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Invasive species in-process re-write of current article...

An invasive species is a nonindigenous species that spreads from the point of introduction and becomes abundant.

The invasive species label attaches only to populations of species whose impact upon introduction has altered their new environment. Although this impact can be beneficial, the term as most often used applies to introduced species that affect the invaded habitats and bioregions adversely, causing ecological, environmental, or economic damage. This includes plant species labeled as "exotic pest plants" and "invasive exotics" growing in native plant communities. The term is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds.

The term "invasive" is poorly defined and often very subjective, and some broaden the term to include indigenous or "native" species that have colonized natural areas – for example deer considered by some to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States. The definition of "native" is also sometimes controversial. For example, the ancestors of Equus ferus (modern horses) evolved in North America and radiated to Eurasia before becoming locally extinct. Upon returning to North America in 1493 during their human-assisted migration, it is debatable as to whether they were native or exotic to the continent of their evolutionary ancestors.

Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but human-facilitated introductions have increased massively the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millenia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with our earliest migrations, accelerating in the age of discovery, and accelerating again with international trade. Notable examples of invasive plant species include the kudzu vine, Andean pampas grass, and yellow starthistle. Animal examples include the New Zealand mud snail, feral pigs, European rabbits, grey squirrels, domestic cats, carp and ferrets. Some popular reference sources now name Homo sapiens, especially modern-age humans, as an invasive species, but broad appreciation of human learning capacity and our behavioral potential and plasticity argues against any such fixed categorization.

Causes
Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location. At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways offer repeated opportunities for establishment (also known as a high propagule pressure). Scientists include ecosystem and species factors among the mechanisms that, when combined, establish invasiveness in a newly introduced species.

Ecosystem-based mechanisms
In ecosystems, the amount of available resources and the extent to which those resources are used by organisms determine the effects of additional species on the ecosystem. In stable ecosystems, equilibrium exists in the use of available resources. These mechanisms describe a situation in which the ecosystem has suffered a disturbance, which changes the fundamental nature of the ecosystem.

When changes such as a forest fire occur, normal succession favors native grasses and forbs. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can use resources that would have been available to native species, squeezing them out. Nitrogen and phosphorus are often the limiting factors in these situations.

Every species occupies a niche in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Some invading species fill niches that are not used by native species, and they also can create new niches. An example of this type can be found within the Lampropholis delicata species of skink. Invasion is more likely in ecosystems that are similar to the one in which the potential invader evolved.

Ecosystem changes can alter species' distributions. For example, edge effects describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed as when land is cleared for agriculture. The boundary between remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct habitat, creating new winners and losers and possibly hosting species that would not thrive outside the boundary habitat.

In 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because of fewer available niches. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems and argued that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion.

This debate hinged on the spatial scale at which invasion studies were performed, and the issue of how diversity affects susceptibility remained unresolved as of 2011. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between diversity and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse. The latter result may be a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered. However, this spatial scale dependent pattern of the effects of invasion on diversity does not seem to hold true when the invader is a vertebrate.

Island ecosystems may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, or because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches. An example of this phenomenon is the decimation of native bird populations on Guam by the invasive brown tree snake. Conversely, invaded ecosystems may lack the natural competitors and predators that check invasives' growth in their native ecosystems.

On small islands, native birds may have become flightless because of the absence of predators prior to introductions. These birds cannot readily escape the danger brought to them by introduced predators. The tendency of rails in particular to evolve flightless forms on islands has made them vulnerable and has led to the disproportionate number of extinctions in that family.

The islands of Hawaii have many invasive species affecting the islands' native plants and animals. Invasive insects, plants, hoofed animals such as deer, goats and pigs endanger native plants, rosy wolfsnails from Africa feed on the island's native snails, and plants such as Australian tree fern and Miconia calvescens shade out native plants. Populations of introduced little fire ants in Hawaii can have major negative impacts on animals, crops, and humans. The veiled chameleon and the Jackson's chameleon have a great impact on the ecology of Hawaii.

In New Zealand the first invasive species were the dogs and rats brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. Cats, brought later by Europeans, have had a devastating effect upon the native birdlife, particularly as many New Zealand birds are flightless. Rabbits, introduced as a food source by sailors in the 1800s, have become a severe nuisance to farmers, notably in the South Island. Common gorse, originally a hedge plant in Britain, was introduced to New Zealand for the same purpose but grows aggressively and threatens to obliterate native plants in much of the country and is hence routinely eradicated. The native forests are heavily impacted by several species of deer from North America and Europe and by the Australian brushtail possum. These exotic species have all thrived in the New Zealand environment.

The colonization of the island of Madagascar has introduced exotic plant and animal species which have significantly altered the island's landscape. This is a result of man-made disturbances to the ecosystems present. The most well-known disturbance is extensive logging. This allows the invasion of non-native species as they establish in the spaces created. Some of the invasive plant species in Madagascar include prickly pear and silver wattle (Acacia dealbata). The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), one of the most common invasive plant species in the world, has reached Madagascar over the last few decades. This plant impacts Madagascar financially as a lot of resources are used in attempts to limit the spread. The plant occupies basins of lakes and other water bodies. It forms dense mats with its roots over the surfaces of water and limits light penetration which impacts aquatic organisms. However, this plant is now being used in fertilizers and paper bags and for cleaning up biological waste.

Invaded ecosystems may have experienced disturbance, typically human-induced. Such a disturbance may give invasive species a chance to establish themselves with less competition from natives less able to adapt to a disturbed ecosystem. Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, Kudzu Pueraria montana, a vine native to Asia, was widely introduced in the southeastern USA in the early 20th century to control soil erosion. The primary geomorphological effects of invasive animals are bioturbation, bioerosion, and bioconstruction. For example, invasions of the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis have resulted in higher bioturbation and bioerosion rates.

Species-based mechanisms
While all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, species interact with each other more directly.

Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers. One study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone. Another study found invasive species tended to have only a small subset of the presumed traits and that many similar traits were found in noninvasive species, requiring other explanations. Common invasive species traits include the following:
 * Fast growth
 * Rapid reproduction
 * High dispersal ability
 * Phenotype plasticity (the ability to alter growth form to suit current conditions)
 * Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Ecological competence)
 * Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist)
 * Association with humans
 * Prior successful invasions

An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water, or food. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems which are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule. Invasive species often coexist with native species for an extended time, and gradually, the superior competitive ability of an invasive species becomes apparent as its population grows larger and denser and it adapts to its new location.

An invasive species might be able to use resources that were previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water sources accessed by a long taproot, or an ability to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species that have adapted poorly to serpentine soils.

Invasive species might alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying abiotic factors, or affecting the behaviour of herbivores, creating a positive or negative impact on other species. Some species, like Kalanchoe daigremontana, produce allelopathic compounds, that might have an inhibitory effect on competing species, and influence some soil processes like carbon and nitrogen mineralization. Other species like Stapelia gigantea facilitates the recruitment of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate microclimatic conditions and preventing herbivory in early stages of development.

Other examples are Centaurea solstitialis (yellow starthistle) and Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed). These Eastern European noxious weeds have spread through the western and West Coast states. Experiments show that 8-hydroxyquinoline, a chemical produced at the root of C. diffusa, has a negative effect only on plants that have not co-evolved with it. Such co-evolved native plants have also evolved defenses. C. diffusa and C. solstitialis do not appear in their native habitats to be overwhelmingly successful competitors. Success or lack of success in one habitat does not necessarily imply success in others. Conversely, examining habitats in which a species is less successful can reveal novel weapons to defeat invasiveness.

Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Bromus tectorum, originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It not only spreads rapidly after burning but also increases the frequency and intensity (heat) of fires by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. In areas where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing B. tectorum to further extend and maintain dominance in its introduced range.

Ecological facilitation also occurs where one species physically modifies a habitat in ways that are advantageous to other species. For example, zebra mussels increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which invertebrates live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel filter-feeding, increases the density and diversity of benthic invertebrate communities.

Studies of invasive species have shown that introduced species have great potential for rapid adaptation. This explains how many introduced species are able to establish and become invasive in new environments. In addition, the rate at which an invasive species can spread can be difficult to ascertain by biologists since population growth occurs geometrically, rather than linearly. When bottlenecks and founder effects cause a great decrease in the population size and may constrict genetic variation, the individuals begin to show additive variance as opposed to epistatic variance. This conversion can actually lead to increased variance in the founding populations which then allows for rapid adaptive evolution. Following invasion events, selection may initially act on the capacity to disperse as well as physiological tolerance to the new stressors in the environment. Adaptation then proceeds to respond to the selective pressures of the new environment. These responses would most likely be due to temperature and climate change, or the presence of native species whether it be predator or prey. Adaptations include changes in morphology, physiology, phenology, and plasticity.

