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Gambo Sawaba

Hajia Gambo Sawaba (15 February 1933 – October 2001) was a Nigerian women's rights activist, politician and philanthropist. She served as the deputy chairman of Great Nigeria People's Party (GNPP) and was elected leader of the national women's wing of Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU).

Parents
Hajia Sawaba was born to Isa Amartey Amarteifio (christened Theophilus Wilcox) who was an immigrant from Ghana and Fatima Amarteifio, a Nupe woman from Lavun Local Government, Niger State. Amarteifo was a graduate of Ghana School of Survey who immigrated to Nigeria in 1910 and sought to be employed by the Nigerian Railway Corporation.

Fatima's maternal great-grandfather was a blacksmith and warrior. His son, Mamman Dazu, was Gambo's maternal grandfather. Mamman Dazu is said to have been a great warrior and widely consulted.

Birth
Isa Amartey Amarteifio converted to Islam after moving to Zaria. He met Fatima and later married her after some years. Fatima was a widow who already had 3 children with Mohammadu Alao, her late husband. Their marriage produced six children of whom Sawaba was the fifth. She was called Hajaratu. According to the Hausa naming custom, any child born after the birth of twins was called Gambo, hence the name Hajaratu Gambo.

Early life and education
She was educated at the Native Authority Primary School in Tudun Wada. She however had to stop schooling after the death of her father in 1943, and her mother three years after. She was married off at age 13 to a World War II veteran, Abubakar Garba Bello who left and never returned after her first pregnancy. Her subsequent marriages did not last. One marriage ended because she and her spouse, Hamidu Gusau, engaged in violent fights.

Quite noticeable about her when she was a child, was her unusual interest in mad people. She spoke with them, accommodated some and gave the ones she could money, clothes and food. As a child she was often described as stubborn and heady and almost always got into street brawls. According to her "I could not stand by to watch a weak friend or relation being molested." She said she used to take over such fights. Whenever she got to the scenes of such fights, she would immediately say “OK, I have bought the fight from you” to the weaker person and take over the fight.

Political career and activism
Sawaba was involved in politics since she was 17. During that time, Northern Nigeria was dominated by the Northern People's Congress, which had the support of the Emirs and British Colonial Authority but she joined the opposition group Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU). She was a campaigner against under-aged marriages, forced labour and an advocate for western education in the north. Gambo made a name for herself when at a political lecture during her career in the North, she climbed up and spoke out in a room full of men. She was mentored by Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti and traveled to meet her in Abeokuta years later. She is widely regarded as the pioneer of fighting for the liberation of northern women. Sawaba was not her birth name. Meaning freedom or redemption, it was given to her by her political mentor, Malam Aminu Kano, after she had been elected president general of NEPU’s women’s wing.

Personal life and legacy
A general hospital was named after her in Kaduna. A hostel at Bayero University, Kano is also named after her.

Imprisonment
She was imprisoned 16 times for openly advocating against child marriage, forced and unpaid labour and unfair taxes, and canvassed for jobs for women, education for girls and full voting rights. She was also rated as "the most jailed Nigerian female", it was evident that she had a blanket inscribed "Prison Yard" which she always took with her whenever she got arrested.1

title: Gambo Sawaba


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Gabriel Arya

Gabriel Arya (fl. late 7th century), also called Gabriel Qaṭraya, was a biblical exegete who wrote in Syriac. The byname Qaṭraya indicates that he was a native of Beth Qaṭraye (Qatar). Arya, the Syriac for lion, is probably a nickname. He was a member of the Church of the East.

Gabriel was a relative of Isaac of Nineveh, who became bishop around 680. According to a Syrian Orthodox source, Patriarch Giwargis I (c.659–680) met Isaac on a visit to Beth Qaṭraye and brought him back to Beth Aramaye because Gabriel was active there. This source refers to Gabriel as an "interpreter of the church". It is probable therefore that Gabriel is the same person as the Gabriel Qaṭraya mentioned in the nomocanon of Gabriel of Basra. This work survives only in fragments, but a now lost manuscript from Siirt (no. 67) contained a passage stating that Gabriel had taught at the school of Mahoze in Beth Aramaye and the future patriarchs Ḥenanishoʿ I (686–700) and Aba II (742–753) were among his students.

Gabriel's writings do not survive, but he is quoted frequently in biblical commentaries of the Church of the East from the 8th century onwards as a recognized authority on both the Old and New Testaments. He is usually cited as Gabriel Qaṭraya with the title rabban (teacher), but the Gannat Bussāme, quoting Ṣharbokht bar Msargis, uses both his surnames. As Gabriel Arya, he has an entry in the catalogue of Syriac writers created by ʿAbdishoʿ of Nisibis around 1300. According to ʿAbdishoʿ, he wrote a commentary on select passages from the Bible, called Salges mashlmanuta d-ṣurta, the "tradition (or transmission) of the scriptural text". ʿAbdishoʿ does not mention his origins, but does note his relationship to Isaac.

There were several Gabriels from Beth Qaṭraye active in the 7th century, which can cause confusion. Gabriel bar Lipeh, who wrote a commentary on the liturgy, was active early in the century. ʿAbdishoʿ of Nisibis has a separate entry for a Gabriel Qaṭraya who wrote a Discourse on the Union (i.e., the hypostatic union) and Resolution to Questions on the Matter of the Faith. Addai Scher and Carl Anton Baumstark believe this was the same person as Gabriel Arya, but Sebastian Brock argues that he was probably identical to the Gabriel Qaṭraya against whom Babai the Great (died 628) directed his Book of Causes and thus lived too early to be identical to Gabriel Arya.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gabriel Arya


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Cookbook:Rice

 * This article is about Rice. You may be looking for Rice recipes.

Rice is the seed of a monocot plant, Oryza sativa. As a cereal grain, it's the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia, the Middle East, Latin America and the West Indies. It's one of the world's three most produced grains along with wheat and maize (corn).

Rice is consumed both with its bran coating and without. White rice, of which there are many types, is the generic name for bran-free rice. There are three types of rice with intact bran (whole-grain rice): wild rice, brown rice and the far less popular black rice. While biologists don't consider wild rice to be a true rice, it's a member of the same taxonomic family: poaceae; but a different genus: zizania.

Brown rice has a nutty taste and chewy texture. It's healthier than white rice because of its higher fiber content. White rice, however, has a much longer shelf life, cooks faster, and produces fluffier grains. White rice also has a high calorie content and thus is used daily in cultures with less availability to calorie rich foods. Wild rice has a hard, almost woody texture along with a nutty taste and has similar health benefits as brown rice. Also, wild rice has the lowest calorie content of all rices.

Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Though sake is not made from rice flour but rather the grain itself which is washed and steam cooked with yeast and Koji (rice cultivated with a mold known technically as aspergillus oryzae). Rice flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually one week to 30 days).

Through the look of a foodway, rice has been a staple food for many cultures around the globe. Japan, West Africa, and anywhere this grain grows you will see foodways develop around it. Foodways are structured beliefs and behaviors surrounding the production, distribution, and consumption of food. In Japan “rice is the main carbohydrate food in Japan, consumed with every meal. For the poor, it is the chief source of calories” (Inside Japan: Surprising Facts About Japanese Foodways).

This high of a consumption rate puts rice up there with fish in Japanese culture as a basis for food intake, demand, and production. The impact that foodways have on a culture are directly linked to economics in that culture. The demand for rice, for instance, in Japanese culture stimulates jobs to compensate the production needed to sustain a proper outtake of rice. Furthermore you can sell rice on a global scale to increase revenue for the economic system.

Types of rice
There are several types of rice:
 * Short-grain (white or brown)
 * Medium-grain (white or brown)
 * Long-grain (white or brown)
 * Chinese black rice
 * Par-boiled
 * Sticky (glutinous)
 * Converted (parboiled)
 * Red
 * Enriched
 * Instant (pre-cooked)
 * Maratelli

Cooking methods
There are several ways to cook rice:
 * boiling
 * microwave
 * electric rice cooker
 * rice cooker
 * pressure cooker
 * steaming

Rice recipes
Rice recipes have existed for millennia. Below are the some of the world's most famous:
 * arroz con pollo
 * Chinese-style fried rice
 * jambalaya
 * paella
 * pilau
 * rice and beans
 * rice milk
 * rice pudding
 * risotto
 * steamed rice
 * Handi Biryani (slow cooked rice with layers of vegetables)

title: Cookbook:Rice


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Amanatullah Khan

 Amanatullah Khan  is an Indian politician and is member of the Delhi Legislative Assembly. He is a member of the Aam Aadmi Party and represents Okhla (Assembly constituency) of Delhi in the Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi. Khan is the elected chairman of the Delhi Waqf Board since November 2020.

Early life
Amanatullah Khan was born in Agwanpur village, Meerut district to Waliullah Khan. He attended the Jamia Millia Islamia but did not complete his degree. He is educated till twelfth grade, which he passed in 1992–93. He is married to Shafia Khan and has a son and a daughter.

