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Intelligence analysis

Intelligence analysis is the application of individual and collective cognitive methods to weigh data and test hypotheses within a secret socio-cultural context. The descriptions are drawn from what may only be available in the form of deliberately deceptive information; the analyst must correlate the similarities among deceptions and extract a common truth. Although its practice is found in its purest form inside national intelligence agencies, its methods are also applicable in fields such as business intelligence or competitive intelligence.

Overview

Intelligence analysis is a way of reducing the ambiguity of highly ambiguous situations. Many analysts prefer the middle-of-the-road explanation, rejecting high or low probability explanations. Analysts may use their own standard of proportionality as to the risk acceptance of the opponent, rejecting that the opponent may take an extreme risk to achieve what the analyst regards as a minor gain. The analyst must avoid the special cognitive traps for intelligence analysis projecting what she or he wants the opponent to think, and using available information to justify that conclusion. Being aware that one's enemies may try to confuse is a relevant factor, especially in the areas of intelligence cycle security and its subdiscipline counterintelligence. During World War II, the German word for counterintelligence art was Funkspiel, or radio game—not a game in the sense of playing fields, but something that draws from game theory and seeks to confuse one's opponents.

A set of problem-solving talents are essential for analysts. Since the other side may be hiding their intention, the analyst must be tolerant of ambiguity, of false leads, and of partial information far more fragmentary than faces the experimental scientist. According to Dick Heuer, in an experiment in which analyst behavior was studied, the process is one of incremental refinement: "with test subjects in the experiment demonstrating that initial exposure to blurred stimuli interferes with accurate perception even after more and better information becomes available...the experiment suggests that an analyst who starts observing a potential problem situation at an early and unclear stage is at a disadvantage as compared with others, such as policymakers, whose first exposure may come at a later stage when more and better information is available."

The receipt of information in small increments over time also facilitates assimilation of this information into the analyst's existing views. One item of information may not be sufficient to prompt the analyst to change a previous view. The cumulative message inherent in many pieces of information may be significant but is attenuated when this information is not examined as a whole. The Intelligence Community's review of its performance before the 1973 Yom Kippur War noted [in the only declassified paragraph].

"The problem of incremental analysis—especially as it applies to the current intelligence process—was also at work in the period preceding hostilities. Analysts, according to their own accounts, were often proceeding on the basis of the day's take, hastily comparing it with material received the previous day. They then produced in 'assembly line fashion' items which may have reflected perceptive intuition but which [did not] accrue from a systematic consideration of an accumulated body of integrated evidence."

Writers on analysis have suggested reasons why analysts come to incorrect conclusions, by falling into cognitive traps for intelligence analysis. Without falling into the trap of avoiding decisions by wanting more information, analysts also need to recognize that they always can learn more about the opponent.

Analytic tradecraft
The body of specific methods for intelligence analysis is generally referred to as analytic tradecraft. The academic disciplines examining the art and science of intelligence analysis are most routinely referred to as "Intelligence Studies", and exemplified by institutions such as the Joint Military Intelligence College, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public and International Affairs (Security and Intelligence Studies major), and Mercyhurst College Institute for Intelligence Studies. The goal of the Analytic Tradecraft Notes of the Central Intelligence Agency's Directorate of Intelligence (DI) include the

"Pursuit of expertise in analytic tradecraft is a central element of this plan. Our tradecraft enables analysts to provide 'value-added' to consumers of intelligence by ensuring:

 * Dedication to objectivity – tough-minded evaluation of information and explicit defense of judgments – which enhances our credibility with consumers dealing with complex and sensitive policy issues.
 * Delivery of our products to the right people in time to be useful in their decision-making, and using feedback and tasking from them to drive the collection of the basic intelligence that we need to produce our analysis.

Analytic tradecraft skills also serve as 'force multipliers', helping us provide top-quality analysis:

 * The feedback our customers give us on our customized analysis clarifies for the analyst what questions most need answering.
 * Employing rules for evaluating information and making judgments helps analysts manage the deluge of information, discern trends, and identify attempts at deception.
 * Tradecraft standards can be used to iron out differences among experts who have complementary substantive specialties. Their interaction enhances teamwork, which allows the [Directorate of Intelligence] to be more productive."On January 2, 2015, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) issued Intelligence Community Directive (ICD) 203, which "establishe[d] Intelligence Community (IC) Analytic Standards that govern the production and evaluation of analytic products; articulates the responsibility of intelligence analysts to strive for excellence, integrity, and rigor in their analytic thinking and work practices..."