Rapid adaptive evolution in these species leads to offspring that have higher fitness and are better suited for their environment. Intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, pre-adaptation and post-introduction evolution are all major factors in adaptive evolution. Plasticity in populations allows room for changes to better suit the individual in its environment. This is key in adaptive evolution because the main goal is how to best be suited to the ecosystem to which the species has been introduced. The ability to accomplish this as quickly as possible will lead to a population with a very high fitness. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the initial introduction also play a role in the success of the introduced species. If the species has adapted to a similar ecosystem or contains traits that happen to be well suited to the area where it is introduced, it is more likely to fare better in the new environment. This, in addition to evolution that takes place after introduction, all determine if the species will be able to become established in the new ecosystem and if it will reproduce and thrive.

The enemy-release hypothesis states that the process of evolution has led to every ecosystem having an ecological balance. Any one species cannot occupy a majority of the ecosystem due to the presences of competitors, predators, and diseases. Introduced species moved to a novel habitat can become invasive when these controls - competitors, predators, and diseases - do not exist in the new ecosystem. The absence of appropriate controls leads to rapid population growth.

Vectors
Non-native species have many vectors, including biogenic vectors, but most invasions are associated with human activity. Natural range extensions are common in many species, but the rate and magnitude of human-mediated extensions in these species tend to be much larger than natural extensions, and humans typically carry specimens greater distances than natural forces.

An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) to Polynesia.

Vectors include plants or seeds imported for horticulture. The pet trade moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms stow away on transport vehicles. Diseases may also be vectored by invasive insects such as the Asian citrus psyllid and the bacterial disease citrus greening.

The arrival of invasive propagules to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.

Species have also been introduced intentionally. For example, to feel more "at home," American colonists formed "Acclimation Societies" that repeatedly imported birds that were native to Europe to North America and other distant lands. In 2008, U.S. postal workers in Pennsylvania noticed noises coming from inside a box from Taiwan; the box contained more than two dozen live beetles. Agricultural Research Service entomologists identified them as the rhinoceros beetle, Hercules beetle, and king stag beetle. Because these species were not native to the U.S., they could have threatened native ecosystems. To prevent exotic species from becoming a problem in the U.S., special handling and permits are required when living materials are shipped from foreign countries. USDA programs such as Smuggling Interdiction and Trade Compliance (SITC) attempt to prevent exotic species outbreaks in America.

Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, are essential to the ecosystem of that area. If they are removed from the location it could be harmful to that area.

Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.

Within the aquatic environment
The development of maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean. Two ways marine organisms are transported to new environments are hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species. Many marine organisms have the capacity to attach themselves to vessel hulls. Therefore, these organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event. Unfortunately, controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of California and New Zealand have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.

The other main vector for the transport of non-native aquatic species is ballast water. Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels is the largest vector for non-native aquatic species invasions. In fact, it is estimated that 10,000 different species, many of which are non-indigenous, are transported via ballast water each day. Many of these species are considered harmful and can negatively affect their new environment. For example, freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, most likely reached the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel. Zebra mussels outcompete other native organisms for oxygen and food, such as algae. Although the zebra mussel invasion was first noted in 1988, and a mitigation plan was successfully implemented shortly thereafter, the plan had a serious flaw or loophole, whereby ships loaded with cargo when they reached the Seaway were not tested because their ballast water tanks were empty. However, even in an empty ballast tank, there remains a puddle of water filled with organisms that could be released at the next port (when the tank is filled with water after unloading the cargo, the ship takes on ballast water which mixes with the puddles and then everything including the living organisms in the puddles is discharged at the next port). Current regulations for the Great Lakes rely on ‘salinity shock’ to kill freshwater organisms left in ballast tanks.

Even though ballast water regulations are in place to protect against potentially invasive species, there exists a loophole for organisms in the 10–50 micron size class. For organisms between 10 and 50 microns, such as certain types of phytoplankton, current regulations allow less than 10 cells per milliliter be present in discharge from treatment systems. The discharge gets released when a ship takes on cargo at a port so the discharged water is not necessarily the same as the receiving body of water. Since many species of phytoplankton are less than 10 microns in size and reproduce asexually, only one cell released into the environment could exponentially grow into many thousands of cells over a short amount of time. This loophole could have detrimental effects to the environment. For example, some species in the genus Pseudo-nitzschia are smaller than 10 microns in width and contain domoic acid, a neurotoxin. If toxic Pseudo-nitzschia spp. are alive in ballast discharge and get released into their “new environment” they could cause domoic acid poisoning in shellfish, marine mammals and birds. Fortunately, human deaths related to domoic acid poisoning have been prevented because of stringent monitoring programs that arose after a domoic acid outbreak in Canada in 1987. Ballast water regulations need to be more rigorous to prevent future ramifications associated with the potential release of toxic and invasive phytoplankton.

Another important factor to consider about marine invasive species is the role of environmental changes associated with climate change, such as an increase in ocean temperature. There have been multiple studies suggesting an increase in ocean temperature will cause range shifts in organisms, which could have detrimental effects on the environment as new species interactions emerge. For example, Hua and Hwang proposed that organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperature zone through tropical waters can experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20 °C. To further examine the effects of temperature on organisms transported on hulls or in ballast water, Lenz et al. (2018) carried out study where they conducted a double heat stress experiment. Their results suggest that heat challenges organisms face during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range by selecting for genetically adapted genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population. Due to the complexity of climate change induced variations, it is difficult to predict the nature of temperature-based success of non-native species in-situ. Since some studies have suggested increased temperature tolerance of “hijackers” on ships’ hulls or in ballast water, it is necessary to develop more comprehensive fouling and ballast water management plans in an effort to prevent against future possible invasions as environmental conditions continue to change around the world.

Effects of wildfire and firefighting
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem (wildfires, roads, foot trails) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can sterilize soils, while adding a variety of nutrients. In the resulting free-for-all, formerly entrenched species lose their advantage, leaving more room for invasives. In such circumstances plants that can regenerate from their roots have an advantage. Non-natives with this ability can benefit from a low intensity fire burn that removes surface vegetation, leaving natives that rely on seeds for propagation to find their niches occupied when their seeds finally sprout.

Wildfires often occur in remote areas, needing fire suppression crews to travel through pristine forest to reach the site. The crews can bring invasive seeds with them. If any of these stowaway seeds become established, a thriving colony of invasives can erupt in as few as six weeks, after which controlling the outbreak can need years of continued attention to prevent further spread. Also, disturbing the soil surface, such as cutting firebreaks, destroys native cover, exposes soil, and can accelerate invasions. In suburban and wildland-urban interface areas, the vegetation clearance and brush removal ordinances of municipalities for defensible space can result in excessive removal of native shrubs and perennials that exposes the soil to more light and less competition for invasive plant species.

Fire suppression vehicles are often major culprits in such outbreaks, as the vehicles are often driven on back roads overgrown with invasive plant species. The undercarriage of the vehicle becomes a prime vessel of transport. In response, on large fires, washing stations "decontaminate" vehicles before engaging in suppression activities. Large wildfires attract firefighters from remote places, further increasing the potential for seed transport.

Adverse effects
Invasive species can affect the invaded habitats and bioregions adversely, causing ecological, environmental, or economic damage.

Ecological
The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity. Biotic invasion is considered one of the five top drivers for global biodiversity loss and is increasing because of tourism and globalization. This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation.

Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridisation with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the world's fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity. It is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion. Although evidence is strong that the recent extinction of about 90 amphibian species can be traced to the chytrid fungus spread by international trade, most scientific research has focused on animal invaders. Concern over the impacts of invasive species on biodiversity typically weighs the actual evidence (either ecological or economic) in relation to the potential risk.

Land clearing and human habitation put significant pressure on local species. Disturbed habitats are prone to invasions that can have adverse effects on local ecosystems, changing ecosystem functions. A species of wetland plant known as aeae in Hawaii (the indigenous Bacopa monnieri) is regarded as a pest species in artificially manipulated water bird refuges because it quickly covers shallow mudflats established for endangered Hawaiian stilt (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), making these undesirable feeding areas for the birds.

Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can have interactive effects; the introduction of a second non-native species can enable the first invasive species to flourish. Examples of this are the introductions of the amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) and the European green crab (Carcinus maenas). The gem clam was introduced into California's Bodega Harbor from the East Coast of the United States a century ago. It had been found in small quantities in the harbor but had never displaced the native clam species (Nutricola spp.). In the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab, found to prey preferentially on the native clams, resulted in a decline of the native clams and an increase of the introduced clam populations.

Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regime (cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum), nutrient cycling (smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora), and hydrology (Tamarix) in native ecosystems. Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species. For example, hybridization with introduced cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, threatens the existence of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) in San Francisco Bay. Invasive species cause competition for native species and because of this 400 of the 958 endangered species under the Endangered Species Act are at risk.