Political career
Khan had unsuccessfully contested in the 2008 Delhi Legislative Assembly election and 2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election as a Lok Jan Shakti Party candidate. In 2013 he got 3600 votes and ended on sixth position.

Since 2015 Amanatullah Khan is a member of the Aam Aadmi Party.

Member of Legislative Assembly (2015–2020)
In 2015 he contested elections for the Legislative Assembly of Delhi and won, becoming a member of the Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi.

On 20 July 2016, a woman alleged that Khan's supporters threatened her after her complaint about electricity supply. She then filed a case against Khan for allegedly threatening her at the Jamia Nagar Police station in South Delhi. On 23 July Khan held a press conference and said that the woman was "pressurised" by the police to give a false statement against him. When the incident was reported, Khan said he was out of the town in Meerut on 9 and 10 July, and his children were in Kashmir on a holiday. Next day on 24 July 2016 Delhi Police arrested Khan and sent him to custody. On 28 July 2016 Khan got bail from the court as he was not required for the investigation. The Aam Aadmi Party released a video footage and a transcript of a conversation involving the complainant woman saying that, "the SHO of Jamia Nagar police station asked her to add allegations of threats — on raping and killing her — in the FIR". AAP said that other AAP MLAs were also similarly targeted like Khan in false cases by Delhi Police.

On 18 April 2017, Khan said that members of the Indian National Congress had fired guns at him in the presence of police, when members of the Congress and Aam Aami Party clashed with each other in the Jamia Nagar area ahead of local municipal elections. On 28 January 2018, two members of Congress filed assault case against Khan.

On 20 February 2018, an assault case was filed by Delhi Chief Secretary Anshu Prakash against Khan and fellow legislator Prakash Jarwal for allegedly slapping and abusing him. In 2021, a Delhi court dismissed the assault case filed by the Delhi bureaucrat against Kejriwal and ten AAP MLAs and discharged them of all charges. The court noted that "no prima facie case" was made against them.

Member of Legislative Assembly (2020 onwards)
In 2020 he defeated Braham Singh of BJP by a margin of 71,664 votes in the 2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly elections. Since 2020, he is an elected member of the 7th Delhi Assembly. His term as MLA in the Seventh Legislative Assembly of Delhi is his second term.

In April 2020, a video of man assaulting a 14 year old child at Dasna temple in UP had gone viral. A far right Hindu Yati Narsinghand Saraswati released a video supporting the assaulter and also made disparaging comments against Prophet Muhammad. Khan filed a police complaint at Jamia Nagar police station against Saraswati for "hurting religious sentiments". He said, "There are uncouth words that are below the standards of being repeated. It is needless to say that such statements for cheap publicity and personal gain hurts sentiments of Muslims at large. Yati Narsinghanand Saraswati with all his knowledge and intention has hurt religious sentiments of the Muslim community not only in India, but all the over the world." Khan had posted a reaction video where he was seen calling for Narsinghand's beheading and cutting off his tongue, followed by a statement that even though his words call for beheading, "we have faith in the Constitution and the law and we hope an FIR will be registered against him and he will be sent to jail". Later a police complaint was filed against Khan for allegedly threatening Narsinghand.

Khan had publicly criticised the Bharatiya Janata Party led Union government. In May 2022, the BJP led Municipal body in Delhi had organised a drive where structures were destroyed with bulldozers (backhoe). Khan led protests against the demolition drive and was arrested for the same. He was released on bail next day.

 * Committee assignments of Delhi Legislative Assembly
 * Chairman (2020-2022), Committee on Welfare of Minorities
 * Member (2020-2022), General Purposes Committee
 * Member (2020-2022), Committee on the issues related to Unauthorised Colonies
 * Member (2020-2023), Committee on Government Undertakings
 * Member (2022-2023), Library Committee
 * Member (2022-2023), Committee on Ethics
 * Member (2022-2023), Committee on Welfare of Minorities
 * Member (2022-2023), House Committee on Violation of Protocol Norms and Contemptuous Behaviour By Government Officers with MLAs - (Elected by the House)

Criminal history
Amanatullah Khan is known for his mischievous acts. He was arrested in 2016 for threatening a woman with rape and murder. Police declared him history-sheeter in March 2022. 18 First Information Reports (FIRs) have been levelled against him till March 2022. In May he was arrested for protesting against the anti-encroachment drive. He is also considered as a habitual criminal as he was involved in land-grabbing and hurt offences. He also failed to deter from criminal activities despite the prosecutions made against him.

On 16 September 2022, he was arrested again in a corruption case. On 26 September he was sent to Judicial custody and released on bail on 28 September 2022.

He was arrested again in 2024 by the Enforcement Directorate for financial irregularities and alleged illegal recruitment of staff within the Delhi Waqf Board during his tenure as the chairman between 2018 and 2022.

title: Amanatullah Khan


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European History/Exploration and Discovery

Introduction

During the fifteenth and the sixteenth century the states of Europe began their modern exploration of the world with a series of sea voyages. The Atlantic states of Spain and Portugal were foremost in this enterprise though other countries, notably England and the Netherlands, also took part.

These explorations increased European knowledge of the wider world, particularly in relation to sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas. These explorations were frequently connected to conquest and missionary work, as the states of Europe attempted to increase their influence, both in political and religious terms, throughout the world.

Causes of the Age of Exploration
The explorers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a variety of motivations, but were frequently motivated by the prospects of trade and wealth. The earliest explorations, round the coast of West Africa, were designed to bypass the trade routes that brought gold across the Sahara Desert. The improved naval techniques that developed then allowed Europeans to travel further afield, to India and, ultimately, to the Americas.

The early explorations of Spain and Portugal were particularly aided by new ship designs. Prior to the fifteenth century Spain and Portugal largely relied on a ship known as the galley. Although galleys were fast and manoeuvrable, they were designed for use in the confined waters of the Mediterranean, and were unstable and inefficient in the open ocean. To cope with oceanic voyages, European sailors adapted a ship known as the cog, largely used in the Baltic and North Sea, which they improved by adding sail designs used in the Islamic world. These new ships, known as caravels, had deep keels, which gave them stability, combined with lateen sails, which allowed them to best exploit oceanic winds.

The astrolabe was a new navigational instrument in Europe that borrowed from the Islamic world, which used it in deserts. Using coordinates via the sky, one rotation of the astrolabe's plate, called a tympan, represented the passage of one day, allowing sailors to approximate the time, direction in which they were sailing, and the number of days passed. The astrolabe was replaced by the sextant as the chief navigational instrument in the 18th century. The sextant measured celestial objects in relation to the horizon, as opposed to measuring them in relation to the instrument. As a result, explorers were now able to sight the sun at noon and determine their latitude, which made this instrument more accurate than the astrolabe.

Portuguese Roles in Early Exploration

In 1415, the Portuguese established a claim to some cities (Ceuta, Tangiers) on what is today the Kingdom of Morocco, and in 1433 they began the systematic exploration of the west African coast. In August 1492, Christopher Columbus, whose nationality is still today subject to much debate, set sail on behalf of Ferdinand and Isabella whose marriage had united their crowns forming what is still today the Kingdom of Spain, and on October 12 of that same year, he eventually reached the Bahamas thinking it was the East Indies. In his mind he had reached the eastern end of the rich lands of India and China described in the thirteenth century by the Venetian explorer Marco Polo.

As a result, a race for more land, especially in the so-called "East Indies" arose. In 1481, a papal decree granted all land south of the Canary Islands to Portugal, however, and the areas explored by Columbus were thus Portuguese territories. In 1493, the Spanish-descendant Pope Alexander VI, declared that all lands west of the longitude of the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Spain while new lands discovered east of that line would belong to Portugal. These events led to increasing tension between the two powers given the fact that the king of Portugal saw the role of Pope Alexander VI Borgia as biased towards Spain. His role in the matter is still today a matter of strong controversy between European historians of that period.

The resolution to this occurred in 1494 at the Treaty of Tordesillas, creating, after long and tense diplomatic negotiations between the Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, a dividing line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Portugal received the west African Coast and the Indian Ocean route to India, as well as part of the Pacific Ocean waterways, while Spain gained the Western Atlantic Ocean and the lands further to the west. «Unknowingly», Portugal received Brazil. King John II of Portugal, however, seems to have had prior knowledge of the location of that Brazilian territory, for in the difficult negotiations of the Treaty of Tordesillas he managed, in a move still open for debate amongst historians of the period today, to push the dividing line further to the west, making it possible to celebrate the official discovery of Brazil and the reclaiming of the land only in 1500, already under the auspices of the treaty.

Prince Henry (1394–1460)
Prince Henry "the Navigator" financially supported various voyages. He created a school for the advancement of navigation, laying the groundwork for Portugal to become a leader in the Age of Exploration.

