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Linguistics/Phonetics

Introduction
If you have ever heard a person learning English as a second language say, "I want to go to the bitch" (meaning "I want to go to the beach"), you might understand the importance of mastering phonetics when learning new languages.

As such an example illustrates, few people in our society give conscious thought to the sounds they produce and the subtle differences they possess. It is unfortunate, but hardly surprising, that few language-learning books use technical terminology to describe foreign sounds. Language learners often hear unhelpful advice such as "It is pronounced more crisply". As scientists, we cannot be satisfied with this state of affairs. If we can classify the sounds of language, we are one step closer to understanding the gestalt of human communication.

The study of the production and perception of speech sounds is a branch of linguistics called phonetics, studied by phoneticians. The study of how languages treat these sounds is called phonology, covered in the next chapter. While these two fields have considerable overlap, it should soon become clear that they differ in important ways.

Phonetics is the systematic study of the human ability to make and hear sounds which use the vocal organs of speech, especially for producing oral language. It is usually divided into the three branches of (1) articulatory, (2) acoustic and (3) auditory phonetics. It is also traditionally differentiated from (though overlaps with) the field of phonology, which is the formal study of the sound systems (phonologies) of languages, especially the universal properties displayed in ALL languages, such as the psycholinguistic aspects of phonological processing and acquisition.

One of the most important tools of phonetics and phonology is a special alphabet called the International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA, a standardized representation of the sounds used in human language. In this chapter, you will learn what sounds humans use in their languages, and how linguists represent those sounds in IPA. Reading and writing IPA will help you understand what's really happening when people speak.

Phonetic transcription and the IPA
It is often convenient to split up speech in a language into segments, which are defined as identifiable units in the flow of speech. In many ways this discretization of speech is somewhat fictional, in that both articulation and the acoustic signal of speech are almost entirely continuous. Additionally, attempts to classify segments by nature must ignore some level of detail, as no two segments produced at separate times are ever identical. Even so, segmentation remains a crucial tool in almost all aspects of linguistics.

In phonetics the most basic segments are called phones, which may be defined as units in speech which can be distinguished acoustically or articulatorily. This definition allows for different degrees of wideness. In many contexts phones may be thought of as acoustic or articulatory targets which may or may not be fully reached in actual speech. Another, more commonly used segment is the phoneme, which will be defined more precisely in the next chapter.

It is important to keep in mind that while the segment may (or may not) be a reality of phonology, it is in no way an actual physical part of realized speech in the vocal tract. Realized speech is highly co-articulated, displays movement and spreads aspects of sounds over entire syllables and words. It is convenient to think of speech as a succession of segments (which may or may not coincide closely with ideal segments) in order to capture it for discussion in written discourse, but actual phonetic analysis of speech confounds such a model. It should be pointed out, however, that if we wish to set down a representation of dynamic, complex speech into static writing, segmental constructs are very convenient fictions to indicate what we are trying to set down. Similarly, syllables and words are convenient structures which capture the prosodic structure of a language, and are often notated in written form, but are not physical realities.

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation which provides a standardized system of transcribing phonetic segments up to a certain degree of detail. It may be represented visually using charts, which may be found in full in Appendix A. We will leave a more detailed description of the IPA to the end of this chapter, but for now just be aware that text in square brackets [] is phonetic transcription in IPA. We will reproduce simplified charts of different subsets of the IPA here as they are explained.

Variations of IPA such as the well established Americanist phonetic notation and a new, simplified international version called SaypU are available, but IPA is more comprehensive and so preferred for educational use, despite its complexity.

To understand the IPA's taxonomy of phones, it is important to consider articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics.

Articulatory phonetics
Articulatory phonetics is concerned with how the sounds of language are physically produced by the vocal apparatus. The units articulatory phonetics deals with are known as gestures, which are abstract characterizations of articulatory events.

Speaking in terms of articulation, the sounds that we utter to make language can be split into two different types: consonants and vowels. For the purposes of articulatory phonetics, consonant sounds are typically characterized as sounds that have constricted or closed configurations of the vocal tract. Vowels, on the other hand, are characterized in articulatory terms as having relatively little constriction; that is, an open configuration of the vocal tract. Vowels carry much of the pitch of speech and can be held different durations, such as a half a beat, one beat, two beats, three beats, etc. of speech rhythm. Consonants, on the other hand, do not carry the prosodic pitch (especially if devoiced and not nasalized) and do not display the potential for the durations that vowels can have. Linguists may also speak of 'semi-vowels' or 'semi-consonants' (often used as synonymous terms). For example, a sound such as [w] phonetically seems more like a vowel (with relative lack of constriction or closure of the vocal tract) but, phonologically speaking, behaves as a consonant in that it always appears before a vowel sound at the beginning (onset) of a syllable.

Consonants
Phoneticians generally characterize consonants as being distinguished by settings of the independent variables place of articulation (POA) and manner of articulation (MOA). In layman's terminology, POA is "where" the consonant is produced, while MOA is "how" the consonant is produced.

The following are descriptions of the different POAs:
 * Bilabial segments are produced with the lips held together, for instance the [p] sound of the English pin, or the [b] sound in bin.
 * Labiodental segments are produced by holding the upper teeth to the lower lip, like in the [f] sound of English fin.
 * Dental consonants have the tongue making contact with the upper teeth (area 3 in the diagram). An example from English is the [θ] sound in the word thin.
 * Alveolar consonants have the tongue touching the area of the mouth known as the alveolar ridge (area 4 in the diagram). Examples include the [t] in tin and [s] in sin.
 * Postalveolar consonants are similar to alveolars but more retracted (in area 5 in the diagram), like the [ʃ] of shin.
 * Palatal consonants are articulated at the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth, area 7 in the diagram). In English the palatal [j] sound appears in the word young.
 * Velar consonants are articulated at the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum, area 8 in the diagram). English [k] is velar, like in the word kin.
 * Glottal consonants are articulated far back in the throat, at the glottis (area 11 in the diagram, effectively the vocal folds). English [h] may be regarded as glottal.
 * Doubly articulated consonants have two points of articulation, such as the English labio-velar [w] of wit.

Other POAs are also possible, but will be described in more detail later on.

MOA involves a number of different variables which may vary independently:
 * Voicing: Try pronouncing the hissing sound [s] of the English word sip. Elongate the sound until you can produce it continuously for five seconds. Then do the same for the [z] sound in zip. Hold your hand to your throat, observing the different in tactile sensation between the two. you should notice that [z] creates vibrations, while [s] does not. This rapid vibration is in fact caused by the vocal folds, and it is referred to as voicing. Many different sounds can contrast solely based on a voicing difference: English [b, p] in bin, pin, [d, t] in din, tin, et cetera.