The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change forest ecology and damage the timber industry. Overall, forest ecosystems in the U.S. are widely invaded by exotic pests, plants, and pathogens.

The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions. The woolly adelgid has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce, fir and hemlock forests and damages the Christmas tree industry. And the chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma novo-ulmi) are two plant pathogens with serious impacts on these two species and on forest health. Garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, is one of the most problematic invasive plant species in eastern North American forests. The characteristics of garlic mustard are slightly different from those of the surrounding native plants, which results in a highly successful species that is altering the composition and function of the native communities it invades. When garlic mustard invades the understory of a forest, it affects the growth rate of tree seedlings, which is likely to alter forest regeneration of impact forest composition in the future.

Native species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution. Genetic pollution is unintentional hybridization and introgression, which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical or fitness advantage of the introduced species. Genetic pollution occurs either through introduction or through habitat modification, where previously isolated species are brought into contact with the new genotypes. Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time. The population size of invading species may remain small for a number of years and then experience an explosion in population, a phenomenon known as "the lag effect".

Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through introgression. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, Spartina alterniflora was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native Spartina foliosa. The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in introgression that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species. Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal, and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes. An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes with the red wolf, in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced. The end result was a decrease in stable breeding pairs of red wolf, which may further complicate the social stability of packs and reintroduction efforts.

Environmental
Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term public health implications. For instance, pesticides applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water. Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as HIV to the wider population. Introduced birds (e.g. pigeons), rodents and insects (e.g. mosquito, flea, louse and tsetse fly pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, typhus, and bubonic plague, spread via these vectors. A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles. The introduced Chinese mitten crabs are carriers of Asian lung fluke. Waterborne disease agents, such as cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae), and causative agents of harmful algal blooms are often transported via ballast water.

Economic
Globally, 1.4 trillion dollars are spent every year in managing and controlling invasive species. Some invaders can negatively affect the economy of the local area. For example, in the Great Lakes Region the sea lamprey is an invasive species that acts as a predator. In its original habitat, the sea lamprey used co-evolution to act as a parasite without killing the host organism. However, in the Great Lakes Region, this co-evolutionary link is absent, so the sea lamprey acts as a predator and can consume up to 40 pounds of fish in its 12–18 month feeding period. Sea lampreys prey on all types of large fish such as lake trout and salmon. The sea lampreys' destructive effects on large fish negatively affect the fishing industry and have helped cause the collapse of the population of some species.

Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control cost of invasive species in the U.S. alone amount to more than $138 billion annually. Economic losses can also occur through loss of recreational and tourism revenues. When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase. The following examples from different sectors of the economy demonstrate the impact of biological invasions.

It is often argued that the key to reducing the costs of invasive species damage and management is early detection and rapid response, meaning that incurring an initial cost of searching for and finding an invasive species and quickly controlling it, while the population is small, is less expensive that managing the invasive population when it is widespread and already causing damage. However, an intense search for the invader is only important to reduce costs in cases where the invasive species is (1) not frequently reintroduced into the managed area and (2) cost effective to search for and find.

Weeds reduce yield in agriculture, though they may provide essential nutrients. Some deep-rooted weeds can "mine" nutrients (see dynamic accumulator) from the subsoil and deposit them on the topsoil, while others provide habitat for beneficial insects or provide foods for pest species. Many weed species are accidental introductions that accompany seeds and imported plant material. Many introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young cattle (e.g., leafy spurge, Euphorbia esula) or are unpalatable because of thorns and spines (e.g., yellow starthistle). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. alone. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees infected by the invasive varroa mite. Introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. The introduction of leaf miner flies, including the American serpentine leaf miner, to California has also caused losses in California's floriculture industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants.

Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can also suppress agricultural yields and nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (ACP). Because of the impacts of this disease on citrus crops, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where ACP has been found.

Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, hunting, hiking, wildlife viewing, and water-based activities. They can damage a wide array of environmental services that are important to recreation, including, but not limited to, water quality and quantity, plant and animal diversity, and species abundance. Eiswerth states, "very little research has been performed to estimate the corresponding economic losses at spatial scales such as regions, states, and watersheds". Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in parts of the US, fill lakes with plants complicating fishing and boating. The very loud call of the introduced common coqui depresses real estate values in affected neighborhoods of Hawaii.

Favorable effects
Invasive species have the potential to provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role. An example of this is the Tamarisk, a non-native woody plant, and the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher, an endangered bird. 75% of Southwestern Willow Flycatchers were found to nest in these plants and their success was the same as the flycatchers that had nested in native plants. The removal of Tamarisk would be detrimental to Southwestern Willow Flycatcher as their native nesting sites are unable to be restored.

The second way that non-native species can be beneficial is that they act as catalysts for restoration. This is because the presence of non-native species increases the heterogeneity and biodiversity in an ecosystem. This increase in heterogeneity can create microclimates in sparse and eroded ecosystems, which then promotes the growth and reestablishment of native species. The last benefit of non-native species is that they provided ecosystem services. The major example are pollinators. The American Honey bee was introduced in the rainforest to pollinate fragmented landscapes that native species cannot. Also, non-native species can function as biocontrol agents to limit the effects of invasive species, such as the use of non-native species to control agricultural pests.

Asian oysters, for example, filter water pollutants better than native oysters to Chesapeake Bay. A study by the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health found the Asian oyster could significantly benefit the bay's deteriorating water quality. Additionally, some species have invaded an area so long ago that they have found their own beneficial niche in the environment, a term referred to as naturalisation. For example, the bee L. leucozonium, shown by population genetic analysis to be an invasive species in North America, has become an important pollinator of caneberry as well as cucurbit, apple trees, and blueberry bushes.

Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, silver carp and common carp can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into pet foods, or mink feed. Water hyacinth can be turned into fuel by methane digesters, and other invasive plants can also be harvested and utilized as a source of bioenergy.

Eradication and study
Human behavioral potential and plasticity in species-environment interactions create possibilities for remediating adverse effects of species invasions.

Reestablishing species
The field of island restoration has developed as a field of conservation biology and ecological restoration, a large part of which deals with the eradication of invasive species. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth's most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved.

Invasive vertebrate eradication on islands was found to align with the majority of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and numerous associated targets such as marine and terrestrial biodiversity conservation, promotion of local and global partnerships, economic development, climate change mitigation, human health and sanitation and sustainable production and consumption.

Rodents were carried to South Georgia, an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean with no permanent inhabitants, in the 18th century by sealing and whaling ships. They soon wrought havoc on the island’s bird population, eating eggs and attacking chicks. In 2018, the South Georgia Island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multi-year extermination effort. Post-extermination, bird populations have rebounded, including populations of the South Georgia pipit and South Georgia pintail, two species found only on the island.

Problematic exotic disease introductions in the past century or so include the chestnut blight which has almost eliminated the American chestnut tree from its forest habitat. Responses to increase the population of the American chestnut include creating blight resistant trees that can be reintroduced. This displays both the negative and the positive aspects of introduced species.

Taxon substitution
Non-native species can be introduced to fill an ecological engineering role that previously was performed by a native species now extinct. The procedure is known as taxon substitution.

On many islands, tortoise extinction has resulted in dysfunctional ecosystems with respect to seed dispersal and herbivory. On the offshore islets of Mauritius, tortoises now extinct had served as the keystone herbivores. Introduction of the non-indigenous Aldabra giant tortoises on two islets in 2000 and 2007 has begun to restore ecological equilibrium. The introduced tortoises are dispersing seeds of several native plants and are selectively grazing invasive plant species. Grazing and browsing are expected to replace ongoing intensive manual weeding, and the introduced tortoises are already breeding.

Invasivorism
Invasive species are flora and fauna whose introduction into a habitat disrupts the native eco-system. In response, Invasivorism is a movement that explores the idea of eating invasive species in order to control, reduce, or eliminate their populations. Chefs from around the world have begun seeking out and using invasive species as alternative ingredients.

In 2005 Chef Bun Lai of Miya's Sushi in New Haven, Connecticut created the first menu dedicated to the idea of using invasive species, during which time half the menus invasive species offerings were conceptual because invasive species were not yet commercially available. Today, Miya's offers a plethora of invasive species such as Chesapeake blue catfish, Florida lionfish, Kentucky silver carp, Georgia cannonball jellyfish, and invasive edible plants such as Japanese knotweed and Autumn olive.

Joe Roman, a Harvard and University of Vermont conservation biologist who is the recipient of the Rachel Carson Environmental award, is the editor and chief of Eat The Invaders, a website dedicated to encouraging people to eat invasive species as part of a solution to the problem.

Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the Indo-Pacific lionfish that has now virtually taken over the waters of the Western Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico—eradication is almost impossible. Critics argue that encouraging consumption might have the unintended effect of spreading harmful species even more widely.