Bartolomeu Dias (1450-1500)
Bartolomeu Dias, the first European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, also found that India was reachable by sailing around the coast of the continent. As a result, trade with Asia and India was made considerably easier because travellers would no longer have to travel through the Middle East. Thus, there was a rise in Atlantic trading countries and a decline in Middle East and Mediterranean countries.

Vasco da Gama (1460–1524)
Vasco da Gama was the first to successfully sail directly from Europe to India in 1498. This was an important step for Europe because it created a sea route from Europe that would allow trade with the Far East instead of using the Silk Road Caravan route.

Pedro Álvares Cabral (1467–1520)
On April 21, 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral accidentally discovered Brazil while seeking a western route to the Indies. He first landed in modern-day Bahia.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521)
Magellan was a Portuguese explorer sailing in a Spanish expedition, and was the first person to sail the Pacific Ocean and around South America. He attempted to circumnavigate the globe but died in the Philippines, although his crew successfully completed the voyage. One of his ships led by Juan Sebastian Elcano, who took over after Magellan died, made all the way around the globe!

Francis Xavier (1506 –1552)
Francis Xavier was a Spanish missionary, born in the castle of Xavier, a village near the city of Pamplona, from where he has his name. He was a member of the nobility and during his student years in Paris he became friends with Ignacio de Loiola with whom he would found the Jesuit Order He travelled extensively around Africa, India, the South Pacific, and even Japan and China.

Early Spanish Explorers
There were a number of other important explorers that were involved in the Age of Exploration.

Francisco Pizarro (1529-1541)
Pizarro was a Spanish explorer who militarily fought and conquered the Incan people and culture, claiming most of South America for Spain. He gained immense gold and riches for Spain from the defeat of the Incan empire.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Columbus, an explorer thought to be of Genoa (Italy), who after many unsuccessful attempts at finding patronship, explored the possibility of a western passage to the East Indies for the Spanish crown. Due to miscalculations on the circumference of the world Columbus did not account for the possibility of another series of continents between Europe and Asia, Columbus discovered the Caribbean in 1492. He introduced Spanish trade with the Americas which allowed for an exchange of cultures, diseases and trade goods, known as The Grand Exchange, whose consequences, good and bad, are still being experienced today.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who served the King of Spain, and was the first person to sail the Pacific Ocean and around South America. He attempted to be the first to circumnavigate the globe but was killed in the Philippines. His crew managed to successfully complete the voyage under the leadership of the Spanish Juan Sebastian del Cano. His parents had died when he was ten years old and he was sent to Lisbon in Portugal when he was twelve.

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa (1475-1519)
Balboa was a Spanish conquistador who founded the colony of Darién in Panama. He was the first to see the Pacific Ocean from America, and he settled much of the island of Hispaniola.

Hernando Cortés (1485-1547)
Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who assembled an army from the Spanish Colonies consisting of 600 men, 15 horsemen and 15 cannons. Using the assistance of a translator, Doña Marina, he assembled alliances with discontented subdued tribes in the Aztec empire. Through decisive use of superior weapons and native assistance, also the help of European disease which had already wrecked native populations, successfully conquered the Aztecs capturing Montezuma II, the current emperor, the city of Tenochtitlan and looting large amounts of Aztec gold.

Bartolomé de las Casas (1484-1566)
Las Casas was a Spanish priest who advocated civil rights for Native Americans and strongly protested the way they were enslaved and badly treated. He wrote A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and De thesauris in Peru.

Juan Ponce de León (1474-1521)
Juan Ponce de León was a Spanish conquistador hailing from Valladolid, Spain. He had served as the Governor of Puerto Rico when he started his own expedition in 1513, discovering Florida on March 27 of the same year and reaching its eastern coast on April 2. He called the land Florida (Spanish for flowery), either because of the vegetation he saw there, or it was Easter (Spanish: Pascua Florida) that time. De Leon then organized subsequent voyages to Florida; the last one occurring in 1521 when he died.

Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596)
Sir Francis Drake was a letter of marque, one who is a privateer, for Britain during the time of Queen Elizabeth I. Though he is most remembered for helping command the English fleet against the Spanish Armada, he also spent many years in the Caribbean and successfully circumnavigated the world between 1577-1580.

John Cabot (1450-1499)
John Cabot, originally Giovanni Caboto was born in Genoa, Italy.

Rene-Robert de La Salle
LaSalle was born in Rouen, France. He originally studied to be a Jesuit, but left the school to find adventure. He sailed to a French colony in Canada and became a fur trader. Indians told him of two great rivers (the Mississippi and Ohio). He made several explorations of them. He died when his men revelled in about 1687.

Father Jacques Marquette
Marquette was born in Laon, France, in the summer of 1637. He joined the Jesuits at age seventeen. The Jesuits told him to go be a missionary in Quebec. He founded missions all over the place. He explored many rivers. He died, age 38.

Louis Jolliet
Jolliet was born in a settlement near Quebec City. He was going to be a Jesuit priest, but abandoned these plans. He explored many rivers with Marquette. His place and date of death is unknown.

Jacques Cartier (1491-1551)
Jacques Cartier was an explorer who claimed Canada for France. He was born in Saint Malo, France in 1491. He was also the first European, not just the first Frenchman to describe and chart Saint Lawrence River and Gulf of Saint Lawrence. He made three important voyages. He died in Saint Malo, in 1551, aged 65.

Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635)
Samuel de Champlain was the "Father of New France". Founded Quebec City and today Lake Champlain is named in his honor.

Dutch Explorers
In the late 16th century Dutch explorers began to head out all over the world.

Willem Barentsz (1550-1597)
On June 5, 1594 Barentsz left the island of Texel aboard the small ship Mercury, as part of a group of three ships sent out in separate directions to try and enter the Kara Sea, with the hopes of finding the Northeast passage above Siberia. During this journey he discovered what is today Bjørnøya, also known as Bear Island.

Later in the journey, Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and followed it northward before being forced to turn back in the face of large icebergs. Although they did not reach their ultimate goal, the trip was considered a success.

Setting out on June 2, 1595, the voyage went between the Siberian coast and Vaygach Island. On August 30, the party came across approximately 20 Samoyed "wilde men" with whom they were able to speak, due to a crewmember speaking their language. September 4 saw a small crew sent to States Island to search for a type of crystal that had been noticed earlier. The party was attacked by a polar bear, and two sailors were killed.

Eventually, the expedition turned back upon discovering that unexpected weather had left the Kara Sea frozen. This expedition was largely considered to be a failure.

In May 1596, he set off once again, returning to Bear Island. Barentsz reached Novaya Zemlya on July 17. Anxious to avoid becoming entrapped in the surrounding ice, he intended to head for the Vaigatch Strait, but became stuck within the many icebergs and floes. Stranded, the 16-man crew was forced to spend the winter on the ice, along with their young cabin boy.

Proving successful at hunting, the group caught 26 Arctic foxes in primitive traps, as well as killing a number of polar bears. When June arrived, and the ice had still not loosened its grip on the ship, the scurvy-ridden survivors took two small boats out into the sea on June 13. Barentsz died while studying charts only seven days after starting out, but it took seven more weeks for the boats to reach Kola where they were rescued.

Henry Hudson (1565-1611)
In 1609, Hudson was chosen by the Dutch East India Company to find an easterly passage to Asia. He was told to sail around the Arctic Ocean north of Russia, into the Pacific and to the Far East. Hudson could not continue his voyage due to the ice that had plagued his previous voyages, and many others before him. Having heard rumors by way of Jamestown and John Smith, he and his crew decided to try to seek out a Southwest Passage through North America.

After crossing the Atlantic Ocean, his ship, the Halve Maen (Half Moon), sailed around briefly in the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, but Hudson concluded that these waterways did not lead to the Pacific.

He then sailed up to the river that today bears his name, the Hudson River. He made it as far as present-day Albany, New York, where the river narrows, before he was forced to turn around, realizing that it was not the Southwest Passage.

Along the way, Hudson traded with numerous native tribes and obtained different shells, beads and furs. His voyage established Dutch claims to the region and the fur trade that prospered there. New Amsterdam in Manhattan became the capital of New Netherland in 1625

Willem Janszoon (1571-1638)
Early in Willem's life,1601 and 1602, he set out on two trips to the Dutch possessions in the East Indies. On November 18, 1605, he sailed from Bantam to the coast of western New Guinea. He then crossed the eastern end of the Arafura Sea, without seeing the Torres Strait, into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and on February 26, 1606 made landfall at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York in Queensland, near the modern town of Weipa. This is the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent. Willem Janszoon proceeded to chart some 320 km of the coastline, which he thought to be a southerly extension of New Guinea.

Willem Janszoon returned to the Netherlands in the belief that the south coast of New Guinea was joined to the land along which he coasted, and Dutch maps reproduced this error for many years to come.