 * Nasality: Some sounds are produced with airflow through the nasal cavity. These are known as nasals. Nasal consonants in English include the [n] of not, the [m] of mit, and the [ŋ] of sing. Nasals may also contrast for voicing in some languages, but this is rare — in most languages, nasals are voiced.

 * Obstruency: Consonants involving a total obstruction of airflow are known as stops or plosives. Examples include English [p, b, t, d, k, g]. Fricatives are consonants with a steady stricture causing friction, for example [f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ]. Affricates begin with a stop-like closure followed by frication, like the [tʃ, dʒ] of English chip, jeans.

 * Sonorancy: Non-obstruents are classed as sonorants. This includes the already-mentioned nasals. Another important type of sonorant found in English is the approximant, in which articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence. Examples include English [w, j, l, ɹ].

Knowing this information is enough to construct a simplified IPA chart of the consonants of English. As is conventional, MOA is organized in rows, and POA columns. Voicing pairs occur in the same cells; the ones in bold are voiced while the rest are voiceless.

Vowels
Vowels are very different from consonants, but our method of decomposing sounds into sets of features works equally well. Vowels can essentially be viewed as being combinations of three variables:
 * Height: This measured how close your tongue is to the roof of your mouth. For example, try pronouncing [æ] (as in "cat") and [i] (as in "feet"). Your mouth should be much more open for the former than the latter. Thus [æ] is called either open or low, and [i] either closed or high.
 * Backness: This is what is sounds like. Try, for example, alternating between pronouncing the vowels [æ] (as in "cat") and [ɑ] (as in "cot"), and get a feel for the position of your tongue in your mouth. It should move forward for [æ] and back for [ɑ], which is why the former is called a front vowel and the latter a back vowel.
 * Rounding: Pronouncing the vowels [i] and [u], and look at your lips in a mirror. They should look puckered up for [u] and spread out for /i/. In general, this "puckering" is referred to in phonetics as rounding.

Back vowels tend to be rounded, and front vowels unrounded, for reasons which will be covered later in this chapter. However, this tendency is not universal. For instance, the vowel in the French word bœuf is what would result from the vowel of the English word bet being pronounced with rounding. Some East and Southeast Asian languages possess unrounded back vowels, which are difficult to describe without a sound sample.

The cardinal vowels are a set of idealized vowels used by phoneticians as a base of reference.

The IPA orders the vowels in a similar way to the consonants, separating the three main distinguishing variables into different dimensions. The vowel trapezoid may be thought of as a rough diagram of the mouth, with the left being the front, the right the back, and the vertical direction representing height in the mouth. Each vowel is positioned thusly based on height and backness. Rounding isn't indicated by location, but when pairs of vowels sharing the same height and backness occur next to each other, the left member is always unrounded, and the right a rounded vowel. Otherwise, just use the general heuristic that rounded vowels are usually back. The following is a simplified version of the IPA vowel chart:

Many of these vowels will be familiar from (General American) English. The following are rough examples: Note, however, that in phonetics we can describe any segment in arbitrarily fine detail. As such, when we say that, say, the vowel in "cat" is [æ], we are sacrificing precision.

Some of these vowels have no English equivalent, but may be familiar from foreign languages. [a] represents the sound in Spanish "hablo", the front rounded [œ] vowel is that in French "bœuf", [y] is that of German "hüten", and [ɯ] (perhaps the most exotic to most English speakers) is found as the first vowel of European Portuguese "pegar".

Acoustic phonetics
Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical medium of speech -- that is, how speech manipulates sound waves.

Sound is composed of waves of high- and low-pressure areas which propagate through air. The most basic way to view sound is as a wave function. This plots the pressure measured by the sound-recording device against time, corresponding closely to the physical nature of sound. Loudness may be found by looking at the amplitude of the sound at a given time.

However, this approach is fairly limited. Humans, in fact, don't process sound using this raw data. The ear analyzes sound by decomposing it into its constituent frequencies, a mathematical algorithm known as the Fourier transform.

As a sound is produced in the oral tract, the column of air in the tract serves as a harmonic oscillator, oscillating at numerous frequencies simultaneously. Some of the frequencies of oscillation are at higher amplitudes than others, a property called resonance. The resonant frequencies (frequencies with relatively high resonance) of the vocal tract are known in phonetics as formants. The formants in a speech sound are numbered by their frequency: f1 (pronounced eff-one) has the lowest frequency, followed by f2, f3, etc. The analysis of formants turns out to be key to acoustic phonetics, as any change in the shape of the vocal cavity changes which resonances are dominant.

There are two basic ways to analyze the formants of a speech signal. Firstly, at any given time the sound contains a mixture of different frequencies of sound. The relative amplitudes (strengths) of different frequencies at a particular time may be shown as a frequency spectrum. As you can see on the right, frequency is plotted against amplitude, and formants show up as peaks.

Another way to view formants is by using a spectrogram. This plots time against frequency, with amplitude represented by darkness. Formants show up as dark bands, and their movement may be tracked through time.

Given the development of modern technology, acoustic analysis is now accessible to anyone with a computer and a microphone.

Auditory phonetics
Auditory phonetics is a branch of phonetics concerned with the hearing of speech sounds and with speech perception.

As a learner
Children learn the sounds made in their native language within their first year, and after this it becomes difficult to produce sounds foreign to their native languages. Even familiar segments are produced without reflection on the manner of their production. As such, it is highly recommended that you practice pronouncing isolated segments, and listen repeatedly to examples of those which seem exotic to you. Soon, you will be noticing yourself becoming more observant as to the phones you hear in your everyday life, and will be less puzzled by unfamiliar segments in other languages.

Exercise 1: English Places of Articulation
The following English words were tagged with the place of articulation of their first segment, but the tags have been scrambled. Match each word with the correct POA:

Exercise 2: Brezhoneg
The following text in the Breton language has been translated into English:

Ar brezhoneg a zo ur yezh predenek eus skourr ar yezhoù keltiek komzet en darn vrasañ eus Enez Vreizh abaoe an Henamzer betek an aloubadegoù Saoz. Tost eo tre d'ar c'herneveureg (Cornwall:Kernow) ha d'ar c'hembraeg (Wales:Cymru) ha nebeutoc'h d'ar yezhoù keltiek all a zo c'hoazh bev : Skoseg, Gouezeleg ha Manaveg (Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man) (ar skourr gouezelek).