Proponents of invasivorism argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the Dodo bird, the Caribbean monk seal, and the passenger pigeon. Proponents of invasivorism also point to the success that Jamaica has had in significantly decreasing the population of lionfish by encouraging the consumption of the fish.

In recent years, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation and the Institute for Applied Ecology, among others, have published cookbooks and recipes that include invasive species as ingredients.

Terminology
While the study of invasive species can be done within many subfields of biology, the majority of research on invasive organisms has been within the field of ecology and geography where the issue of biological invasions is especially important. Much of the study of invasive species has been influenced by Charles Elton's 1958 book The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants which drew upon the limited amount of research done within disparate fields to create a generalized picture of biological invasions. Studies on invasive species remained sparse until the 1990s when research in the field experienced a large amount of growth which continues to this day. This research, which has largely consisted of field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with terrestrial plants. The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists within the study of invasive species which itself lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as "Invasion ecology" or more generally "Invasion biology". This lack of standard terminology is a significant problem, and has largely arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field which borrows terms from numerous disciplines such as agriculture, zoology, and pathology, as well as due to studies on invasive species being commonly performed in isolation of one another.

In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on biogeography rather than on taxa.

By discarding taxonomy, human health, and economic factors, this model focused only on ecological factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful.

title: User:Canhelp/sandbox/Invasive species


text:
Weird Genius

Weird Genius is an Indonesian DJ and record production group based Pop music, EDM, and synth-pop consisting of three members are Reza Oktovian, Eka Gustiwana, and Roy Leonard Soewarno. This group was formed in 2016 and released their first song in 2017 with the title DPS.

History
Weird Genius started composing music together in 2016. Previously, they already had their respective projects. As soon as they decided to join, all their abilities poured fully into this collaborative endeavor. They take inspiration from anywhere about love to life, social to gaming. When asked about the description of Weird Genius' music, they described it as hard, upbeat, pumping, crazy-drop. This style of music that they deliberately built from the beginning.

However. on 25 September 2019, Billy Taner decided to leave the group and was eventually replaced by Gerald Liu.

On 28 February 2020, Weird Genius release the song "Lathi" featuring Sara Fajira on YouTube and viral at social media specially on TikTok. Some of Weird Genius's achievements with their song "Lathi" in 2020 include: #1 on Spotify Indonesia Top 50, #2 on Spotify Viral Top 50 Global, #1 on Spotify Viral Top 50 Indonesia, #1 in iTunes Indonesia Top 200, #1 in Deezer Indonesia Top 300, #1 in JOOX Indonesia Top 100, #1 on Resso Top 30 Global, #1 on Resso Indonesia Top 20, #1 on TikTok Global 20, on #1 Shazam Chart Indonesia and topped song dates on some of the top radio stations in major cities in Indonesia.

On 30 June 2020, Spotify released a press release stating that the song "Lathi" has broken a new record as a local song that has topped the # 1 longest chart for 6 consecutive weeks on Spotify Indonesia's Top 50 Chart.

On 31 July 2020, Weird Genius have collaboration single with several international DJs to collaborate on music, including Yellow Claw featuring Reikko with the title track "Hush".

On 18 August 2020, Weird Genius officially signed with American record label Astralwerks for international music activities.

Weird Genius won Best of the Best Production Work, Best Sound Production Team, and Best Male/Female Solo Artist/Group/Dance Collaboration for the song "Lathi" at the 23rd Anugerah Musik Indonesia on 26 November 2020. The day after that, they released a collaborative song with League of Legends: Wild Rift, called "All In" and for vocals they collaborated with Singaporean singer, Tabitha Nauser.

On 4 December 2020, Weird Genius released a remixed version of "Lathi" consisting of three remixes by R3hab, Sihk, and RayRay.

On 5 February 2021, they released "Last Summer", a collaboration with Japanese producer Tokyo Machine and Canadian singer Lights via Monstercat. The accompanying animated music video for the track was later released on 24 May 2021.

On 10 September 2021, Weird Genius released "Future Ghost" featuring Thai-Belgian singer Violette Wautier.

On October 10, 2023, Weird Genius announced the departure of Gerald Liu through their official Instagram account, following his decision to pursue a solo music career. The announcement stated that Gerald Liu's final performance with the group would be on October 21, 2023, during the Playlist Festival in Bandung. Subsequently, Roy Leonard Soewarno, known as Roycdc, was introduced as a new member of Weird Genius, as revealed in an Instagram post showing a picture of the new lineup.

Members
Current
 * Reza Oktovian, born 15 October 1987 – Founder (2016 – present)
 * Eka Gustiwana, born 1 August 1989 – Record producer, keyboardist and synthesizer (2016 – present)
 * Roycdc, born 7 May 1994 – Record producer and DJ mixer (2023 – present)

Former
 * Billy Taner, born 10 March 1994 – Record producer and DJ mixer (2016 – 2019)
 * Gerald Liu, born 10 February 1996 – Record producer and DJ mixer (2019 – 2023)

Headlining

 * Velvet Thorns Tour (2019)
 * Lathi Tour (2020)

Co-headlining

 * Viral Fest Asia Festival Bangkok (2017)
 * Soundrenaline Bali (2017)
 * Yellow Claw’s Indonesian Tour (2018)
 * Sky Garden Bali (2018)
 * The Chainsmokers Live in Concert Jakarta (2018)
 * SHVR Jakarta (2018 & 2019)

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Weird Genius


text:
Talk:General Biology/Cells/Cell Structure

TIVI Finding Cancer Cells Faster
Researchers at the University of Illinois have used a new microscopy technique, termed nonlinear interferometric vibrational imaging (NIVI), and produced color coded images of tissue, showing clear tumor boundaries, with more than 99% confidence in less than five minutes.

Current diagnostic methods require a day or more to show biopsy results, and are based on visual interpretations of cell structure. NIVI can assist in making diagnostics faster and more quantitative. Instead of focusing on cell structure and tissue structure, NIVI constructs images based on molecular composition, which is much clearer than the current visual method used by pathologists. Cancer cells produce more protein, a useful fact that NIVI uses to identify cancer cells, without relying on the staining method used currently. Another advantage of NIVI is that it shows a better mapping of tumor boundaries, the uncertain boundary zone of NIVI being only 100 microns.

Since each type of molecule has its own unique vibrational energy, enhancing the resonance of that vibration is used by NIVI to identify cells with high concentrations of that molecule. Two beams of light are used to excite molecules in a tissue sample. One beam serves as a reference, so that background noise can be cancelled and the molecular signal can be isolated. The resulting spectrum produces a color coded image for the tissue (for example, blue for normal cells, red for cancer cells).

Further improvements to NIVI are being worked on. Other light sources (different lasers) may make NIVI portable. The research is sponsored by The National Cancer Institute.

References

P. D. Chowdary, Z. Jiang, E. J. Chaney, W. A. Benalcazar, D. L. Marks, M. Gruebele, S. A. Boppart. Molecular Histopathology by Spectrally Reconstructed Nonlinear Interferometric Vibrational Imaging. Cancer Research, 2010; DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-1554

Not to be rude, but what does this have to to do with general biology for high school students? Svrangerchrista (discuss • contribs) 21:11, 23 April 2017 (UTC)


text:
Electric VLSI Design System

The Electric VLSI Design System is software released under the LGPL, currently at version 8.04.

VLSI is stands for "Very Large Scale Integration", and it relates to the IC fabrication, with a number of transistors greater than 100,000 per chip

VLSI also related to VHDL "Very high speed IC Hardware Description Language", and Verilog, which are a Hardware description languages, but they are related to the Digital design part of VLSI

Mainly VLSI technology can be divided to a three branches,

Analog VLSI: this branch dedicated to the transistor level and to the fabrication, also dedicated to the analog circuit analysis to fabricate the IC with the highest Technology (you can find terms like: transistor, CMOS, Gate, Capacitance, modulation effect, parasitic capacitance, channel length, clean room, lithography .... etc) in this branch

Digital VLSI: is the branch which is dedicated to deal with VLSI in digital design, a part from its lower level in Analog and transistor level(you can find terms like: FPGA, VHDL, Verilog, Adder, Digital design, Multiplexers, Processors design,.....etc)

Mixed Signal VLSI: is the branch the communicate the first branch with the second, which is responsiable to convert the analog signals to digital and digital to analog.

title: Electric VLSI Design System


text:
3 Kings

Proper noun

 * 1)  A book of the Old Testament of Bible, and of the Tanakh.

Translations

 * Greek: Γ' Βασιλειών

title: 3 Kings


text:
Cookbook talk:Boiling

The initial two posts were copied and pasted from the "Woman's Institute Library of Cookery Volume 1", found at Project Gutenberg. liblamb 23:11, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Are you sure?
"Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat, softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves other substances in many foods."