Janszoon reported that on July 31, 1618 he had landed on an island at 22° South with a length of 22 miles and 240 miles SSE of the Sunda Strait. This is generally interpreted as a description of the peninsula from Point Cloate to North West Cape on the Western Australian coast, which Janszoon presumed was an island without fully circumnavigating it.

Abel Tasman (1603-1659)
In 1634 Tasman was sent as second in command of an exploring expedition in the north Pacific. His fleet included the ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. After many hardships Formosa (now Taiwan) was reached in November, 40 out of the crew of 90 having died. Other voyages followed, to Japan in 1640 and 1641 and to Palembang in the south of Sumatra in 1642, where he made a friendly trading treaty with the Sultan. In August 1642 Tasman was sent in command of an expedition for the discovery of the "Unknown Southland", which was believed to be in the south Pacific but which had not been seen by Europeans

On November 24, 1642 Tasman sighted the west coast of Tasmania near Macquarie Harbour. He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land after Anthony van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Proceeding south he skirted the southern end of Tasmania and turned north-east until he was off Cape Frederick Hendrick on the Forestier Peninsula. An attempt at landing was made but the sea was too rough; however, the carpenter swam through the surf, and, planting a flag, Tasman claimed formal possession of the land on December 3, 1642.

Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. On December 13 they sighted land on the north-west coast of the South Island, New Zealand. After some exploration he sailed further east, and nine days later was the first European known to sight New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt on the assumption that it was connected to an island (Staten Island, Argentina) at the south of the tip of South America. Proceeding north and then east one of his boats was attacked by Māori in waka, and four of his men were killed.

En route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on January 21, 1643. While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the north-eastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea. He eventually turned north-west to New Guinea, and arrived at Batavia on June 15, 1643.

With three ships on his second voyage (Limmen, Zeemeeuw and the tender Braek) in 1644, he followed the south coast of New Guinea eastward. He missed the Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia, and continued his voyage along the Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia making observations on the land and its people.

From the point of view of the Dutch East India Company Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: he had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. For over a century, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans - mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident

Results of the Age of Exploration
The Age of Exploration led, directly to new communication and trade routes being established and the first truly global businesses to be established. Tea, several exotic fruits and new technologies were also introduced into Europe.

It also led to the decimation and extinction of Natives in other nations due to European diseases and poor working conditions. It also led indirectly to an increase in slavery (which was already widely practised throughout the world), as the explorations led to a rise in supply and thus demand for cotton, indigo, and tobacco.

Finally, as a result of the Age of Exploration, Spain dominated the end of the sixteenth century. The Age of Exploration provided the foundation for the European political and commercial worldwide imperialism of the late 1800s. From 1580 to 1640 Spain would inherit the right to reign over Portugal, whose interests where now in the hands of its political and geographical neighbour. Spain's power, under Spanish leader Philip II, was bigger than ever before and renewed and financed the power of the Papacy to fight against Protestant Reformation. However, in the seventeenth century, as the explorations were coming to an end and money was becoming scarcer, other countries began to openly challenge the spirit of the Tordesilas treaty and the power of Spain, which began to lapse and lose its former power.

Lịch sử châu Âu/Những cuộc phát kiến địa lý


text:
Thavathiru Santhalinga Adigalar Arts, Science and Tamil College

Thavathiru Santhalinga Adigalar Arts, Science and Tamil College, is a general degree college located at Perur, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu. It was established in the year 1953. The college is affiliated with Bharathiar University. This college offers different courses in arts, commerce and science.

Science

 * Mathematics
 * Computer Science

Arts and Commerce

 * Tamil
 * English
 * History
 * Economics
 * Commerce

Accreditation
The college is recognized by the University Grants Commission (UGC).

Notable alumni

 * Puviarasu, Tamil poet


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Judaism and environmentalism

The result was keep. Cleanup needed, though. Tone 07:40, 26 August 2020 (UTC)

Judaism and environmentalism

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This article is someone's personal essay and violates WP:Original research and WP:ACTIVISM. The sources are not reliable sources. The bibliography is someone's dump of every book they've ever read... ever. It either needs deleting or WP:TNT. Normal Op (talk) 01:06, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Judaism-related deletion discussions. Normal Op (talk) 01:06, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Environment-related deletion discussions. Normal Op (talk) 01:06, 19 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Keep. There's clearly a topic here - a number of cited sources on this specific topic - and the article is not beyond cleanup. –Roscelese (talk ⋅ contribs) 01:29, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep. There is a reasonably well-discussed cross-section of reliably reported views on this topic. BD2412  T 05:30, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep The bibliography demonstrates that the topic is quite notable. The rest is then a matter of ordinary editing per our policies WP:IMPERFECT and WP:PRESERVE.  WP:TNT is not a policy; it is disruption. Andrew🐉(talk) 11:08, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * The presence of a lengthy bibliography where not a single book is referenced in the article, means nothing. I had already checked the edit history and the majority of those books were put in the article all in two dumps:  . Like I said, a "dump" of a list of every single book someone ever read. It doesn't mean they are relevant to the topic. Normal Op (talk) 17:20, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * See WP:GENREF which explains that "A general reference is a citation that supports content, but is not linked to any particular piece of material in the article through an inline citation. General references are usually listed at the end of the article in a References section. They are usually found in underdeveloped articles, especially when all article content is supported by a single source. They may also be listed in more developed articles as a supplement to inline citations." A bibliography is a collection of such general references and so is quite reasonable and respectable.  My !vote stands. Andrew🐉(talk) 17:48, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep: Per above Megan Barris   (Lets talk📧)  21:06, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep. Jewish environmentalism is a growing field with a growing academic literature to match. See: . <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 06:13, 20 August 2020 (UTC) IP editor <IP_ADDRESS> 19 August 2020 (talk) — <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) has made few or no other edits outside this topic.
 * Delete: This appears to be a propaganda article. Certainly, there are many Jews who are passionate about environmental protection. But there isn't a correlation between traditional Judaism and environmentalism. Yes, Judaism advocates against waste but environmental destruction for a cause is permitted in halakha.--Cts499m (talk) 20:25, 21 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep, clearly a notable topic, the link between Judaism and Environmentalism has been subject to large amounts of coverage. The article is crap, but that's a fixable problem. Devonian Wombat (talk) 08:04, 23 August 2020 (UTC)


text:
Tiarella

Tiarella, the foamflowers, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Saxifragaceae. The generic name Tiarella means "little turban", which suggests the shape of the seed capsules. Worldwide there are seven species, one each in eastern Asia and western North America, plus five species in eastern North America. , the taxonomy of Tiarella in eastern North America is in flux.

Description

Plants of genus Tiarella are perennial, herbaceous plants with short, slender rhizomes. Three morphological features are used to distinguish Tiarella species: 1) presence or absence of stolons; 2) size and shape of basal leaves; and 3) presence or absence of stem leaves (also called cauline leaves). Two species of Tiarella have stolons (T. austrina, T. stolonifera) while two other species have stem leaves (T. nautila, T. austrina). Plants from the southern Blue Ridge Mountains and southward have relatively large basal leaves with an extended terminal lobe (T. austrina, T. nautila, T. wherryi).

The following identification key was published by Guy Nesom in 2021:

Taxonomy
In 1753, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus established genus Tiarella by recognizing two species, Tiarella cordifolia and Tiarella trifoliata. A third species, Tiarella polyphylla, was described by David Don in 1825. Together these three species form the taxonomic backbone of the genus. In 1840, in the first critical treatment of Tiarella since Linnaeus, John Torrey and Asa Gray described two new sections:

 * Tiarella sect. Anthonema Nutt. apud Torr. et Gray: flowering stem leafy with alternate leaves; flowers paniculate; petals filiform or subulate; western North America
 * Tiarella sect. Eutiarella Torr. et Gray: flowering stem naked; flowers racemose; petals oblong with a small claw or stalk; eastern North America.

Olga Lakela highlighted the section names in 1937, but they have since fallen out of favor with botanists, mainly because Tiarella polyphylla is inconsistent with the dichotomy, but perhaps also because there are taxa with leafy flowering stems in both western and eastern North America.

In Asia, the genus is represented by one species (Tiarella polyphylla). In North America, there have been numerous major treatments of genus Tiarella, with taxonomies recognizing from two to six species, some including infraspecific taxa.

Currently accepted taxonomies are based on three sources:

 * 1) Tiarella polyphylla in Flora of China
 * 2) Tiarella trifoliata and related taxa in Flora of North America
 * 3) Tiarella cordifolia and related taxa in a paper published by Guy Nesom in 2021

The treatment in the first source is near-universally accepted, the second is widely recognized, while the third is new and growing in acceptance. A few authorities (with global scope) accept all three.