Setting goals for an intelligence analysis
Stating the objective from the consumer's standpoint is an excellent starting point for goal-setting:

"Ambassador Robert D. Blackwill ... seized the attention of the class of some 30 [intelligence community managers] by asserting that as a policy official he never read ... analytic papers. Why? 'Because they were nonadhesive.' As Blackwill explained, they were written by people who did not know what he was trying to do and, so, could not help him get it done:

'When I was working at State on European affairs, for example, on certain issues I was the Secretary of State. DI analysts did not know that—that I was one of a handful of key decision makers on some very important matters.'"

More charitably, he now characterizes his early periods of service at the NSC Staff and in State Department bureaus as ones of "mutual ignorance" "'DI analysts did not have the foggiest notion of what I did; and I did not have a clue as to what they could or should do.'

Blackwill explained how he used his time efficiently, which rarely involved reading general CIA reports. 'I read a lot. Much of it was press. You have to know how issues are coming across politically to get your job done. Also, cables from overseas for preparing agendas for meetings and sending and receiving messages from my counterparts in foreign governments. Countless versions of policy drafts from those competing for the President's blessing. And dozens of phone calls. Many are a waste of time but have to be answered, again, for policy and political reasons.

'One more minute, please, on what I did not find useful. This is important. My job description called for me to help prepare the President for making policy decisions, including at meetings with foreign counterparts and other officials...Do you think that after I have spent long weeks shaping the agenda, I have to be told a day or two before the German foreign minister visits Washington why he is coming?'"

Be bold and honest
Weasel-wording is problematic in intelligence analysis; still, some things truly are uncertain. Arguably, when uncertainties are given with probabilities or at least some quantification of likelihood, they become less a case of weasel wording and more a case of reflecting reality as it is best understood.

While a good analyst must be able to consider, thoughtfully, alternative viewpoints, an analyst must be willing to stand by his or her position. This is especially important in specialized areas, when the analyst may be the only one that reads every field report, every technical observation on a subject.

"Believe in your own professional judgments. Always be willing to listen to alternative conclusions or other points of view, but stand your ground if you really believe the intelligence supports a certain conclusion. Just because someone is your boss, is a higher grade, or has been around longer than you does not mean he or she knows more about your account than you do. You are the one who reads the traffic every day and who studies the issue". At the same time, Watanabe observes, "It is better to be mistaken than wrong". Not willing to be wrong is also a disease of the highest policymaker levels, and why there needs to be a delicately balanced relationship, built of trust, between a policymaker and his closest intelligence advisors.

"Being an intelligence analyst is not a popularity contest...But your job is to pursue the truth. I recall a colleague who forwarded an analysis that called into question the wisdom behind several new US weapon systems. This analysis caused criticism of the CIA, of his office, and of himself. He stood his ground, however; the Agency supported him, and eventually he was proven right. He did not make a lot of friends, but he did his job.

Intelligence analysts are expected to give policymakers' opinions both support and reality checks. The most effective products have several common features:
 * Opportunities and dangers for interests of the analyst's country, especially unexpected developments that may require a reaction.
 * Motives, objectives, strengths, and vulnerabilities of adversaries, allies, and other actors.
 * Direct and indirect sources of friendly parties' leverage on foreign players and issues.
 * Tactical alternatives for advancing stated national policy goals.

Reality checking is not to be underestimated. In World War II, the Allies launched an air offensive against a target system that they really did not understand: the V-1 cruise missile. Their rationale to attack ("if the enemy apparently valued it, then it must be worth attacking") may have been rational when there were large numbers of aircraft and pilots, but it might not be applicable to current situations, at least not until analysts rule out the possibility of the target system being a decoy. If the threat is real, then it might be warranted to defer attack until a massive one can be delivered.

Agreement on content
The analytic process must be interactive with the customer to succeed. For example, the first IMINT of Soviet missiles during the Cuban Missile Crisis was verified and quickly taken to the President and Secretary of Defense. The highest level of authority immediately requested more detail, but also wanted a perspective on the Soviet strategy, which was not available from photography.

As the White House requested more CIA and Navy support for photography, it simultaneously searched for HUMINT and SIGINT from Cuba, as well as diplomatic HUMINT. Until John F. Kennedy was briefed by excellent briefers, such as Dino Brugioni, he probably did not understand the capabilities of IMINT.

Frequently, the intelligence service will organize the production process and its output to mirror the customer organization. Government production by the single-source intelligence agencies is largely organized geographically or topically, to meet the needs of all-source country, region, or topic analysts in the finished-intelligence producing agencies.

In terms of intended use by the customer, both business and government producers may generate intelligence to be applied in the current, estimative, operational, research, science and technology, or warning context. Serendipity plays a role here, because the collected and analyzed information may meet any or all of these criteria.