Breton is a Brythonic language belonging to the branch of Celtic spoken over most of Britain from prehistoric times until the Saxon invasions. It is closely related to Cornish (Cornwall:Kernow) and Welsh (Wales:Cymru) and more distantly to the other surviving Celtic languages, Scots, Irish and Manx Gaelic (Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man) (The Goidelic group).

You have been commissioned to create a phonetic transcription of this text using the following recording of a native speaker:

Write the transcription, being as accurate as you can. (Hint: The Breton rhotic is similar to that of French.)

title: Linguistics/Phonetics


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Buddhism/Pre-Buddhist Indian Thought and Culture

Pre-Buddhist Indian Thought and Culture
You are expected to posses a detailed knowledge on the Indian Culture from the age of the Indus Valley Civilization up to the time of the Buddha. This school has a special focus should be in the followings:
 * Indian culture before the advent of Aryans.
 * Evolution of the religious, social and literary aspects of the Vedic Brahmanic Culture upto the Upanishadic
 * Evolution of Sramanic culture and its characteristics
 * Political, economic and social conditions during the time of the Buddha
 * Nature of the Brahmanic thought during the time of the Buddha
 * Teachings of the six religious teachers contemporary to the Buddha

Indian culture before the advent of Aryans
Indian culture was dominated by Hinduism. Its origin can be traced to the beginning as early as the third millennium B.C.E. It has drawn in and adopted many influences, resulting to a diverse and varied beliefs systems. It ranges from a simple animism whereby the belief that every living creature, inanimate object, and wishful thought has a spirit; to some of the most elaborate philosophical systems. Its openness and diversity allows for literally millions of major and minor gods, deities, temples and priests with plentitude of possible and infinite religious views.

On the way to be framed as the Hindu or Brahmanic religion it must have gone through various fussions and fissions throughout the journey. The IVC phase or the Aryan phase are only two layers applied to it. Proper research works have to be done on this ground.

Hindusim has no identifiable founder. There was however, a mythological founder, Brahma, of the Vedic religion, a denomination of Hinduism. The word “Hindu” was derived from the Sanskrit name for the river Indus. The word “Hinduism” is a generic term that come into popular use in the eighteenth century coined by the British.

Political, economic and social conditions during the time of the Buddha
Throughout its history, India has undergone innumerable episodes involving military conquests and integration, cultural infusion and assimilation, political unification and fragmentation, religious toleration and conflict, and communal harmony and violence. A few other regions in the world also can claim such a vast and differentiated historical experience, but Indian civilization seems to have endured the trials of time the longest. India has proven its remarkable resilience and its innate ability to reconcile opposing elements from many indigenous and foreign cultures. Unlike the West, where modern political developments and industrialization have created a more secular worldview with redefined roles and values for individuals and families, India remains largely a traditional society, in which change seems only superficial. Although India is the world's largest democracy and the seventh-most industrialized country in the world, the underpinnings of India's civilization stem primarily from its own social structure, religious beliefs, philosophical outlook, and cultural values. The continuity of those time-honed traditional ways of life has provided unique and fascinating patterns in the tapestry of contemporary Indian civilization

Recommended Reading:

 * Hinduism and Buddhism, C.Eliot, London, 1957
 * The Wonder That was India, A.L.Basham, London, 1957
 * Indian Philosophy, Vol.1, S.Radhakrishnan, London, 1958
 * History of Indian Philosophy, Vol I S.Das Gupta, Cambridge, 1963
 * The Origin and the Early Development of Buddhist Monachism, Patricia Olivelle, Gunasena, Colombo, 1974
 * Indian Buddhism, A.K. Warder, Delhi 1980
 * Studies in the Origins of Buddism,G.C.Pande, Deihi, 1983
 * Early Buddhism and Its Origins, V.P.Verma, New Delhi, 1973

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Cookbook:Chocolate

| Basic Foodstuffs | Ingredients Index

Chocolate is an ingredient made from the fermented, roasted, and ground seeds of the tropical cacao tree.

Production
The production of chocolate is a long process, the entirety of which takes place across long distances and several steps.

Fermentation
After harvesting, the cacao pods are cut open and the pulp-covered seeds removed. These seeds are then piled on mats or in boxes to allow a several-day fermentation process that breaks down the pulp and develops some of the characteristic flavors and colors of chocolate. The first stage of fermentation yields heat, as well as lactic and acetic acids, which combine to weaken the cacao seed shell and penetrate inside the seed. The endemic enzymes in the seed combine with those of the microbes to break the proteins and sugars, yielding complex flavor and aroma molecules. During the entire fermentation process, the seeds are turned regularly to allow even fermentation.

Drying
After being cleaned of any residual pulp, the seeds enter next stage. Here, the seeds are spread out in a thin layer to fully dry out over the course of several weeks until they reach 5–8% moisture. At this point, they are still quite vinegary and don't have any noticeable chocolate character. The seeds are then transferred from the farmers to chocolate manufacturers.

Roasting
Once at the manufacturer, the seeds begin to adopt the characteristics we associate with chocolate. Here, they are roasted to kill any remaining microbes and develop characteristic chocolate flavor. The heat of the oven (250–320°F / 120–160°C) evaporates any residual ethanol and vinegar and induces the Maillard reaction, which causes even more complex flavor compounds to develop. The exact degree of roasting will depend on the desired characteristics and manufacturer specifications. After roasting, the seeds are cracked to isolate the nib from the shell.

Grinding and pressing
Much like with the production of nut butters, the roasted cacao seeds are then ground. This releases a paste called chocolate liquor or mass, which contains both cocoa butter (a fat) and cocoa solids. The liquor is about 50–55% cocoa butter, with the remainder consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and flavor compounds. It is quite bitter and will solidify when cooled.

After grinding, chocolate liquor may undergo a pressing step, which separates most of the cocoa butter from the cocoa solids. These solids can be ground to make cocoa powder.

Formulation
To produce the final chocolate, cocoa liquor and/or solids are blended to a manufacturer's specifications with cocoa butter, sugar, flavorings, milk solids, and/or emulsifiers. Because cocoa butter is what keeps the chocolate smooth and emulsified, additional emulsifiers are needed to produce low-fat chocolate. Some manufacturers—especially American ones—will add butyric acid, which adds a characteristic tangy flavor.

Conching
One of the final steps in the chocolate-making process is conching, where the chocolate is heated and ground for an extended period of time to further reduce the particle size, even out the texture, and mellow the flavor. The finer the chocolate is ground, the lower the viscosity and the smoother the mouthfeel.