Infrageneric taxa
All names used in this section are taken from the International Plant Names Index, except where noted. The geographical locations are taken from Plants of the World Online (POWO). , POWO accepts 7 species and 3 infraspecies:

 * Tiarella austrina (Lakela) G.L.Nesom: Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee
 * Tiarella cordifolia L. sensu stricto: Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia
 * Tiarella nautila G.L.Nesom: Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee
 * Tiarella polyphylla D.Don: Assam, China, East Himalaya, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Tibet
 * Tiarella stolonifera G.L.Nesom: Connecticut, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Nova Scotia, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Québec, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin
 * Tiarella trifoliata L.
 * Tiarella trifoliata var. laciniata (Hook.) Wheelock: British Columbia, Oregon, Washington
 * Tiarella trifoliata var. trifoliata: Alaska, Alberta, British Columbia, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington
 * Tiarella trifoliata var. unifoliata (Hook.) Kurtz: Alaska, Alberta, British Columbia, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington
 * Tiarella wherryi Lakela: Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee

Distribution
Tiarella is native to Asia and North America. It has been introduced into Norway.

Asia
Tiarella polyphylla is an Asian species, ranging from the eastern Himalayas to China, east Asia, and southeast Asia. In China, it is found in moist forests and shady wet places at altitudes from 1000 to 3800 meters.

Western North America
In western North America, Tiarella trifoliata ranges from California northward to Alaska, and eastward to Montana. Within this region, the varieties of T. trifoliata have overlapping ranges.

Canada:

 * Alberta: T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * British Columbia: T. t. var. laciniata, T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata

United States:

 * Alaska: T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * California: T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * Idaho: T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * Montana: T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * Oregon: T. t. var. laciniata, T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata
 * Washington: T. t. var. laciniata, T. t. var. trifoliata, T. t. var. unifoliata

Eastern North America
In eastern North America, Tiarella cordifolia sensu lato is wide ranging, from northeastern Wisconsin across southeastern Canada to Nova Scotia, extending southward through the Appalachians into Alabama and Mississippi. The range of Tiarella cordifolia sensu stricto is narrowly confined to the East Coast of the United States from Maryland through Virginia and the Carolinas into Georgia.

At least one species of Tiarella occurs in each of 26 provinces and states. Multiple species of Tiarella occur in eight (8) states. Tiarella stolonifera occurs in 22 provinces and states, it being the only species of Tiarella in 17 of those provinces and states. Tiarella cordifolia sensu stricto occurs in just five (5) states, all of which have at least two Tiarella species. The ranges of Tiarella nautila, Tiarella wherryi, and Tiarella austrina overlap in Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia.

Canada:

 * New Brunswick: T. stolonifera
 * Nova Scotia: T. stolonifera
 * Ontario: T. stolonifera
 * Québec: T. stolonifera

United States:

 * Alabama: T. austrina, T. wherryi
 * Connecticut: T. stolonifera
 * Georgia: T. austrina, T. cordifolia, T. nautila, T. wherryi
 * Kentucky: T. stolonifera, T. wherryi
 * Maine: T. stolonifera
 * Maryland: T. cordifolia, T. stolonifera
 * Massachusetts: T. stolonifera
 * Michigan: T. stolonifera
 * Mississippi: T. wherryi
 * New Hampshire: T. stolonifera
 * New Jersey: T. stolonifera
 * New York: T. stolonifera
 * North Carolina: T. austrina, T. cordifolia, T. nautila, T. stolonifera
 * Ohio: T. stolonifera
 * Pennsylvania: T. stolonifera
 * Rhode Island: T. stolonifera
 * South Carolina: T. austrina, T. cordifolia
 * Tennessee: T. austrina, T. nautila, T. stolonifera, T. wherryi
 * Vermont: T. stolonifera
 * Virginia: T. cordifolia, T. stolonifera
 * West Virginia: T. stolonifera
 * Wisconsin: T. stolonifera

A disjunct population of Tiarella occurs in Stearns County, Minnesota but botanists believe it was introduced. That population is claimed to be T. stolonifera, but evidence is lacking.

Conservation
In western North America, Tiarella trifoliata is globally secure (G5). Each variety is globally secure as well.

In eastern North America, Tiarella cordifolia sensu lato is globally secure (G5). It is frequent to common throughout most of its wide distribution but becomes rare at the edges of its range, in Wisconsin and the western Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Nova Scotia, New Jersey, and Mississippi.

Cultivation
Many hybrids are known and cultivated. The following have been given the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
 * Tiarella = 'Gowing'
 * Tiarella 'Spring Symphony'
 * Tiarella cordifolia
 * Tiarella wherryi

title: Tiarella


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Luanda International School

The result was keep. (non-admin closure) ~ Amkgp  💬  06:16, 2 September 2020 (UTC)

Luanda International School

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This school doesn't seem notable. The article only cites a single primary source and a WP:BEFORE didn't turn up anything that would pass either WP:GNG or WP:NORG. --Adamant1 (talk) 12:34, 18 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Education-related deletion discussions. Shellwood (talk) 12:43, 18 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Schools-related deletion discussions. Shellwood (talk) 12:43, 18 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Keep. I've added text and secondary sources and updated the U.S. Government public domain content to the 2019-2020 fact sheet. Since the fact sheet is provided under the imprimatur the U.S. Government, I believe it is also a secondary source. Thus, the school meets WP:GNG. Cheers! — Grand'mere Eugene (talk) 09:22, 24 August 2020 (UTC)
 * As far as I know WP:NOR says government fact sheets are primary sources because its data, that is obtained by them. Not a synthsis of the data by someone who isn't connected to the people that gathered it. Which is what a secondary source. Plus, one source isn't enough anyway and all the others seem to be primary and not in-depth either. It should be pretty obvious that sources like expat-qoutes.com are not legitimate. So, your vote is without merit and the sources you added are not helpful to this being notable. --Adamant1 (talk) 10:31, 24 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Comment: I'm not clear what part of WP:NOR you are referring to that "says government fact sheets are primary sources because its data, that is obtained by them." However, even if the fact sheet is a primary source, according to WP:PRIMARY, A primary source may be used on Wikipedia only to make straightforward, descriptive statements of facts that can be verified by any educated person with access to the primary source but without further, specialized knowledge. It also says: Do not base an entire article on primary sources, and be cautious about basing large passages on them. Given the above policy description, and assuming you are correct that the U.S. Gov't public domain doc is primary, I have left some of the text of that document, and deleted several sections for which I could find no verification in other sources. I've added citations to secondary sources that verify most of the facts that remain.
 * My !vote to keep, though, is also based on my belief that approvals by national accreditation agencies constitutes a significant and substantial "reliable, independent, and verifiable secondary source". Accreditation represents a rigorous process of ensuring quality of a school's programs, faculty, accountability, and support for students' education. That, and inherent difficulties finding indexed publications for international sources, lead me to rely upon of accreditation by IB, NEASC, and the Council of International Schools as evidence of notability. Cheers! — Grand'mere Eugene (talk) 08:58, 25 August 2020 (UTC)
 * It seems your conflating what can be used in an article to cite basic facts with what can be used to determine notability. They are two different standards. For instance you can cite Twitter for basic facts in an article, but you can't use a tweet an AfD discussion as way to claim something is notable. Same goes for government fact sheets. Its fine to cite them in articles, they don't for in AfDs for notability though. You don't even have to take it that level though. As they fail the whole "in-depth coverage" thing anyway. Although I will add that WP:Primary says "Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, or build upon primary sources." In no can the things listed that make a secondary source secondary be applied to government fact sheets. Adamant1 (talk) 11:18, 26 August 2020 (UTC)

 Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion and clearer consensus.

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, North America1000 16:03, 25 August 2020 (UTC)
 * , I do understand the difference between standards required for notability and what is acceptable to verify facts in an article. We differ, however in whether a school's adoption of the IB curriculum and its accreditation by New England Association of Schools and Colleges are evidence of notability.  In fact, it is the only school in Angola accredited by NEASC. That accreditation represents rigorous examination by a team of accreditors who visit the school and check adherence to standards of excellence in educational practices, including curriculum, finances, faculty credentials, facilities, governance, student activities, and institutional compliance with legal responsibilities. In short, the IB curriculum and the NEASC accreditation are notable, as I wrote above. I have served on accreditation team site visits. We didn't give anyone an "easy pass", and in one case withheld accreditation  because faculty revealed the IT department had abruptly and intentionally censored information that could be accessed on the school's internet. The school was out of compliance with the standard ensuring freedom of inquiry.  Faculty were hopping mad, and the president of the college claimed he didn't know about it. That's the kind of situation that accreditation is designed to remediate: accredition is not automatic. But I digress. I understand your position, I just disagree. Cheers! — Grand'mere Eugene (talk) 00:57, 29 August 2020 (UTC)
 * That's fine. Obviously people will have their own interpretation of the notability guidelines sometimes. I only responded since this is suppose to be a discussion after all. Don't take it as me being argumentative or anything like that though, because I respect your opinion. Even if I disagree with you. --Adamant1 (talk) 13:28, 29 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Keep. Grand'mere Eugene has added sources that demonstrate notability. Phil Bridger (talk) 15:46, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Keep per WP:HEY thanks to Grand'mere Eugene's sources and improvement. — Toughpigs (talk) 15:53, 31 August 2020 (UTC)


text:
Lee Seung-hyun

Lee Seung-hyun is a Korean name consisting of the family name Lee and the given name Seung-hyun, and may also refer to:

 * Lee Seoung-hyun (born 1990), South Korean basketball player
 * Lee Seung-hyun (footballer) (born 1985), South Korean footballer
 * Lee Seung-hyun (baseball), South Korean baseball player
 * Seungri (born 1990), South Korean singer
 * Lee Seung-hyun (esports player) (born 1997), better known as "Life", South Korean StarCraft II player

title: Lee Seung-hyun


text:
Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formal salutations

Meeting at the airport
Mr. Tanaka is making a trip to Okinawa and has arranged to meet with Ms. Hayasaka at the airport. Neither party has met the other before. She is waiting for him with a sign that has his name on it.