Is that "toughens" or "softens" ?

pop
pop

title: Cookbook talk:Boiling


text:
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Tampa Bay Buccaneers/archive1

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
It's a good article. It cover all the players and major history and stats.
 * [[Image:Symbol oppose vote.svg|15px]] Oppose While I'm a Bucs fan, this article just doesn't cut it. Most certainly, not nearly enough referencing.  This wouldn't even pass GA-class muster. --Kitch 17:05, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Object; sorry, no inline citations or references. --Spangineeres (háblame)  19:35, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose The article has too many lists towards the end, and as commented by Spangineer the article has no inline citations (readily demanded from FAs nowadays) and no references. Also, the trivia section rears its head - if the info it contains is relevant integrate it into the article otherwise remove the info. LuciferMorgan 22:35, 15 August 2006 (UTC)


text:
Handbook of Descriptive Statistics

This book aims to function as a comprehensive reference guide to the measures used in descriptive statistics. For a general introduction to statistics, see Statistics instead.

It has a section on all the common measures, and they are categorised according to type. Initially we shall concentrate on univariate statistics. Entries should be brief, information-packed and not overly tutorial in nature. Assume a reader which already has a basic knowledge of statistics, and needs detailed information or a refresher.

See /Template/ for how an entry should look.

Table of contents

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) /Types of Statistical Variables/
 * 3) /Measures of Central Tendency/
 * 4) Arithmetic Mean
 * 5) Median
 * 6) Mode
 * 7) Midrange
 * 8) Geometric Mean
 * 9) Harmonic Mean
 * 10) Truncated Mean
 * 11) Interquartile Mean
 * 12) Root Mean Square
 * 13) Trimean
 * 14) Measures of Statistical Variability
 * 15) Variance
 * 16) Population Variance
 * 17) Standard Deviation
 * 18) Range
 * 19) Interquartile range
 * 20) Semiquartile range
 * 21) Absolute Deviation
 * 22) Geometric Standard Deviation
 * 23) Measures of Distribution Shape
 * 24) Skewness
 * 25) Kurtosis
 * 26) Chi-Squared Goodness of Fit
 * 27) Shapiro-Wilks W
 * 28) Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

title: Handbook of Descriptive Statistics


text:
User:Alexbone89/sandbox/sandbox Peltogyne purpurea

Peltogyne purpurea, commonly known as nazareno, or purpleheart, is a species of Peltogyne tree native to Panama, the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and the Atlantic coast of Colombia.

Distribution
Peltogyne purpurea is native to Panama, the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, and the Atlantic coast of Colombia. It is a common canopy tree in rainforests 50-500 meters above sea level at sites with more than 2500 mm rainfall per year and temperatures from 23 to 27°C. It occupies sites with well-drained and deep loamy soils in sloping terrains, as well as poor, reddish clay soils with high concentrations of iron and aluminum.

Description
Peltogyne purpurea grows up to 50 meters tall and 1 meter in diameter. It has a rounded crown and typically short buttress roots that occasionally reach 3 meters tall. Purpleheart bark is smooth and light gray in old trees. Its distinct coloration makes it recognizable from great distances.

The leaves are alternate, pinnate and composed of a single pair of leaflets that are 5-7 cm long and 2-3 cm broad. Peltogyne purpurea reproduces between August and December, depending on geographic location. The flowers are white, aromatic, and small, and are arranged in subterminal panicles, or clusters. Purpleheart fruit matures between November and February. Fruits are brown with single seed pods. They are compressed, oval-shaped, and usually grow to 5 cm long.

In Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia, Peltogyne purpurea has been declared a vulnerable species. Peltogyne purpurea was included in the Red Book of Plants of Colombia: Endangered Timber Species, under the IUCN designation of Vulnerable (VU).

Wood
Purpleheart wood is heavy (0.8-1 g/cm3) with a medium to fine texture. The sapwood is gray-yellow, whereas the heartwood is bright purple with dark stripes. The wood is difficult to work with, dry, and preserve, but has a high natural durability. Purpleheart wood is popular for manufacturing floors, furniture, structural elements, and architectural finishes due to its physical and mechanical properties.

Purpleheart wood is moderately difficult to work with hand or machine tools. Slow feed rates and hardened cutters are suggested, because purpleheart exudes a gummy resin when heated by dull tools. The wood turns smoothly, is easy to glue and takes finishes well.

Cultivation
There is little information about cultivation, because Peltogyne purpurea is not commercially cultivated. Its fruits can be collected directly from the tree, or from the soil once fruits have fallen. To remove the seeds, fruits must to be exposed to sunlight for 3-4 hours for one or two days. Seeds can be stored 2 to 3 years with regulated conditions of 5 °C and 6-8 % humidity. A kilogram of seeds has between 2200 to 2500 seeds.

In a plant nursery, seeds can be planted in disinfected sand seedbeds. Once plants reach 8-10 cm (normally 4 weeks after germination), plants are ready to be transplanted to the pots, bags or boxes. A plant will be ready to be planted in the field once it reaches 23 cm.

Peltogyne purpurea is a recognizable, coveted and highly exploited species; however, it is poorly studied and the only research that has been undertaken is in Costa Rica.

Uses
In Costa Rica and Panama, Purpleheart wood is an economically valuable tree, however its harvest is prohibited by law. The wood is commonly used for general carpentry, interior and exterior decoration, furniture, cabinet work, flooring, marquetry, stairways, and luxury coffins.


text:
Wejherowo Cementownia railway station

Wejherowo Cementownia (Wejherowo Cement Plant) is a non-operational PKP railway station on the disused PKP rail line 230 in Wejherowo (Pomeranian Voivodeship), Poland, named for the neighbouring cement works.

title: Wejherowo Cementownia railway station


text:
Talk:Charles August Lindbergh

Charles August or Charles Augustus?
Was he named Charles August or Charles Augustus Lindbergh? This article uses both. The Bibliographical Directory of the U.S. Congress seems fairly authoritative, and has him as Charles August Lindbergh. -- Avenue 08:48, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * It doesn't really much, does it? It is likely both were used.  Just merge the two separate articles into one, please.  There's no reason to have Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Sr. duplicating this Charles August Lindbergh article.  Flip a coin; leave redirects from the other spellings, with and without the Sr.  Gene Nygaard 05:51, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Having both August and Augustus in the article increases the probability of being found in a search engine search. Gene Nygaard 05:53, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

Merge complete. -- Avenue 14:06, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

Will get complete Quote very soon. everyone copies the cut one -Theblackbay 06:37, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I have:
 * "This Act establishes the most gigantic trust on Earth. When the President signs this bill, the invisible government by the Monetary Power will be legalized, the people may not know it immediately but the day of reckoning is only a few years removed.... The worst legislative crime of the ages is prepetrated by this banking bill."

Source: [[The Money Masters] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Money_Masters] Video: The Money Masters

Thank you, i got caught up with the B H Freedman page. great work great video. inspiration for Aaron Russo's Freedom the Facisim? -Theblackbay 15:15, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

The Money Masters is NOT a source, it is just a regurgitator who never ventured inside a library. When, where, to whom did Lindbergh say that ? Please copy and paste from Congressional Record. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nt351 (talk • contribs) 20:10, 9 January 2010 (UTC)

quotes
Those alleged quotes from Mr. Lindbergh should be properly sourced -- if genuine. A link to a site that regurgitates what conspiracist gasbags regurgitate is not good enough. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nt351 (talk • contribs) 20:07, 9 January 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Charles August Lindbergh


text:
Talk:Rudderow-class destroyer escort

recomisssioned
i know an officer that served on the uss delong it was recomissioned during the cuban missle crises.Jesgreenleaf 11:57, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

Cancelled units
There's a number of ships that were ordered as members of this class but which were cancelled before completion, that have links pointing here (at least one, USS Weeks DE-285, from a AfD result), but the table only mentions completed ships. This should probably be rectified at some point? - The Bushranger One ping only 01:48, 6 November 2017 (UTC)

So why is one shown as preserved in the table with the statistics for the class as a whole...
When the list at the bottom of the article showing each individual ship that was completed shows that each was either scrapped or scuttled as a target.

Can't have it both ways. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2604:6000:a645:2100:68b0:a887:a5db:349c (talk) 04:24, 5 March 2018

Error found and fixed! Numech (talk) 16:51, 30 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rudderow-class destroyer escort


text:
Talk:Fall of the Giants (Romano)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 01:44, 18 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Ceiling of the Room of the giants in Palazzo Te, Mantua.jpg

title: Talk:Fall of the Giants (Romano)


text:
Ranally city rating system

The Ranally city rating system is a tool developed by Rand McNally & Co. to classify U.S. cities based on their economic function. The system is designed to reflect an underlying hierarchy whereby consumers and businesses go to a city of a certain size for a certain function; some functions are widely available and others are only available in the largest cities.