Tempering
In order to create an appealing and snappy texture when solid, melted chocolate must finally be treated in a process called tempering. Tempering controls the formation of cocoa butter crystals to yield firm crystals with a good texture and relatively high melting temperature. Every time solid tempered chocolate is melted, it must be re-tempered or it will lose these properties. Once tempered, the chocolate is molded or otherwise shaped, then cooled.

Characteristics
Different cultures and regulatory bodies will have slightly different regulations for chocolate that govern the final properties. However, all chocolate shares the same broad characteristics.

Color
Depending on the proportion of cocoa solids, chocolates are anywhere from tan to brown to black. White chocolate, which contains no cocoa solids, is white or cream-colored.

Flavor
Chocolate's characteristic flavor is attributed to around 200–600 different aromatic compounds that develop during the cacao's growth and complex production process. For example, three primary cacao cultivars exist, all with slightly different characteristics. Additionally, the growing location and conditions will affect the flavor profile due to both the development of the cacao, as well as the specific microbes endemic to the region. In order to develop a signature chocolate flavor, a manufacturer will blend different varieties of cacao seeds to take advantage of the differences inherent to their different origins.

Pure chocolate is very flavorful but very bitter and somewhat acidic. The addition of milk contributes further flavors, especially if it has undergone heating to yield additional flavorful Maillard byproducts. Vanilla adds a floral character, and other additions will further diversify the flavor.

Texture
The texture of chocolate is dependent largely on its particle size and fat content. These affect the melting point and overall fluidity of the liquid chocolate, as well as the mouthfeel. The smaller the particle size, the smoother the chocolate feels to the tongue, and the fact that cocoa butter melts at body heat gives it a luxurious texture without greasiness. The higher the cocoa butter proportion, the smoother and meltier it will feel. Notably, European chocolates are very smooth, while American chocolate has a grainier texture.

Forms
Solid chocolate can come in a variety of different forms, used for different purposes. Chocolate bars are commonly sold in bars of different weights. They are usually molded with grooves so that individual pieces may be broken off. Chocolate bars may also contain inclusions, such as nuts, fruits, pretzels, etc. Chocolate chips are small chunks of sweet chocolate, often stabilized and sold in a round, flat-bottomed teardrop shape. They are known for their use in chocolate chip cookies. Chocolate may also be shaped into specialty forms.

Varieties
A number of different chocolate varieties are commercially available, differing based on their component ratios and level of processing. Chocolates are often described with a cacao percentage, which reflects the percentage of the chocolate that comes from cacao beans (i.e. cocoa solids and butter) as opposed to additional ingredients. However, it is important to note that the cocoa percentage does not tell you the specific respective percentages of cocoa solids versus cocoa butter—these are up to the manufacturer. So, you could have two 70% cocoa bars with different properties and degrees of chocolate flavor due to variation in the specific components. Some manufacturers will give specific component breakdowns, but if they do not, it's worth looking at the nutritional breakdown to get an approximation.

Unsweetened or baking chocolate
Unsweetened or baking chocolate is simply the pure chocolate liquor with nothing added, making it 100% cacao. It contains both cocoa solids (~47%) and cocoa butter (~53%). It has a very bitter flavor so is not often eaten plain, but it is used in baking.

Dark chocolate
Dark chocolate is composed of chocolate liquor with varying degrees of added sugar. It is sometimes called plain chocolate. Bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are the next step down from unsweetened—they tend to have over 35% cacao, though the exact level varies according to the manufacturer and specific formulations. The next step down, called sweet chocolate, contains at least 15% cacao.

Milk chocolate
Milk chocolate consists of chocolate liquor with both milk solids and sugar added. The U.S. government requires 10% concentration chocolate liquor, and European rules specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids. Milk solids content is often over 12%. The addition of milk provides a milder and creamier flavor, and it can contribute a nutty flavor, especially if cooked milk crumb is used. The milk solids can also be browned when the chocolate is heated. Generally, milk chocolate has a softer texture since the milk content often reduces the proportion of cocoa butter in the chocolate.

White chocolate
White chocolate is a product containing cocoa butter (>20%), milk solids, and sugar, but without cocoa solids—as such, it is often not considered "true" chocolate. However, since it has a large cocoa butter component, it has many of the same textural and behavioral properties as other chocolates. Imitation products may be made even without cocoa butter, meaning that they have no cacao content at all—these may be referred to as "white coating" or "white chips" and are generally regarded as an inferior product.

Blond chocolate
Blond or "caramelized" chocolate is white chocolate that has been gently roasted before tempering in order to allow the Maillard reaction to occur. This results in a toffee color and more complex nutty flavor than standard white chocolate. It otherwise has the same properties as white chocolate.

Ruby chocolate
This chocolate is a proprietary variety that has a pinkish-purple color and sour fruity flavor. The developer has not released exactly how it is made, but it is largely assumed that ruby chocolate comes from un- or under-fermented cacao beans that have been treated with acids.

Couverture
The term "couverture" (literally "covering") can be applied to any of the above chocolates, and it refers to chocolates that have at least 32% total cocoa butter content. This gives the chocolate greater fluidity when melted, which allows it to create a thinner layer when used as a coating.

Modeling chocolate
Modeling chocolate is chocolate that has been combined with invert sugars, which makes it into a plastic paste. This plastic texture allows it to be used in a similar way to marzipan, fondant, or sugar paste in order to make edible chocolate-flavored sculptures and decorations.

Imitation chocolate
Also called confectionery coating, imitation chocolate contains cocoa solids but no cocoa butter at all, usually being made instead with vegetable fats. It is generally considered lower quality and is not recommended for use in cooking due to issues with flavor and texture.

Cocoa powder
Cocoa powder is the unsweetened powdered, reddish cocoa solids left after the cocoa butter is pressed from the chocolate liquor. It is quite acidic and bitter, and it is often used in baking since melting is not required. Natural cocoa powder may subsequently be "Dutched" or treated with alkali, which makes the powder darker and less acidic,  and a given amount of Dutched cocoa tastes more chocolatey than the same amount of unprocessed cocoa.

Selection and storage
To evaluate the general quality of chocolate, you can judge it by a few factors. Higher quality chocolates are generally snappy in texture, even in melt, and smooth and shiny with no discoloration. As a general rule, elite cocoa makers (e.g. Hershey, Nestle) make good-but-not-excellent chocolate, and elite chocolate makers (e.g. Scharffen Berger, Ghiradelli) make good-but-not-excellent cocoa. You'll also want to make sure the characteristics of the chocolate (e.g. cacao, fat, milk, sugar contents) match your application—differences exist between brands.