Elevator chat
Mr. Tanaka sees Ms. Hayasaka on the way into their meeting the next day, and she holds the elevator open for him as he steps on.

{{Japanese conversation|break|She holds the elevator door open and Mr. Tanaka steps on. {{Japanese conversation {{Japanese conversation {{Japanese conversation|end}}
 * ja=田中 | japanese=ありがとうございます.
 * en=Tanaka | english=Thank you.}}
 * ja=早坂 | japanese=どういたしまして.
 * en=Hayasaka | english=Don't mention it.}}

Campus greetings
Terumi and Kouichi are friends from school. Terumi sees Kouichi walking across campus one morning and calls out to him.

Personal introduction
Please note the lack of the "さん" honorific, as Yamada is talking about himself.)

Inquiring for names
The word "私"(わたし) is one of the many ways in which you can express the first person singular (i.e. "I") in Japanese. It can be used in polite and plain language. The formal version is read わたくし.

Inquiring for nationality
In Japanese, nationalities are formed by adding adding the word for person,, to the name of a country.

Greeting and introduction
Mr Yamada and his friend Mr Tanaka meet Ms Suzuki.

Vocabulary and phrases

 * こちらこそ
 * This expression can be used to return a polite expression such as ありがとうございます or よろしくおします

 * Formality
 * Some of the phrases above use polite forms, used when speaking to a superior or an equal with whom one has only loose ties.

 * Time of day
 * おはようございます is used in the morning (till about 10:30am) or when first meet in a day.
 * こんにちは is used during the day.
 * こんばんは is used during the evening and at night.
 * These phrases are only used in greeting, never in parting.

 * Literal Meaning
 * おはようございます It is early.
 * こんにちは Today...
 * こんばんは This evening...
 * はじめまして For the first time...
 * よろしくおします I humbly ask for your favor.
 * こちらこそ This side for sure (It is I who should be the one to say)...
 * ありがとうございます I am grateful.

 * 1) さん: Mr.; Mrs.; Miss; Ms.
 * 2) *さん is an appellation added to the end of a name to indicate respect. It is roughly equivalent to Mr., Ms., etc. in English, but can be used on either the family name or the given name. It can also be used on a vocation (e.g. さん "barber", おさん "police officer"), or even an animal (e.g. さん "rabbit"). The latter usage is considered childish.
 * 3) *さん is never used on oneself or those in one's in-group, only on others toward whom one should show respect.
 * 4) *see also, ちゃん, ,

 * 1) (na-adj): healthy; cheerful; energetic
 * 2) *元 means foundation and 気 refers to chi, the Chinese metaphysical concept of energy. Thus, saying one's chi is stable means that the individual is healthy, happy, and energetic.
 * 3) はい (interj): yes
 * 4) ええ (interj): yes
 * 5) *polite and somewhat feminine
 * 6) うん (interj): yeah
 * 7) まぁまぁ (na-adj): okay, fair, not bad, so so

 * ¹ Sounds more masculine.
 * ² Relatively gender-neutral.

 * おですか.
 * This is used between people who are acquainted with each other and is roughly equivalent to English "How are you?" or "How have you been?"
 * When responding, the お at the beginning and the か at the end are dropped, leaving です

 * This is the informal way to ask "How are you?"
 * The question is asked with a rising intonation.
 * The affirmative response can be だ, which sounds somewhat masculine, or, which is more gender-neutral.
 * The affirmative response can be だ, which sounds somewhat masculine, or, which is more gender-neutral.

 * まぁまぁです., まぁまぁ.
 * These are acceptable responses if you are not feeling particularly healthy or cheerful at the moment.

 * Grammatical construction
 * お元気ですか. = お (polite prefix) +  "healthy; happy" + です (noun predicate ending) + か (question marker)
 * 元気です. =  "healthy; happy" + です (noun predicate ending)

 * Clarifications
 * Why is the question お but the answer just -- what happened to the お o?
 * The お is an exalted prefix, meaning that the health ( genki) you are referring to is the health of someone you wish to exalt. Japanese honorifics do not allow you to exalt yourself, so you can never use お o-genki to talk about your own health.
 * Well, can't I just ask ですか without the exalted お?
 * Yes, you may. The お just makes it more polite.
 * Can I ask お informally?
 * It sounds strange because normally if you are exalting someone, you would also use the polite ですか ending.

Supplementary vocabulary

 * 田中 (たなか) - Japanese family name.
 * 鈴木 (すずき) - Japanese family name.
 * 山田 (やまだ) - Japanese family name.
 * こんにちは - "Good day, good afternoon"
 * か - question particle. This is added at the end of a sentence to change it into a question. It should be noted that using the actual question mark (?) is not necessary, but it is not considered incorrect to have it either.

Usage Notes

 * おはようございます is used in the morning (until about 10am) or when waking up.
 * こんにちは is used during the day.
 * こんばんは is used during the evening and at night.
 * はじめまして should be used if one has not already met the other person.
 * These phrases are only used in greeting, never in parting.

 * おやすみなさい is only used before going to sleep

 * １　Japanese regularly omit the subject from sentences when they are obvious from context. Hence, pronouns are hardly used. Whenever forced to use a pronoun, it is better to refer to someone by their proper name or title. あなた, may give the impression of a news anchor speaking at them or some unfamiliar person.

NOTE: Most countries are written in katakana as they are foreign words. "Nihon"　日本, for example, is not and neither is "Chuugoku" 中国(China).
 * １日に本ほん・にほん・Nihon
 * 2韓かん国こく・かんこく・Kankoku
 * 3中ちゅう国ごく・ちゅうごく・Chuugoku

Culture
"How are you?" and "Genki?" may translate the same, but the phrases are culturally incompatible. In general, Japanese do not ask each other how the other is every day. "Genki?" is used only when people meet after a long while. For example, when one calls their mother in Japan, the first thing one might ask is "Genki?", however, one would not ask friends whom the see every day, "Genki?"

"Genki" is, culturally, much closer to "How have you been?". Although "How are you?" is common greeting in Western countries, it is culturally more accepted to simply say "Kon-nichi-wa."

Also in English countries, the expected answer to the English "How are you?" is "Fine, thanks." Japanese, however, tend to respond quite literally to the question おですか. It is not considered rude in Japan to go into detail about your medical situation. In fact, when a Japanese has a cold or other disease that can be transmitted aerially, it is considered good manners to wear a mask resembling a surgical mask over the mouth and nose to avoid infecting others with whom you come in contact.

So if you're sick and a Japanese friend asks you, おですか, feel free to tell them all about your ailment (within reason). The following words might help:

 * cold
 * 咳: cough
 * インフルエンザ: flu
 * sickness

Grammar

 * こんにちは
 * This phrase is equivalent to saying "Good day" in english, and is only said once a day to each person. It is used from 10-11 A.M. to around sunset.

 * お元気　ですか
 * Translated as "Are you well?", it is commonly used after a greeting to politely start a conversation.

 * はじめまして
 * Meaning "Nice to meet you", it's used mostly as a precursor to an introduction.

 * ～は　& ～です
 * は is a particle; it looks like ha but is pronounced wa.
 * The particle is used to express one thing's relation or status, much like English speakers say "My name is Clem" or "He is burning!". It states the topic of the sentence (some more uses and contexts will be studied further on).
 * です is used to affirm a statement.
 * For example, わたしのなまえはメアリーです means 'my name is Mary'.

 * か
 * This is a particle added to the end of the sentence to make it a question. For example:
 * あなたは　山田さんです. (You are Mr. Yamada.)
 * ⇒ あなたは　山田さんですか. (Are you Mr. Yamada?)