The system was developed for Rand McNally by geographer Richard L. Forstall and released in 1964. The city rankings are updated periodically in the Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide, an annual two-volume set, which is available in many libraries. Among the criteria for categorization are retail sales, newspaper circulation, and the presence of universities and hospitals and corporate headquarters. The size of the city's tributary area is critical to determining whether it will be rated a 2, 3, or 4. As of 2006, there are 1492 cities rated.

The system consists of a number and a letter. The number reflects a city's importance in the national hierarchy. Nationally important business centers are ranked 1. Regional business centers are ranked 2. Significant local business centers are ranked 3 and business centers whose importance is purely local are ranked 4. the letter reflects its importance in its own area. Doubled letters serve to distinguish centers within a class. The most important center in a market (trading area) is given some kind of A. Other business centers in the same market area will be given B or C depending on their importance. For example, Dallas is rated 1-AA (a nationally important business center) and Fort Worth is rated 2-BB. B cities constitute basic trading centers, while C cities do not.

Rand McNally divides the country into basic trading areas (487 as of 2008), each of which has exactly one A-rated city. The basic trading areas are aggregated into major trading areas, of which there are 51. The Federal Communications Commission uses these areas for determining wireless territory boundaries.

New York City has always been given the unique rating 1-AAAA due to its preeminent status in the national hierarchy. Chicago was originally the only other city rated 1-AAA as having influence over a large area of the country. In 1988, Los Angeles was similarly given a 1-AAA rating. Thirteen cities are given the rating 1-AA as major national business centers: Atlanta, Boston, Cleveland, Dallas, Detroit, Houston, Miami, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.

Notes: The B and C cities are secondary because they are in the same market area as a city rated A.

While those are only abstract examples of the ratings, consider how the system works in practice with the example of Ohio. Rand McNally conceives of Ohio as consisting of nineteen markets (trading areas) with some peripheral counties being contained in trading areas of other states. The table below shows the nineteen trading areas in order of hierarchy. Each has an A-rated city. Some also have other rated cities and suburbs.

Example: Ohio

The system is applied by businesses seeking to serve a network of customers with the greatest efficiency. For example, a company that services elevators or a wholesaler of paper bags would want to locate its field representatives primarily in A rated cities. The Rural Health Research Center at the University of Minnesota published a report in 2008 on access to physicians in rural areas which uses the system to evaluate access to physicians in rural areas.

title: Ranally city rating system


text:
User:RButterworth95

Self proclaimed film buff, Grindhouse/exploitation horror movie lover, collector of Tartan Asia Extreme movie series, particular fan of South Korean cinema and the films of Park Chan Wook.

title: User:RButterworth95


text:
Talk:Miss Earth BiH

Artchino (talk) 02:20, 10 February 2015 (UTC)Hi! Let's make this clean as much as possible for a quality article. Thank you!

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Miss Earth BiH. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070125173106/http://english.vietnamnet.vn:80/lifestyle/2003/10/149804/ to http://english.vietnamnet.vn/lifestyle/2003/10/149804/

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 19:35, 26 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140104185133/http://www.sashfactor.info/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=5372&sid= to http://www.sashfactor.info/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=5372&sid=

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 06:02, 2 February 2018 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 2 March 2022
Cedomirstevanovic (talk) 10:31, 2 March 2022 (UTC)
 * leader_name = Cedomir Stevanovic (2010-present)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 11:46, 2 March 2022 (UTC)

 * You can confirm that with former national director Drago Gavranovic,also with Miss Earth organisation.
 * I am national director and my company Miss Earth BH Agency is from 2014 owner of franchise for Miss Earth Bosnia,and From 2017 for Miss Earth Croatia also,and from 2018 for Serbia,Croatia,Montenegro,Bulgaria and North Macedonia,also from 2024 for Switzerland. Cedomirstevanovic (talk) 11:46, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 27 December 2023
National director from 2014 Čedomir Stevanović Place Banjaluka Cedomirstevanovic (talk) 11:32, 27 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Don't open another request unless you can address these issues. You should also read WP:COI, as your username suggests that you are related to this person you're trying to add. Liu1126 (talk) 11:38, 27 December 2023 (UTC)
 * You can confirm that with former national director Drago Gavranovic,also with Miss Earth organisation.
 * I am national director and my company Miss Earth BH Agency is from 2014 owner of franchise for Miss Earth Bosnia,and From 2017 for Miss Earth Croatia also,and from 2018 for Serbia,Croatia,Montenegro,Bulgaria and North Macedonia,also from 2024 for Cedomirstevanovic (talk) 11:46, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Miss Earth BiH


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Truth Tables

= Truth Tables =

In the Formal Syntax, we earlier gave a formal semantics for sentential logic. A truth table is a device for using this form syntax in calculating the truth value of a larger formula given an interpretation (an assignment of truth values to sentence letters). Truth tables may also help clarify the material from the Formal Syntax.

Negation
We begin with the truth table for negation. It corresponds to clause (ii) of our definition for extended valuations.

T and F represent True and False respectively. Each row represents an interpretation. The first column shows what truth value the interpretation assigns to the sentence letter $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$. In the first row, the interpretation assigns $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ the value True. In the second row, the interpretation assigns $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ the value False.

The second column shows the value $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ receives under a given row's interpretation. Under the interpretation of the first row, $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ has the value False. Under the interpretation of the second row, $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ has the value True.

We can put this more formally. The first row of the truth table above shows that when $$\mathfrak{v}[\mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = True, $$\overline{\mathfrak{v}}[\lnot \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = False. The second row shows that when $$\mathfrak{v}[\mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = False, $$\overline{\mathfrak{v}}[\lnot \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = True. We can also put things more simply: a negation has the opposite truth value than that which is negated.

Conjunction
The truth table for conjunction corresponds to clause (iii) of our definition for extended valuations.

Here we have two sentence letters and so four possible interpretations, each represented by a single row. The first two columns show what the four interpretations assign to $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$. The interpretation represented by the first row assigns both sentence letters the value True, and so on. The last column shows the value assigned to $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$. You can see that the conjunction is true when both conjuncts are true—and the conjunction is false otherwise, namely when at least one conjunct is false.

Disjunction
The truth table for disjunction corresponds to clause (iv) of our definition for extended valuations.

Here we see that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true—and the disjunction is false otherwise, namely when both disjuncts are false.

Conditional
The truth table for conditional corresponds to clause (v) of our definition for extended valuations.

A conditional is true when either its antecedent is false or its consequent is true (or both). It is false otherwise, namely when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.

Biconditional
The truth table for biconditional corresponds to clause (vi) of our definition for extended valuations.

A biconditional is true when both parts have the same truth value. It is false when the two parts have opposite truth values.

Example
We will use the same example sentence from Formal Semantics:

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \lnot( \mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R})\ .\,\!$$

We construct its truth table as follows:

With three sentence letters, we need eight valuations (and so lines of the truth table) to cover all cases. The table builds the example sentence in parts. The $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ column was based on the $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ columns. The $$\mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R}\,\!$$ column was based on the $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$ columns. This in turn was the basis for its negation in the next column. Finally, the last column was based on the $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ and $$\lnot (\mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R})\,\!$$ columns.

We see from this truth table that the example sentence is false when both $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are true, and it is true otherwise.

This table can be written in a more compressed format as follows.

The numbers above the connectives are not part of the truth table but rather show what order the columns were filled in.


text:
Talk:Niru Devi Pal

BLP sensitivity dilemma
I added a part about an alleged death threat incident. The alleged incident and subsequent investigation was reported by two sources, so I think it's good. The last part about no progress being made, and whispers of fake dramah and cover up, etc. sounds like hearsay. I have included it as the previous reporting on the issue by the same source is confirmed by another, I would appreciate someone having a look at the last source (this) to see if our BLP policies forbid use of reports like this one, even for a public figure like the subject here. This incident is the only case that seems to readily come up as almost sigcov on her. I don't know how relevant that is. Thanks!  Usedtobecool  TALK ✨ 13:45, 22 September 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Niru Devi Pal


text:
Yashira Barrientos

Yashira Yuleth Barrientos González (born 29 November 1994) is a Mexican football forward who currently plays for León in the Liga MX Femenil.

Career
Yashira Barrientos was born on 29 November 1994 in Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas.

She played football since school and she was offered a scholarship to play and study at the Autonomous University of Nuevo León. During this time, she was part of the squad that represented Mexico at the 2019 Summer Universiade football tournament in Naples.

On 12 July 2019, Barrientos was signed to Guadalajara and she finished the 2019–20 season as the team's top scorer with nine goals.

title: Yashira Barrientos


text:
Cookbook:Indian Rice

| Cuisine of India | Vegan Cuisine

This makes an excellent side dish, and goes well with a large variety of things, from spicy eggplant to tofu to potatoes in coconut sauce.