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17°C (59–63°F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. As it can absorb different aromas, chocolate should be stored away from other foods. Additionally, chocolate should be protected from light by storing in a dark place or wrapping in paper. The shelf life is quite long, but the fats will eventually go rancid. Milk-containing chocolate keeps less well due to additional chemical reactions that will still take place.

Various types of white "blooming" effects on the surface of chocolate can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without proper containment, chocolate can encounter enough moisture to cause sugar bloom, a whitish discoloration from sugar crystals rising to the surface. Fat bloom occurs when the cocoa butter melts and recrystallizes. Although visually and texturally unappealing, these conditions are perfectly safe for consumption —in particular, textural issues from fat bloom can be remedied by simply retempering the chocolate.

Handling
Because chocolate melts at body temperature, it is important to work in a cool area when handling chocolate. Using gloves can also provide a slight barrier to mitigate transfer of heat from your hands to the chocolate.

Melting
In many applications, chocolate must be melted before use, and this must be done carefully. Chocolate is prone to scorching when overheated, which turns the texture thick and lumpy—there is no fixing this once it has happened. Melted chocolate is also particularly sensitive to small amounts of water contamination. This is because small amounts of water—even a drop—draw the sugar out of suspension from the cocoa butter, causing the mixture to seize and separate. This, too, is not fixable. However, you can repurpose seized chocolate for something like a ganache—when a larger amount of hot liquid such as cream is added, it sufficiently coats all the particles in the mixture to allow them to flow smoothly again.

To melt chocolate, gentle heat using a double-boiler or low-power microwave bursts is recommended. Using small pieces of chocolate and stirring regularly are a must in order to promote smooth, even melting. If using a bain-marie, make sure no moisture comes into contact with the chocolate.

Ganache
As mentioned, a ganache is the result of emulsifying a large amount of hot liquid—usually cream—with chocolate. Fluid ganache can be made into mousse or used as a softer chocolate coating than pure melted chocolate, and solidified ganache is often made into a variety of chocolate confections.

Use
Chocolate has immense applications across cuisines.

Savory
Though often regarded primarily as a sweet food, chocolates can be incorporated into savory dishes. This is especially common as a practice in Mexican and some other indigenous American cuisines, where chocolate makes up a portion of mole sauce. It can in rarer occasions be seen as a component of some Western European sauces and meat dishes.

Patisserie
In baked goods, chocolate—and especially cocoa powder—contributes flavor and structure to the final product through its constituent starch, protein, fiber, and fat. As the cocoa solids absorb moisture, they can substitute in part for flours in some applications. Chocolate is also used in various creams, puddings, mousses, frostings, and more. Cacao nibs may be incorporated as well, in much the same way as other nuts and seeds.

Confectionery
A variety of chocolate confections exist, ranging from chocolate-coated fruits and nuts to molded shells of chocolate that encase a filling. Dipped confections are made by dipping various tidbits in melted chocolate, while molded ones are made by creating chocolate shells and filling them. Truffles are made by shaping ganache and rolling the confections in a dry coating.

Decor
Chocolate's textural properties make it immensely useful for decoration and garnish. Tempered chocolate can be readily shaped through piping, spreading, cutting, curling, shaving, and more to create a range of shapes and textures. Melting chocolate and thinning it with cocoa butter makes it analogous to a paint, and this can be combined with a paint sprayer to create velvety chocolate layers on desserts.

Beverages
From the beginning, chocolate has had applications in beverages. Hot cocoa or hot chocolate is one of the oldest chocolate products, made by combining chocolate with water or milk, and cold chocolate beverages are also common. Chocolate can also be used to flavor liqueurs.

Substitution
Very few things can substitute for true chocolate. Imitation products can make an approximation of flavor, but cocoa butter is necessary for characteristic chocolate properties. For those who cannot tolerate cacao products, the carob pod may be processed and ground to create a cocoa powder analog.

title: Cookbook:Chocolate


text:
Talk:Primary Mathematics/Probability

This page had very little relevence to showing educators how to teach probability, and even less in explaining to parents how probability is (currently) taught. With the exception of the roll of a die, which is too lengthy, there is little reference to manipulatives, models, or even simple examples from the real world that children can understand and relate to (such as a series of coin tosses). Very simply, probability is not taught to the elementary grades with equations, at least not initially. This page needs to show and explain the various models actually used to teach probability to primary grade learners, such as tree diagrams and area diagrams. I have just finished a simple primer on this page that shows those two manipulatives in action and attempts to make connections to other skills students should be learning at this age. Leightwing 23:54, 26 August 2007 (UTC)

I'm presenting a lecture like this to my child's 5th grade class soon.

I would like to add some, and more vivid examples.

p(x)
Rather than the 'pseudo-but-actualy-far-more-confusing' use of the shortening of probablity to "Pr" use the convention used in mathematics and statistics "p".

Don't create havoc later when someone is trying to teach algebra and the kid goes on and on about how "Pr" is probablity and not "P * r".

Confused.
'How do I do a tree diagram with the example of 6 books with 2 being red, 3 being blue and 1 being green? It is confusing and I would like it if Wikibooks could help me with this problem.'--<IP_ADDRESS> (discuss) 16:47, 7 February 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Primary Mathematics/Probability


text:
David William Rowsen Morgan

David William Rowsen (D. W. R. or David W. R.) Morgan (September 16, 1892 – April 30, 1973 ) was an American mechanical engineer and business executive at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, known as 74th president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the year 1955-56.

Youth, education and early career
Morgan was born in 1892 in Martins Ferry, Ohio, son of William E. Morgan and Sarah (Thomas) Morgan. In 1913, at the age of 21, he obtained his MSc in mechanical engineering from Ohio Northern University.

After his graduation in 1913 Morgan started his lifelong career at the Westinghouse Electrical Corporation in Philadelphia. By 1917 he was engineer at the condenser department, where he was later promoted to Engineer in Charge of the Condenser Department. In 1926 he got appointed manager condenser and internal combustion engineering in the internal combustion engine department of the Westinghouse Electric.

Further career and acknowledgement
In the 1930s Morgan had become assistant manager of engineering of the South Philadelphia plant of Westinghouse Electric. In 1941 he got appointed vice president of the South Philadelphia plant.

From 1948 to 1953 Morgan was general manager of Westinghouse Steam Division, and from 1953 until his retirement late 1955 he was vice president of Westinghouse Electric Co. After his retirement he was Professorship of Engineering at the Drexel Institute of Technology, now the Drexel University.