 * ~さん
 * This is a honorific. An honorific is a particle added to the end of a name to show respect. Honorifics are never used when talking about yourself or anything related to yourself (like your siblings, for instance), but when you are talking about someone else. So it's wrong to say:
 * 私は山田さんです. (I am Mr. Yamada, This sounds very strange to japanese ears.)
 * or
 * あなたは山田ですか. (Are you Yamada? This is incorrect because you don't know Yamada.)
 * When talking to friends or colleagues you can drop さん or replace it with くん and ちゃん.e.g. Hiroko and Matsumoto, 2 high school friends arrive at school.
 * hiroko: まつもとくん、げんき？
 * matsumoto: ええ、げんき. ひろこちゃんは？

Introducing yourself
When you meet someone for the first time, you first say,
 * はじめまして
 * "Nice to meet you" (more literally, "This is the first time...")

You should not use はじめまして if you have already met the person.

Next, you introduce yourself by saying,
 * 私は＿＿です (わたし　は ＿＿です).
 * I am ＿＿.

Your family name should be used in place of the blank. If you know how, pronounce your name in Japanese.

 * 私 (わたし) means "I, me, myself".
 * は is the topic-marker particle in this sentence, so it is pronounced "wa".
 * です is a polite ending. Here it means "to be" (the copula), but we will see later that it has other uses.

Finally, you say どうぞ　よろしく おねがいします, which means something like "Please favor me with your friendship".

Let's put it all together. If your name were 田中（たなか), you would say.

Note: You can omit 私は and just say "〜です" when it is clear that the topic being talked about is yourself.

Introducing others
When you want to introduce someone to another person, you gesture to the person and say,
 * こちら　は　＿＿さん　です.
 * This is Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms ＿＿.

 * こちら is a polite way of saying "this (person)"
 * 〜さん is an honorific suffix denoting Mr., Miss, Mrs., or Ms.
 * すずき さん
 * Mr/Ms Suzuki.

Note: When you are addressing or talking about someone, you should add the honorific suffix 〜さん to their name. Never use 〜さん after your own name, since this is inappropriate.

Practice
Duration: 5-10 minutes

 * 1) Drill: What is the proper phrase for each situation?
 * 2) *Greeting someone for the first time.
 * 3) *Greeting an acquaintance in the daytime.
 * 4) *Greeting an acquaintance at night.
 * 5) *Greeting an acquaintance in the morning.
 * 6) *Expressing gratitude.
 * 7) *Expressing best wishes to someone you've just met.
 * 8) *Responding to an expression of gratitude.
 * 9) *Welcoming a guest into your home.
 * 10) Drill: What is an appropriate response to each phrase?
 * 11) *おはようございます
 * 12) *はじめまして
 * 13) *ありがとうございます
 * 14) *ようこそ
 * 15) *よろしくおします
 * 16) Converse: Have the following conversations with another student. If self-studying, converse with yourself.
 * 17) * Introduce yourself and tell each other your names.
 * 18) * Meet each other for the second time.
 * 19) * One student should do something kind for another, who should respond gratefully.

Click here to see answers.

 * 1) Ask your neighbor how they are doing in informal Japanese. When asked how you are doing, give an appropriate response.
 * 2) Repeat the same exercise for your teacher using formal Japanese.

 * 1) When should はじめまして be used?
 * 2) What is the meaning of どうぞ　よろしく おねがいします?
 * 3) Is "私は田中さんです" a correct sentence? If not, why?
 * 4) How would you introduce yourself to someone you are meeting for the first time?
 * 5) How would you introduce someone to another person?
 * Answers to Lesson 1

 * Practice by copying kanji into a notebook, preferably a kanji notebook with small boxes in which to draw them. When using these note books, draw the kanji so that they are contained in the center of the box. Avoid crossing the outside lines and try to preserve uniformity as much as possible. Try to write each kanji correctly at least 10-20 times a day.

Imagine you are in these situations. Write the applicable phrase to each situation.

 * 1) You accidentally bump into a man on the street?
 * 2) Your friend introduces you to someone new?
 * 3) You see a friend when you're out at night?
 * 4) You greet your co-workers in the morning?
 * 5) You are about to go to bed?
 * 6) Someone hands you something you need?
 * 7) Someone thanks you?

Links
[http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/gokai/eng/howru.html Misunderstanding about "How are you?" by Keiichiro]


text:
Trigonometry/Remembering Trig Formulae

Remembering Formulae
This page is about how to remember trig formulas - so it is more than just a summary of trig formulae.

You will need to have read most of the rest of the book for this page to be useful to you.

The Blue-Box Formulae
In any triangle the angles always sum to $$180^{\circ}$$

In a right angled triangle The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

 * $$Soh-Cah-Toa$$

$$ \displaystyle{ \begin{array}{ccc} \sin(A)&=&\displaystyle\frac{\text{opposite side}}{\rm hypotenuse}\\ \\ \cos(A)&=&\displaystyle\frac{\text{adjacent side}}{\rm hypotenuse}\\ \\ \tan(A)&=&\displaystyle\frac{\text{opposite side}}{\text{adjacent side}} \end{array} }$$

Tips on checking and remembering Formulae
This page contains some trigonometric identities. It does not contain all trigonometric identities. It couldn't possibly. As well as the trigonometric identities for 'double angles' such as:
 * $$\cos(2t)=\cos^2(t)-\sin^2(t)$$

there exist trigonometrical identities for treble angles, quadruple angles and so on. We could not list them all. Also the same formula can be presented in different disguises as we'll see below.

It's useful to learn some of the trig identities and to know how to quickly and easily derive one trigonometric identities from another.

Checking Formulae
It is also very important to be able to check that the formulae you come up with make sense. We know that $$\cos(0^\circ)=1$$. If your formula for $$\cos(2t)$$ does not give the answer 1 when $$t=0$$ then it is wrong! Don't stop there though. You can work out where you went wrong and save yourself making the same mistake again. How do you do that?

If you worked out the formula for $$\cos(2t)$$ from the formula for $$\cos(A+B)$$ you need to check through the steps you took. If the mistake isn't obvious, try putting $$A=0$$ and $$B=0$$. It is very very easy to get a sign wrong, a plus for a minus, when working with equations quickly. It is only through practice that you will become both fast at it and accurate.

Identities Based on the Pythagorean Theorem
Some of the most fundamental trigonometric identities are those derived from the Pythagorean Theorem. These are defined using a right triangle:

At this stage in the course the Pythagorean Theorem should be second nature to you. If you have not yet learned it, learn it now.
 * $$a^2+b^2=c^2$$

$$a$$ and $$b$$ of course are the legs or the adjacent and opposite edges, and $$c$$ is the hypotenuse, the longest side, the side that does not include the right angle. This formula only works for a right angle triangle. If the angle shown as a right angle in the diagram were obtuse, larger than a right angle, then $$c^2$$ would be larger than the Pythagorean sum. If the angle shown as a right angle were smaller than a right angle, then $$c^2$$ would be smaller than $$a^2+b^2$$.

Pythagorean Theorem in Terms of sine and cosine
The Pythagorean Theorem is the same thing as
 * $$\sin^2(A)+\cos^2(A)=1$$

We know this from the earlier in the book where we introduced $$\rm sine$$ and $$\rm cosine$$. The $$\sin^2(A)+\cos^2(A)=1$$ identity should be second nature to you too, but you should also be able to derive it from the Pythagorean relation.
 * The $$\rm cosine$$ is the adjacent side when the hypotenuse is one.
 * The $$\rm sine$$ is the opposite side when the hypotenuse is one.

We can see it's true from a right triangle that has a hypotenuse that is 'c' rather than one. Dividing the Pythagorean relation through by $$c^2$$ gives us

 * $$\left(\frac{a}{c}\right)^2+\left(\frac{b}{c}\right)^2=\left(\frac{c}{c}\right)^2=1$$

And we have already seen from soh-cah-toa that the sine of A is $$\left(\frac{a}{c}\right)$$ and the cosine of A is $$\left(\frac{b}{c}\right)$$.

Identities based on Addition Formula
We saw the addition formula earlier.

Letters are Arbitrary
The letters in these equations $$A$$ and $$B\,$$ are arbitrary. We could equally use $$\omega$$ and $$\theta$$. We're pointing this out because we happen to have a diagram on this page that has angles $$A$$, $$B$$ and $$C$$ in it, and we want to make it clear that that was for Pythagoras and we're not talking about that diagram any more. In these equations you can also always substitute actual values, e.g. replace $$A$$ by $$\pi$$ and they'd still be true. Or you could replace $$A$$ by $$2t$$ or $$\pi-t$$and they'd still be true.

Addition Formula
The addition formula for cosine is:
 * $$\cos(A+B)=\cos(A)\cos(B)-\sin(A)\sin(B)$$

and is worth learning. But don't learn the next one:

'Subtraction' Formula

 * $$\cos(A-B)=\cos(A)\cos(B)+\sin(A)\sin(B)$$

Learning the second formula is extra effort that does not really gain you anything. You can get it instantly by replacing $$B$$ by $$-B$$ in the first equation. The only things on the right hand side that will change are the terms that had $$B$$ in them. The $$\cos(B)$$ is unchanged because $$\cos(-B)=\cos(B)$$. The minus sign before the second term changes because $$\sin(-B)=-\sin(B)$$.