Ingredients

 * 2 teaspoons olive oil
 * 1 teaspoon cumin
 * ½ cup raisins
 * ¼ cup cashews
 * 2 cups basmati rice
 * 4 cups water

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the olive oil in a pot.
 * 2) Add the cumin, then the raisins and cashews. Sauté for two minutes.
 * 3) Add the rice, and sauté for another minute.
 * 4) Add water, and bring everything to a boil.
 * 5) Lower the heat, cover, and cook for 12 minutes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Basmati rice is recommended, as other types may turn out poorly. Do not use Italian risotto rice, or any sticky rice.

title: Cookbook:Indian Rice


text:
Elizabeth Benson (sculptor)

Elizabeth Benson (1888–1976) was a South African sculptor. Her work was part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1936 Summer Olympics.

title: Elizabeth Benson (sculptor)


text:
Talk:Bobby Sheng

External links modified
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I have just modified 3 one external links on Bobby Sheng. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 04:26, 5 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bobby Sheng


text:
Organic Chemistry/Chirality/R-S notational system

Stereoisomers are properly named using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules to decide which parts of the molecule to consider first.

The rules have evolved to cover many situations, but the basic rules are:

 * 1) Consider the first atom of each part of the molecule. An atom with higher atomic number has higher priority. (e.g. I > Cl > C > H)
 * 2) If the first atom of two groups is the same, consider the second atom(s) in the same way as the first. (e.g. -C(CH3)3 > -CH(CH3)2 > -CH2CH3 > -CH3). If this does not assign priority, consider the next atoms until there is a difference.

Realize that when you do this it will mean that sometimes groups with higher total weights will have lower priority because of a lower weight of the atom that connects them.

R and S Notation
R- and S-notation use the CIP priority rules for the assignment of the absolute configuration around a stereocenter.

First, assign priorities as described above to each bonded group surrounding the stereocenter (1, highest to 4, lowest).

Second, point the lowest priority (4) atom away from you. Follow the direction of the remaining 3 priorities from highest to lowest priority (lowest to highest number, 1<2<3).

A counterclockwise direction is an S (sinister, Latin for left) configuration. A clockwise direction is an R (rectus, Latin for right) configuration.

R-S system RULES OF PRIORITY ORDER:-

(1)According to the atomic number when only atom is present and in a group the direct attached atom is considered with atomic number. (2)When two or more groups have similar first atom, the priority is determined by considering the atomic number of second atom. (3)If the first atom of two same groups have same substitutes of higher no will get more priority. (4)More atomic number containing atom and how many atoms are present of the higher atomic number containing elements.

E-Z notation
The R-/S- notation is valid only for the absolute configuration of a center having single bonds only. In the case of a double bond, the traditional cis/trans nomenclature system is not sufficiently accurate and the E-/Z- is currently preferred.

The basis is again the CIP priority rules.

See main discussion: E-Z notation


text:
Wizja Pogoda

Wizja Pogoda was the first Polish TV weather channel. The channel started in 1998 and ceased in 2002.

History
The channel was co-produced by Wizja TV and The Weather Department. Weather forecasts were prepared using advanced computer technology based on data from some 6,000 meteorological stations worldwide. Forecasts were updated twice a day. The channel was liquidated in 2002 due to the merger of Vision with Cyfra+

Initially, Wizja Pogoda was dividing the air time with National Geographic Channel and later with the Travel Channel. The program was broadcast from the morning until 1 pm (or until 2 pm when time-sharing with National Geographic Channel).

The station was available on the digital platform Wizja TV.

title: Wizja Pogoda


text:
Kavitha, Anand district

Kavitha is one of the 65 villages in the Borsad (Vidhan Sabha constituency) in Anand district of Gujarat, a state in Western India.

History
Prior to India's independence, as mentioned by Ambedkar in his writings, Kavitha was one of the villages known for incidents of caste based discrimination against Harijans. In 1935, when the untouchables of the village demanded from the Hindus of the village that their children should be admitted in the common school of the village along with other Hindu children, the Hindus were enraged at this outrage and took their revenge by proclaiming a complete social boycott. Ambedkar notes that the Garasia boys of the village threw Kerosene in the well used by the Dhedh and Chamar people.

title: Kavitha, Anand district


text:
Gulab Singh Yadav

Gulab Singh Yadav is an Indian politician and a member of the Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency) in India. He represents the Matiala constituency of Delhi and is a member of the Aam Aadmi Party political party.

Early life and education
Gulab Singh Yadav was born in Delhi. He attended the National Institute of Open Schooling and is educated till twelfth grade.

Political career
Gulab Singh Yadav is a MLA for two terms. He represents the Matiala constituency and is a member of the Aam Aadmi Party political party. On 21 November 2022, he was beaten in a public gathering by his own party workers accusing him of selling the coveted tickets for contesting MCD elections.

title: Gulab Singh Yadav


text:
ꙗсти

Alternative forms

 * Glagolitic:

Etymology
From, from , from.

Verb

 * 1) to eat
 * 2) * from Matthew 11:18:
 * "cu"

- придє иоанъ ни пиѧ ни ꙗдꙑ

 * 1) * from the Homily against the Bogumils, 1638:
 * "cu"

- праздьнꙑи не дѣлаѩ да не ꙗстъ

Descendants

 * Bulgarian:

title: ꙗсти


text:
prode

Etymology 1
From, invariable adjective derived from the prōdes- stem of the verb.

Adjective

 * 1) brave

Noun

 * 1) a brave person

Etymology 1
From a reanalysis of, third-person singular of , as.

Adjective

 * 1) profitable, useful

title: prode


text:
Tülay Babuşcu

Tülay Babuşcu (born 26 January 1976) is a Turkish politician from Balıkesir who caused controversy in early 2015 for publicly declaring the end of the Turkish Republic and the resumption of the Ottoman Empire. She serves as a Member of Parliament for the Balıkesir electoral district from the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) since the 2011 general election. She was previously an AKP municipal councillor and also a member of the administrative committee of the AKP's Balıkesir branch.

Born and educated in Balıkesir, Babuşcu studied pharmaceutics at Ege University and worked as a pharmacist for ten years. She is married with one child. Her father is a retired İmam Hatip (religious) school teacher and her husband is a businessman.

Babuşcu failed to secure renomination for the June 2015 general election.

Comments on the Republic
After President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan received Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas with an Ottoman-style ceremony in 2015, Babuşcu wrote on her Facebook account that '90 years of adverts' had come to an end and the Ottoman Empire was beginning to resume. Her statements received huge controversy for referring to the Turkish Republic (established approximately 90 years ago in 1923) as '90 years of adverts after 600 years of the Ottoman Empire'. Despite criticism from several journalists, politicians and the Istanbul Bars Association, Babuşcu released a second statement claiming that 'the adverts have finished, the film has started and will be released in 2023'. This was a reference to the AKP's election slogan Hedef 2023 (Target 2023) which itself refers to the centenary of the establishment of the republic. She again caused controversy for retweeting a tweet that referred to İsmet İnönü, the 2nd President of Turkey, as a 'bitch' and 'friend of the Byzantines'. She was forced to apologise for the tweet in Parliament and subsequently deleted it.

It was revealed shortly after her statements that Babuşcu had made in excess of 3 million Turkish liras by selling antique Ottoman tulips, mainly to AKP-held municipalities through her multimillion lira flower business.

title: Tülay Babuşcu


text:
interactome

Noun

 * 1)  All the interactions between biological entities in cells and organisms considered as a whole.

Translations

 * French:
 * German: Interaktom
 * Italian: interattoma
 * Russian: интеракто́м
 * Ukrainian: інтеракто́м

title: interactome


text:
Pure verbs

Pure verbs, or vocalic verbs, are those verbs of the Greek language that have their word stem ending in a vowel (monophthong of diphthong).

Origins
The Greek pure verbs can be assigned to several derivational types in the preceding Proto-Indo-European language:

Most of the verbs in -αω are derived from nominal ā-stems by forming the present tense with the suffix -i̯e-/-i̯o-: νικάω < *νῑκᾱ-i̯o- 'to win, prevail', from νίκα 'victory'; τιμάω < *τῑμᾱ-i̯o- 'to honor, revere', from τιμά 'honor'. A few verbs of this class underived verbs, e.g. δράω 'to do', σπάω mto draw, pull'.

Verbs in -εω are derived from a range of nominal stems: φιλέω < *φιλε-i̯o- 'to love', from φίλος 'dear, beloved'; τελέω < *τελεσ-i̯o- 'to finish', from τέλος 'target, destination'; φωνέω < *φωνε-i̯o- 'to make a sound', from φονή 'sound'; μαρτυρέω < *μαρτυρε-i̯o- 'to testify', from μάρτυς 'witness'. Examples for underived verbs in this class are: ῥέω < *ῥεϝω 'to flow', ζέω < *ζεσω 'to boil'.