Morgan was awarded the Westinghouse Order of Merit in 1942. In 1950 he was awarded the honorary doctorate in engineering from Drexel Institute of Technology. Morgan was elected president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers for the year 1955-56. He had been elected Fellow of the ASME, and was member of the Hoover Medal Board of Award.

Selected publications

 * Articles, a selection
 * Morgan, D. W. R. "Central Station Steam-Power Generation." Westinghouse Engineer 10 (1950): 7-17.

 * Patents, a selection
 * Morgan, David WR. "Large jet condenser." U.S. Patent No. 1,457,788. 5 Jun. 1923.
 * Morgan, David WR. "Surface condenser." U.S. Patent No. 1,578,057. 23 Mar. 1926.
 * Morgan, David WR. "House electric." U.S. Patent No. 1,684,406. 18 Sep. 1928.
 * Morgan, David WR. "Ejector apparatus." U.S. Patent No 2,033,843, 10 March 1936.
 * Tuley, Charles B., and David WR Morgan. "Condenser apparatus." U.S. Patent No. 2,180,840. 21 Nov. 1939.

title: David William Rowsen Morgan


text:
muối

Etymology
From, from. Cognate with North Central Vietnamese, 🇨🇬/ and 🇨🇬 bɑːjʔ. Compare also 🇨🇬 (whence 🇨🇬).

Noun

 * 1) salt sodium chloride
 * 2)  salt

Verb

 * 1) to pickle to preserve food in a salt, sugar or vinegar solution

Adjective

 * 1) pickled preserved by pickling

title: muối


text:
-ilo

Etymology
From and. Compare and 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, and, as well as 🇨🇬.

Suffix

 * 1) an instrument, a tool for performing the action of the root

Etymology
.

Etymology
From  through, like 🇨🇬.

Suffix

 * 1)  -yl

title: -ilo


text:
HP-19C/-29C

The HP-19C and HP-29C were scientific/engineering pocket calculators made by Hewlett-Packard between 1977 and 1979. They were the most advanced and last models of the "20" family (compare HP-25) and included Continuous Memory (battery-backed CMOS memory) as a standard feature.

The HP-19C included a small thermal printer, one of the very few hand-held scientific calculators to offer such a feature (HP-91, HP-92 and HP-97 were desktop units and later models like the HP-41C only supported external printers). Due to the printer's power requirements, the 19C used a battery pack of four AA-sized NiCd cells, adding to the weight of the calculator and printer mechanism.

All other capabilities were the same in both models – RPN expression logic, 98 program memory locations, statistical functions, and 30 registers.

Users could develop software for the HP-29C/19C, such as a prime number generator. The calculators expanded the HP-25's program capabilities by adding subroutines, increment/decrement looping, relative branching and indirect addressing (via register 0 as index).

HP's internal code name for the 29C was Bonnie, the 19C was correspondingly named Clyde.

The HP-19C and HP-29C were introduced at MSRPs of $345 and $195, respectively.

A version adapted to support an additional backward-facing display manufactured by Educational Calculator Devices named EduCALC 29C GD existed as well.

Simulators and emulators
HP-29C microcode emulator for any platform HP-29C microcode emulator for Windows
 * HP-29C simulator for Windows
 * HP-19C and HP-29C emulators for Windows
 * HP Calculator emulators for Linux

title: HP-19C/-29C


text:
Talk:Delron Buckley

categorized as cape coloured
though he is from durban. i'd say in durban and jo'burg there are also people with mixed ancestry (african, european, asian,..). but they are not defined as a "community" nor is there a term for them. --Severino (talk) 18:09, 8 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Delron Buckley


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Joseph Bryan

Joseph Bryan (August 18, 1773 – September 12, 1812) was an American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives for Georgia's at-large congressional district from 1803 to 1806.

Early life
Bryan was born Savannah, Georgia. He was educated by private tutors and attended the University of Oxford in England.

Career
Bryan traveled in France during the American Revolutionary War. He later engaged in agricultural pursuits on Wilmington Island, Georgia.

Bryan was elected as a Republican to the 8th and 9th United States congresses and served from March 4, 1803, until his resignation in 1806. He engaged in planting and died on his estate, Nonchalance, Wilmington Island, near Savannah in 1812. He was buried in the family burial ground on his estate.

Bryan's grandfather was Jonathan Bryan, who assisted James Edward Oglethorpe in setting out the Savannah colony and served in the Revolutionary War.

title: Joseph Bryan


text:
Major National Dialogue

The Major National Dialogue (Grand dialogue national) is the official name of a dialogue between the Government of Cameroon and various opposition parties, aimed at resolving the Anglophone Crisis. The event took place between September 30 and October 4, 2019.

Background
For decades, Anglophone Cameroonians in the area formerly known as Southern Cameroons had resented the central government for marginalizing them. In October 2016, major protests broke out in cities in the Anglophone regions. The Cameroonian government responded by deploying soldiers to quell the protests. Six weeks into the demonstrations, six demonstrators had been killed and more than 100 had been arrested. In September 2017, Anglophone separatists began to take up arms against the Cameroonian government, and on October 1, the Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front declared the independence of the Federal Republic of Ambazonia. The situation evolved into a military conflict including human rights violations called the Anglophone Crisis.

Negotiations
On September 10, 2019, President of Cameroon Paul Biya announced in a televised speech that a "grand national dialogue" would take place before the end of the month. The dialogue would take place "within the context of the constitution", hence ruling out Ambazonian independence, and would include the Anglophone Cameroonian diaspora. A government website was subsequently launched, where people could submit proposals ahead of the dialogue.

Support

 * The United People for Social Renovation supported the initiative. Its leader Serge Espoir Matomba met with the Prime Minister ahead of the dialogue to submit his proposals.
 * The Cameroon People's Party submitted its own proposals and views to the Prime Minister ahead of the dialogue.
 * Felix Agbor Balla, President of the Centre for Human Right and Democracy, supported the initiative, but stressed that separatists should be given a guarantee that they would not be arrested if they showed up.

Conditional support

 * The Social Democratic Front offered conditional support of the initiative, demanding a ceasefire and amnesty to all separatists who had been jailed. The party also declared that the dialogue should be chaired by a neutral third party, suggesting the United States, the United Kingdom or Germany. Later, the SDF accused the ruling CPDM party of sending a disproportionate number of representatives to the dialogue.
 * Cardinal Christian Tumi, Archbishop Emeritus of Douala, stated that Ambazonian independence should not be ruled out from the onset.