Checking the 'subtraction' formula
Now do a quick check. If $$A=B$$ then $$cos(A-B)$$ is $$\cos(0)$$ which is one, right? And on the right hand side we have $$\cos^2(A)+\sin^2(A)$$, which is also one. Looks good.

It is much better to remember it this way, because you are doing less rote learning and you're also becoming more fluent with the algebra.

Double Angle Formula
You can immediately get to the next formula by putting B equal to A in the addition formula. This is a double angle formula.
 * $$\cos(2A)=\cos^2(A)-\sin^2(A)$$

Half Angle Formula
Replace A by $$\frac{A}{2}$$ in the previous result and you get the half angle formula.
 * $$\cos(A)=\cos^2\bigl(\tfrac{A}{2}\bigr)-\sin^2\bigl(\tfrac{A}{2}\bigr)$$

Cos^2A=\2cos^2A-1

Sum of two shifted Cosines
For the next formula, you could just plough through the algebra...
 * $$\cos(x+\theta)+\cos(x-\theta)=\dots$$

Waves in and out of phase
Before we do, notice that we are adding two cosine waves, the first shifted left and the second shifted right. We've seen this before when we looked at waves in and out of phase. We're going to get another sinusoidal wave. The expression is fairly symmetric, and actually we can quickly show that the expression gives an even function, that is that the value for $$-x$$ is the same as for $$x$$ :

 * $$\cos(-x+\theta)+\cos(-x-\theta)=$$ using $$\cos(x)=\cos(-x)$$ we get to:
 * $$\cos(x-\theta)+\cos(x+\theta)=$$ and now swapping the two terms:
 * $$\cos(x+\theta)+\cos(x-\theta)$$ which is the original expression.

with practice you'll be able to see those steps and that the expression is an even function immediately.

A sinusoidal wave that is an even function - well it is something based on cosine. We're expecting the formula will simplify to give us something like:
 * $$A\cos(x)$$

Where $$A$$ will depend on $$\theta$$.

Values to Check With
When $$\theta=0^\circ$$ (try it in the original formula) we expect A to be 2. When $$\theta=90^\circ$$ we expect A to be 0, as the two cosine waves are $$180^\circ$$ out of phase. So now to plough through the algebra:
 * $$\cos(x+\theta)+\cos(x-\theta)=$$
 * $$\cos(x)\cos(\theta)-\sin(x)\sin(\theta)+\cos(x)\cos(-\theta)-\sin(x)\sin(-\theta)=$$
 * $$\cos(x)\cos(\theta)-\sin(x)\sin(\theta)+\cos(x)\cos(\theta)+\sin(x)\sin(\theta)=$$
 * $$\cos(x)\cos(\theta)+\cos(x)\cos(\theta)=$$
 * $$2\cos(\theta)\cos(x)$$

And to check we try with $$\theta=0^\circ$$ and get $$2\cos(x)$$, and we check with $$\theta=90^\circ$$ and get $$0\times\cos(x)$$ , as we hoped.

Knowing roughly what we expected made it easier to get the algebraic steps right. We knew where we were going. We knew we weren't going to end up with four separate terms, some would have to cancel or combine in some other way.

Identities based on Sine and Cosine rules

 * $$\frac{a}{\sin(A)}=\frac{b}{\sin(B)}=\frac{c}{\sin(C)}$$.

This is easy to remember because it is so symmetrical. You do not even need to remember which way up the ratios are as this is also true:
 * $$\frac{\sin(A)}{a}=\frac{\sin(B)}{b}=\frac{\sin(C)}{c}$$.

What you do need to remember is how the triangle is labelled for it to be true.

With the cosine law formula:
 * $$a^2+b^2-2ab\cos(\theta)=c^2$$

It is best to think of it as a more general version of Pythagoras' theorem. The a and b have to be on equal footing, so ab as a multiplier is reasonable.

 * If you are familiar with 'units' in physics, then use the fact that units must match up. The quantities $$a,b,c$$ are measurements of length. It is no good adding $$a^2$$ to $$-2(a+b)\cos(\theta)$$ . One might have units Km2 the other units of Km. Adding $$a^2$$ to $$-2ab\cos(\theta)$$ the units, e.g: Km2, do match.

In some more detail, it has got to be minus for $$-2ab\cos(\theta)$$. That's because for $$\theta<90^\circ$$ we need $$c^2$$ to be less than for Pythagoras' theorem.

How can you remember and be sure the 2 is right? Think of an equilateral triangle with each side of length 1. The angle $$\theta=60^\circ$$ and $$\cos(60^\circ)=0.5$$. We need the 2 to get the right answer 1 + 1 + 2x1x1x0.5 = 1.

Ratio identities

 * $$\tan(A)=\frac{\sin(A)}{\cos(A)}$$

This is one definition of tan, and is something you should just learn.

Identities based on symmetry
These symmetry identities are best remembered by remembering the graphs for these functions. Have a look at the graphs again if you don't remember them.

$$0,\frac{\pi}{2},\pi,\frac{3\pi}{2},2\pi$$ are landmarks on the graphs of sine and cosine, and you should know what happens for both those functions at those landmarks. When you have that knowledge the following symmetry identities are easy to write down, because you can see them visually.

Shifting Left

 * $$\cos(\pi+A)=-\cos(A)\quad\sin(\pi+A)=-\sin(A)\quad\tan(\pi+A)=\tan(A)$$

The identities above are visualised as shifting the graph left by $$\pi$$. It's a half cycle, and both cosine and sine change signs - and hence tan does not change sign, because when it is expressed as a ratio of sine over cosine both the top and bottom change signs.

Reflecting in $$x=\frac{\pi}{2}$$

 * $$\cos(\pi-A)=-\cos(A)\quad\sin(\pi-A)=\sin(A)\quad\tan(\pi-A)=-\tan(A)$$

In the above we are reflecting the graph about the vertical line $$x=\frac{\pi}{2}$$. Spend enough time looking at this on the graph to see that that is true. It is important to do that to remember this trick for remembering what happens.

Now sine has a maximum at $$x=\frac{\pi}{2}$$ (it has the value one) and it is symmetric about that x value, so $$\sin(\pi-A)=\sin(A)$$. Cosine is zero at $$x=\frac{\pi}{2}$$. Reflecting cosine in the line $$x=\frac{\pi}{2}$$ reverses the sign. $$\cos(\pi-A)=-\cos(A)$$

Co-function identities

 * $$\cos(A)=\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{2}-A\right)$$
 * $$\sin(A)=\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{2}-A\right)$$

The above two formulas are most easily seen from the right-triangle definition of cosine and sine. The two acute angles in such a triangle add up to $$\frac{\pi}{2}$$, and we are just giving the ratios of sides lengths in terms of a different angle's trig function.
 * $$\cos(A)=\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{2}+A\right)$$
 * $$\sin(A)=-\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{2}+A\right)$$

These two formulae are 'the same' as the previous formulae. We get there in two steps. First subtracted pi from the angle on the right hand side, which inverts the sign, and inverted the sign to compensate. Next invert the sign of the angle on the right hand side. For cosine on the right we are done. For sine on the right we have to invert its sign since inverting the angle's sign changed the sign of the result.

Yes - keeping track of signs is tricky, and always needs care.

title: Trigonometry/Remembering Trig Formulae


text:
French aviso Sésostris

Sésostris was a paddle steamer, initially built as a postal steamer for the Near Eastern service of the Messageries Maritimes. In 1852, she became a steam aviso in the French Navy.

Career
From 1853 to 1854, Sésostris cruised off Western Africa under Lieutenant Chastenet.

In 1855, she was re-armed with mortars for the Crimean War, notably taking part in the Battle of Kinburn.

In 1859 and 1860, she performed oceanographic surveys off Newfoundland.

Struck in 1861, she was used as a floating mechanics workshop until 1894. She was eventually broken up in 1896.

Legacy
A model of Sésostris is on display at the Musée national de la Marine in Paris.

title: French aviso Sésostris


text:
User:JWSchmidt/Blog/16 January 2007

Featured content development projects Today I continued to clean the "Topic:" namespace. According to the wiki statistics, there are now 1,524 pages that are probably legitimate content pages.

Along with placing featured content on the main page, it will make sense to explicitly distinguish between main page links to portals and content development pages. Wikipedia has no links to content development "wikiprojects" on their main page. However, Wikiversity is much newer and much more about creating content than showing off existing content, so I think we should link to some content development projects from our main page. This could actually be part of the featured content on the main page: featured content development projects. Maybe there could be both some "School:" pages and some "Topic:" pages listed on the main page:

Template
See User:JWSchmidt/Wikiversity:Main Page/Content.

title: User:JWSchmidt/Blog/16 January 2007