The verbs in -οω are mainly factitives derived from nominal o-stems: δηλόω 'to clarify, reveal', from δῆλος 'clear, obvious', δουλόω 'to enslave, conquer', from δοῦλος 'servant, slave'.

The verbs in -ιω are derived from nominal i-stems: μηνίω 'to be angry', from μῆνις 'anger, wrath'.

Among the verbs in -υω, there are underived ones, e.g. φύω 'to produce, issue', as well as some denominal verbs derived from u-stems, e.g. μεθύω 'to be drunk', from μέθυ 'wine'.

The verbs in -ευω are derived from nominal consonant stems: παιδεύω 'to educate', from παῖς 'child', δουλεύω 'to serve, to be a slave', from δοῦλος 'servant, slave'.

The verbs in -αιω are derived with the -i̯e-/-i̯o-suffix from roots ending in u̯: καίω < *καϝ-i̯o- 'to burn'; κλαίω < *κλαϝ-i̯o- 'to weep, wail'.

Conjugation
The following tables show the conjugated forms of the pure verb λῡ́ειν 'to solve; to free; to destroy' in classical Attic Greek.

Contract verbs
In the present and imperfect tenses, the sounds represented by α and ο, in Attic Greek also ε, are usually merged with the following thematic vowel: τιμάω > τιμῶ 'I revere', καλέω > καλῶ 'I call'. In the Aeolic and Arcadocypriot dialects these verbs join the athematic class: κάλημμι ‘I call’.

Contract future tense forms
Some verbs in Attic Greek, among them all Verbs in -ίζω, have contracted future tense forms, that look the same as the present forms of verbs in -εω:

Literature

 * Carl Darling Buck, Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Chicago/London 1933, p. 262 ff.
 * Carl Darling Buck, The Greek Dialects, Chicago 1955, p. 122 ff.
 * Jean Louis Burnouf, Méthode pour étudier la langue grecque, Paris 1835, p. 62 ff.
 * Raphael Kühner/Friedrich Blass, Ausführliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache. Erster Teil: Elementar- und Formenlehre II, 3rd revised edition, Hannover 1892, pp. 98 ff., 122 ff., 198 ff.

title: Pure verbs


text:
Komaki Kikuchi

Komaki Kikuchi (born 22 February 1997) is a Japanese fencer. She won the gold medal in the women's team foil event at the 2018 Asian Games held in Jakarta, Indonesia.

In 2019, she won the gold medal in the women's team foil event at the Asian Fencing Championships held in Chiba, Japan. In the same year, she also competed in the women's foil event at the World Fencing Championships held in Budapest, Hungary. She was eliminated in her first match by Julia Walczyk of Poland.

title: Komaki Kikuchi


text:
Talk:Australian History/Authors

I'm going to move this module to Australian History:Authors, otherwise every wikibook will try to list their authors on this page. Gentgeen 06:01, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Australian History/Authors


text:
Abydenus

Abydenus or Abydenos (Αβυδηνός) was a Greek historian who wrote a history of Assyria and Babylonia entitled On the Assyrians. Only some fragments are preserved by Eusebius in his Praeparatio Evangelica and the Armenian translation of his Chronicon; by Cyril of Alexandria in his work against the Emperor Julian; and by George Syncellus.

It is uncertain when he lived. He made use of the Chaldaika of Alexander Polyhistor, who wrote between 80 and 40 BC, and the earliest writer to cite him is Eusebius, writing around AD 300. Abydenus could have been alive at any point between these dates, but he most likely worked during the Second Sophistic in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Cyril states that he wrote in the Ionic dialect. He is to be distinguished from Palaephatus Abydenus, who lived in the time of Alexander the Great.

title: Abydenus


text:
效尤

Etymology
《左傳·僖公二十四年》:

Verb

 * 1)  to mimic the wrongdoing of others; to follow and do the wrong thing; to follow a bad example

title: 效尤


text:
Mezhdurechye, Loktevsky District, Altai Krai

Mezhdurechye (Междуречье) is a rural locality (a settlement) in Vtorokamensky Selsoviet, Loktevsky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 86 as of 2013. There is 1 street.

Geography
Mezhdurechye is located on the Kamenka River, 32 km northeast of Gornyak (the district's administrative centre) by road. Gilyovo is the nearest rural locality.


text:
Talk:Naming in organic chemistry

is this page only going to cover IUPAC naming or will common and antiquated names also be discussed?

I believe some common names should be noted, those which are used more often than the IUPAC names. for example, (CH3)2CH2OH is always referred to as isopropanol, never 2-methyl-ethanol.

title: Talk:Naming in organic chemistry


text:
Talk:Terrassa

Tarrasa in Spanish?
Could anyone confirm whether or not Terrassa is (at least sometimes) referred to in Spanish as Tarrasa? It certainly is according to the Spanish Wikipedia, which begins: "Tarrasa (en catalán y oficialmente, Terrassa)". If so, the fact ought to be recorded at the start of the article in an NPOV way, given that the town almost certainly has a substantial minority of native Castilian speakers. Expressions like "In periods of persecution of the Catalan language refered as Tarrasa" do not, to my mind, constitute NPOV. --Blisco 13:03, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Terrassa was called Tarrasa during some periods in the past, when Catalan was forbidden by law and you could be killed for using that language. Currently, Terrassa is the official name of the city and commonly used both in Catalan and Spanish (the two official languages of the city). However, there are still some right-winged people who used the old term for political reasons. --<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 12:14, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Answering Blisco: the fact the town has a substantial minority of native Castilian speakers is not a reason for the name Tarrasa being recorded at the start of the article. For the same reason we ought to state the Spanish name of New York or the Chinese transliteration of California in its articles, but we don't. Moreover, most of the spanish speakers in Terrassa use "Terrassa".--Ssola (talk) 18:16, 18 May 2013 (UTC)

There are 103,000 hits for Tarrassa in Spanish. (http://www.google.com/search?as_q=Tarrassa&hl=ca&num=10&btnG=Cerca+amb+Google&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&lr=lang_es&cr=&as_ft=i&as_filetype=&as_qdr=all&as_occt=any&as_dt=i&as_sitesearch=&as_rights=&safe=images)

There are 3,090,000 for Terrassa in Spanish. (http://www.google.com/search?as_q=Terrassa&hl=ca&num=10&btnG=Cerca+amb+Google&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&lr=lang_es&cr=&as_ft=i&as_filetype=&as_qdr=all&as_occt=any&as_dt=i&as_sitesearch=&as_rights=&safe=images)

However, there is a clear tendency in the media to move from the first to the second, following the official status of the Catalan version. El País national daily newspaper uses Terrassa in 2,340 pages (http://www.google.com/search?hl=ca&lr=lang_es&as_qdr=all&tbs=lr%3Alang_1es&q=Terrassa+site%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.elpais.com%2F&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=), whereas only 141 page sof this paper use Tarrassa (http://www.google.com/search?hl=ca&lr=lang_es&as_qdr=all&tbs=lr%3Alang_1es&q=Tarrassa+site%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.elpais.com%2F&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=)

I believe we can safely assume that Tarassa exists but has a very residual presence today. It might be sensible to state that it was the official name, in Spanish, during the Franco regime. —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 08:20, 13 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Why are we foccusing in the name used in Spanish? The official name and the one used in English is Terrassa.--Ssola (talk) 17:52, 18 May 2013 (UTC)

Its official and Catalan name is Terrassa, but its Spanish name is Tarrasa. "when Catalan was forbidden by law and you could be killed for using that language" LOL It could be considered humor, but sadly he surely believes that. The only official language was Spanish, but nobody killed nobody for that. Unfortunately, they say things like that, and even worse, in Basque and Catalan schools. By the way, there's no "Castilian minority" in Tarrasa. Most of the city people only know Spanish, and not Catalan, like in all the other worker suburbs of Barcelona, where most people comes from other regions of Spain (Andalusia, Extremadura, etc.), and went to Catalonia in the 50-60's to get better conditions of life. Ian Curtis (talk) 21:52, 31 July 2010 (UTC)
 * So many citations needed! Everything you say is false. --Ssola (talk) 17:47, 18 May 2013 (UTC)

Formerly in Spanish it was named Tarrasa. Now its official name is Terrassa, and even in Spanish texts it appears as Terrassa, not Tarrasa, as you can see in the Spanish version of the city website or in the Tourism website. --Enric.enwiki (talk) 15:48, 11 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Is there any reason to state the Spanish name in this article? --Ssola (talk) 17:47, 18 May 2013 (UTC)
 * I'm deleting it. I think I have given enough reasonings in this talk section.--Ssola (talk) 18:16, 18 May 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Terrassa