Opposition

 * The Cameroon Renaissance Movement declared that it would not participate unless its leader Maurice Kamto was released from jail. Kamto had been in jail since the immediate aftermath of the 2018 Cameroonian presidential election, in which he had claimed victory. This demand was eventually met after the dialogue had taken place.

Separatist response

 * The Southern Cameroons Liberation Council, an umbrella movement of several Ambazonian separatist groups, including the Interim Government of Ambazonia, immediately dismissed the dialogue as insincere, citing the recent life sentences handed to Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe and other detained separatist leaders. Ebenezer Akwanga stated that it was far too late to talk about reforms, and that the separatists would only settle for independence.
 * Despite this, separatist fighters from Fako Division agreed to participate through a telephone conference.

September 30
The dialogue started with an opening ceremony, where former separatist fighters sang the Cameroonian national anthem. Afterwards, Prime Minister Joseph Ngute challenged the attendants to "make history" and find solutions to "the problems that have separated us physically and intellectually in recent years".

October 1
Debates started fully on the second day of the dialogue. Eight commissions had been named, each focusing on a particular issue; one for multiculturalism and bilingualism, one for the educational system, one for the judicial system, one for the question of refugees, one for reconstruction, one for disarmament, one for the diaspora and one for decentralization.

At the end of the second day, Barrister Akere Muna of the "Now Movement" declared that he would withdraw from the dialogue unless the form of state would be discussed.

October 2
The third day had the same focus as the second day. Barrister Felix Agbor Balla declared that the dialogue would be pointless unless the form of state was discussed, insisting that decentralization would be insufficient.

October 3
On the fourth day, the commissions submitted their recommendations to the Prime Minister. As the Major National Dialogue neared its conclusion, President Paul Biya issued a decree that discontinued the court cases against 333 Anglophone activists.

Responding to the presence of separatist generals as the dialogue, the Ambazonia Self-Defence Council issued a statement claiming that these separatists were fake.

October 4
On the fifth day, final resolutions were read. The decentralization commission proposed a special status for the Anglophone regions, as well as more local autonomy. Other recommendations included the construction of an airport and a seaport in the Anglophone regions, the renaming of the country to the "United Republic of Cameroon", measures against corruption, and an intensified effort to rehabilitate former separatist fighters.

Reactions
The ruling CPDM party welcomed the recommendations from the commissions. Some attendants criticized the structure of the dialogue, as well as the fact that separation was not debated as an alternative. Others characterized the five-day event as a sham. The separatists reaffirmed their rejection of the dialogue, promising to step up the war.

In December 2020, the United Nations urged the government of Cameroon to address the issues that had been brought up at the Major National Dialogue and to continue the dialogue process with all parties involved. François Loucemy Fall, Head of the UN Regional Office for Central Africa, stated that "the implementation of the recommendations from the major national dialogue, in addition to continued dialogue with all parties, remains crucial to building lasting peace and development".

Aftermath
The day after the conclusion of the dialogue, President Biya ordered the dropping of the cases of some supporters of the Cameroon Renaissance Movement, including its leader Maurice Kamto. This move was directly linked to the Major National Dialogue. On November 16, two government delegations started embarked on a mission in the Anglophone regions to win popular support for the conclusions of the Major National Dialogue. In particular, the delegations aimed to convince the populace that a "special status" for the Anglophone regions would address their grievances. This resulted in the "General Code of Regional and Local Authorities", which was passed by the Cameroonian parliament on December 18, 2019.

The war in the Anglophone regions intensified in the weeks following the dialogue. Maintaining its military approach to resolving the crisis, the Cameroonian government began to focus on creating local vigilante groups to fight the separatist guerilla. The separatists intensified their guerilla war against Cameroon, notably by assassinating a separatist general mere days after he had laid down his arms.

title: Major National Dialogue


text:
烏龜

Noun

 * 1) turtle; tortoise
 * 2)  Mauremys reevesii
 * 3)  someone in last place
 * 4)  cuckold
 * 5)  incompetent, irresponsible person
 * 6)  male owner of a brothel
 * 7)  benefiter from the prostitution of his wife and daughters

Synonyms

title: 烏龜


text:
William Ross State High School

William Ross State High School is an independent public high school situated in the Townsville Suburb of Annandale, North Queensland.

William Ross has a student count from grades 7 through to 12 of close to 905 (as of 2020) students which continues to rise annually, particularly considering the school's locality for defence families.

William Ross has a large catchment area servicing the suburbs of Annandale, Stuart, Wulguru, Cluden, Serene Valley, Alligator Creek, Cungulla, Oak Valley, Woodstock, Calcium, Idalia, Oonoonba, Fairfield Waters, Rosslea, Douglas, Aitkenvale and Mundingburra. The results of the 2019 school opinion survey showed that 98% of students agree that they are getting a good education at school with 99% of staff enjoying working at their school.

The school offers a variety of academic, art and sports programs, and offers a "leading learner" program for junior students (grade 7 to 10). The leading learner program extends student learning in English, Mathematics, Science and Humanities in order to better prepare them for senior school. Students are required to sit an entrance exam during grade 6 in order to be considered for the Leading Learner classes. Student literacy levels have been improved through a program developed by William Ross State High School in conjunction with four primary schools within its catchment area. Through the integration of primary and secondary schools the Year 6 students are able to improve their literacy levels with 85% of students maintaining or increasing their results from year 6 to 7.

The award winning STEAM Lab program is offered to all students as a co-curricular opportunity. STEAM Lab offers a range of learning activities that have included:  QLD Human Powered Vehicle super series and the 2019 Strand Ephemera. Other science-based projects include: addressing water conservation, renewable energy and sustainable food production through the use of aquaculture, aquaponics and permaculture in their aquatics facility. In addition Mathematics and Technology combine to offer students the opportunity to develop Drone pilot skills and programming with robotics and drones.

William Ross State High School continues to offer students the "RHINOS" Sports Excellence program for junior and senior students which caters to the following sports: basketball, cricket, hockey, netball, rugby union, soccer, and touch.

Awards
National Excellence in Teaching Award to Shelley DeRuyter for The NEiTA Award for Innovation in Online Teaching and the Terry O’Connell Regional and Remote Teachers’ Award

Peter Doherty Award in the area of Outstanding School STEM for the state of Queensland in 2019.

