This Side of Paradise
 * To Kill a Mockingbird
 * Tortilla Flat
 * Walden
 * The Yellow Wallpaper

Poetry

 * Major Poets
 * John Ashberry
 * John Berryman
 * E.E. Cummings
 * Emily Dickinson
 * John Donne
 * Thomas Stearns Eliot
 * Ralph Waldo Emerson
 * Robert Frost
 * Langston Hughes
 * Kenneth Koch
 * Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
 * Frank O'Hara
 * Sylvia Plath
 * Ted Hughes
 * W. H. Auden
 * Edgar Allan Poe
 * Ezra Pound
 * Anne Sexton
 * Wallace Stevens
 * Dylan Thomas
 * Walt Whitman

Major Authors and Works in Languages other than English
Ancient -- for a more extensive list, please visit the Classics Department

 * Chuang Chou, Chuang Tzu
 * Gilgamesh
 * Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey
 * Plato: The Apology of Socrates
 * Sappho: lyric poetry
 * Tu Fu: lyric poetry

Early Modern/The Renaissance -- Prose and Drama
 * Boccaccio: **The Decameron: Folktale Collection
 * Calderon: Life is a Dream
 * Castiglione: the Book of the Courtier
 * Geoffrey Chaucer: **The Canterbury Tales
 * Dante: the Divine Comedy
 * Marguerite de Navarre: the Heptameron
 * Sei Shonagon: The Pillow Book
 * The Arabian Nights: Folktale Collection

The 18th Century -- Prose and Drama
 * Basho: The Narrow Road to the Interior
 * Goethe: the Sorrows of young Werther
 * Laclos: Les Liaisons Dangereuses
 * Montesquieu: the Persian Letters
 * Jean Jacques Rousseau: the Confessions, the Social Contract: the Discourse on Inequality
 * Voltaire: Candide, Micromegas, the Ingenu

The 19th Century -- Prose and Drama
 * Goethe: Elective Affinities, Faust
 * Victor Hugo: Notre Dame de Paris, Les Miserables
 * Ibsen: The Doll's House, Hedda Gabler, The Wild Duck
 * John Ruskin: **Sesame and Lilies
 * George Sand: the Intimate Journal

Major 20th Century writers -- Prose and Drama
 * Tadeusz Borowski: This way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen
 * Calvino: Cosmicomics
 * Albert Camus: The Stranger, The Fall, The Plague
 * Colette: The Vagabond, Cheri, Gigi
 * Marguerite Duras: Hiroshima, mon Amour
 * Gunther Grass: The Tin Drum
 * Elfriede Jelinek: The Piano Teacher
 * Franz Kafka: The Trial, The Castle, The Metamorphosis
 * Kazantzakis: The Last Temptation of Christ
 * Haruki Murakami: The Windup Bird Chronicle
 * Marjane Satrapi: Persepolis

Poets

 * Akhmatova
 * Seamus Heaney
 * Mahadeviakka
 * Mirabai
 * Rilke
 * Rumi
 * Szymborska
 * William Butler Yeats
 * Pablo Neruda

title: Portal:Literary Studies/Reading lists