Strand Ephemera "Future Astronomers Illuminated" art exhibition "The caliber of work presented at Strand Ephemera 2019 was at such high standard that the judges wished to name a Highly Commended, along with the major award winner"

title: William Ross State High School


text:
Andrew Barth Feldman

Andrew Barth Feldman (born May 7, 2002) is an American actor and singer. He began his acting career in musical theater by participating in local productions as a child. Feldman won a Jimmy Award for his high school's production of the musical Catch Me If You Can in 2018. In 2019, he played the title role in the musical Dear Evan Hansen on Broadway. Feldman has also played a guest role in the television musical series High School Musical: The Musical: The Series in 2021 and expanded to films in 2023 with a supporting role in A Tourist's Guide to Love and a leading role in No Hard Feelings.

Early life and education
Feldman was born in Manhasset, New York, to David Feldman and Barbara Barth. He was raised with an older sister and closely with his cousins, whom he calls his brothers. They grew up near his mother's childhood hometown. He and his family are Jewish. Feldman became a fan of musical theater at a very young age after watching a production of Beauty and the Beast at age three. He went on to star in various local and school productions, including Annie, Grease, and Rent. He started a YouTube channel in high school to do projects for school.

He also founded his own musical theater company in middle school, Zneefrock Productions, as part of his bar mitzvah project to raise money for autism research. He and a friend wrote and directed a Star Wars parody musical for the company, which would later be put on at 54 Below with professional actors. He attended Lawrence Woodmere Academy, where his mother worked as an administrator before her death in August 2019.

After taking time off of high school to star in Dear Evan Hansen, Feldman initially decided to attend Harvard University in the fall of 2020, but he deferred his enrollment a year to 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, he had to take a semester off from Harvard when he booked the co-lead role in the film No Hard Feelings opposite Jennifer Lawrence.

Acting career
In 2018, his sophomore year of high school, Feldman portrayed Frank Abagnale Jr. in his high school's production of the musical Catch Me If You Can. After winning his regional awards program for this performance, he was invited to perform at the Jimmy Awards, where he won the award for best actor. Stacey Mindich, the lead producer of Dear Evan Hansen, saw his performance and asked him to audition for the role of Evan Hansen on Broadway. On January 30, 2019, at the age of 16, Feldman assumed the role of Evan Hansen, taking over for Taylor Trensch. His performance was lauded, with Sarah Bahr in the New York Times writing, "Andrew Barth Feldman made me forget where I was, who I was, that I was anything other than part of the world onstage...I'm pretty sure I didn't draw breath the entire first act." He exited the role on January 26, 2020, upon which Jordan Fisher took over the role.

Feldman began a fundraiser for the Actor's Fund called Broadway Jackbox in March 2020, alongside former Dear Evan Hansen co-star Alex Boniello. This fundraiser streamed on Twitch, with famous Broadway and screen actors each week. He additionally created a murder mystery series called Broadway Whodunit, which stars Broadway and theatre actors. During his run in the show, he had his own Broadway.com vlog and he has his own YouTube channel under his name. He began his own theatre company, Zneefrock Productions, to raise money for autism awareness. He can be heard playing himself in As the Curtain Rises, an original Broadway soap opera podcast from the Broadway Podcast Network.

On December 28, 2020, it was announced that Feldman would star as Linguini in a benefit concert presentation of Ratatouille the Musical, an internet meme that originated on TikTok, inspired by the 2007 Disney/Pixar film. The concert streamed exclusively on TodayTix on January 1, 2021. His performance was celebrated, with Jesse Green writing in The New York Times that Feldman "seems to have animated his face to match Pixar's version: He's instantly adorable while looking like he still might gnaw your toe."

On February 11, 2021, it was announced that Feldman would make his television acting debut in the Disney+ show, High School Musical: The Musical: The Series, as a recurring guest star for season 2, where he played Antoine, a French exchange student.

On May 7, 2021, Feldman appeared in 2019 Jimmy Award finalist Casey Likes' short film Thespians.

Feldman made his feature film acting debut in April 2023 in Netflix film A Tourist's Guide to Love as Alex, a college-bound vlogger. He starred opposite Jennifer Lawrence in No Hard Feelings in June 2023 as Percy, a soon-to-be college student who is also socially clueless.

Music
On July 8, 2021, Feldman released his first single "Every Pretty Girl" about falling in love as a teenager with OCD. On Christmas Eve 2021, Feldman released his second single "Emma". Also in July 2021, Feldman was featured on American actress and singer Cozi Zuehlsdorff's single "The Old Me and You". On September 23, 2022, Feldman and Joe Serafini released "In My Head", a duet written by songwriters Daniel Mertzlufft and Jacob Ryan Smith about the budding romance between two young men.

title: Andrew Barth Feldman


text:
Cookbook:Sugar

Sugar is a sweetener. It can come from a variety of plant sources, including various trees, root vegetables, and sugar cane.

Varieties
Sugars can be categorized according to origin, processing/refining method, and crystal size.

Raw Sugar
Raw sugars are typically derived from earlier stages in the sugar refining process, when compared to white sugars. They retain varying amounts of molasses. They can include:

 * Sugarcane-derived Jaggery
 * Demerara Sugar / Turbinado Sugar
 * Muscovado Sugar (not to be confused with commercial US brown sugars)

White Refined Sugars
White sugar is a refined sugar composed almost entirely of sucrose. It can be derived from sugarcane or beets and can have a wide range of crystal sizes.

 * Granulated Sugar
 * Castor (AUS/NZ) or Caster (UK) Sugar / Superfine Sugar / Baking Sugar
 * Confectioners' / Powdered Sugar / Icing Sugar (AUS/NZ/UK)
 * Rock Sugar
 * Pearl Sugar

Brown Sugar
Brown sugar, as sold in the USA, is refined white sugar with molasses added back to it. It has more flavor and moisture than white sugars. It can be found in two main forms: The term 'brown sugar' can also refer to unrefined or raw sugars that have not yet had the molasses removed.
 * Light brown sugar
 * Dark brown sugar

Palm Sugar

 * Coconut Sugar
 * Gula Jawa
 * Palm-derived Jaggery

Maple Sugar
Maple sugar is derived from the sap of sugar maples.

title: Cookbook:Sugar


text:
1985 in Thailand

The year 1985 was the 204th year of the Rattanakosin Kingdom of Thailand. It was the 40th year in the reign of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), and is reckoned as year 2528 in the Buddhist Era.

Incumbents

 * King: Bhumibol Adulyadej
 * Crown Prince: Vajiralongkorn
 * Prime Minister: Prem Tinsulanonda
 * Supreme Patriarch: Ariyavangsagatayana VII

title: 1985 in Thailand