A good example is warning intelligence. Military and political analysts are always watching for predefined indication that an emergency, such as outbreak of war, or a political coup, is imminent. When an indicator is approved, policymakers are alerted and a crisis team is often convened, with the mission of providing time-sensitive intelligence on the situation to all relevant customers.

Orienting oneself to the consumers
Experienced analysts recommend seeing oneself as a specialist on a team, with 5–10 key players. Learn something about each of them, both in terms of how they express themselves, and how you can reinforce their strengths and support their weaknesses. The analyst must constantly ask himself, "what do they want/need to know? How do they prefer to have it presented? Are they still trying to select the best course of action, or have they committed and now need to know the obstacles and vulnerabilities on their chosen path?"

Others on the team may know, how to handle the likely challenges. The analyst's contribution is in recognizing the unlikely, or providing connections that are not obvious. Consumers must get information in a timely manner, not after they commit to a decision they might not have made having rougher information available sooner.

Sometimes, when the producer is struggling with how to meet the needs of both internal and external customers, the solution is to create two different types of products, one for each type of customer. An internal product might contain detail of sources, collection methods, and analytic techniques, while an external product is more like journalism. Remember that journalists always address:
 * Who
 * 1) What
 * 2) When
 * 3) Where
 * Why

"How" is often relevant to journalists, but, in intelligence, may wander into that delicate area of sources and methods, appropriate only for internal audiences. The external consumer needs to know more of potential actions. Actions exist in three phases:
 * 1) The decision to act
 * 2) The action
 * 3) Disengagement from the action

Internal products contain details about the sources and methods used to generate the intelligence, while external products emphasize actionable target information. Similarly, the producer adjusts the product content and tone to the customer's level of expertise.

Orienting oneself to peers
Even in professional sports, where there are strict anti-fraternization rules on the playing field, players often have deep friendships with counterparts on opposing teams. They might have been on a college team together, or are simply aware that the team they oppose today might be the team to which they might be traded tomorrow. If a technique is personal, rather than a proprietary idea of a coach, one professional might be quite willing to show a nominal opponent how he does some maneuver. Watanabe observed

"If you are examining a problem and there is no intelligence available, or the available intelligence is insufficient, be aggressive in pursuing collection and in energizing collectors. ... As an analyst, you have the advantage of knowing both what the consumer needs to know (sometimes better than the consumer knows himself) and which collectors can obtain the needed intelligence. Aggressively pursue collection of information you need. In the Intelligence Community, we have the unique ability to bring substantial collection resources to bear in order to collect information on important issues. An analyst needs to understand the general capabilities and limitations of collection systems...If the analyst is in a technical discipline, the analyst might have an insight about a collection system that the operators have not considered ... If you are not frequently tasking collectors and giving them feedback on their reporting, you are failing to do an important part of your job."

Peers, both consumer and analyst, also have a psychological context. Johnston suggests the three major components of that context are:
 * 1) socialization
 * 2) degree of risk taking or risk aversion
 * 3) organizational-historical context

Devlin observes that while traditional logical work does not consider socialization, work on extending logic into the real world of intelligence requires it. "The first thing to note, and this is crucial, is that the process by which an agent attaches meaning to a symbol always takes place in a context, indeed generally several contexts, and is always dependent on those contexts. An analytic study of the way that people interpret symbols comes down to an investigation of the mechanism captured by the diagram:

Things that are true about contexts include:
 * 1) Contexts are pervasive
 * 2) Contexts are primary
 * 3) Contexts perpetuate
 * 4) Contexts proliferate
 * 5) Contexts are potentially pernicious

The discipline of critical discourse analysis will help organize the context. Michael Crichton, in giving examples of physicians communicating with other physicians, points out that laymen have trouble following such discourses not only because there is specialized vocabulary in use, but the discourse takes place in an extremely high context. One physician may ask a question about some diagnostic test, and the other will respond with a result from an apparently unrelated test. The shared context was that the first test looked for evidence of a specific disease, while the answer cited a test result that ruled out the disease. The disease itself was never named, but, in the trained context, perfectly obvious to the participants in the discourse.

Intelligence analysis is also extremely high context. Whether the subject is political behavior or weapons capabilities, the analysts and consumers share a great deal of context. Intelligence consumers express great frustration with generic papers that waste their time by giving them context they already have internalized.

Organizing what you have
Collection processes provide analysts with assorted kinds of information, some important and some irrelevant, some true and some false (with many shades in between), and some requiring further preprocessing before they can be used in analysis. Raw information reports use a standard code for the presumed reliability of the source and of the information. The U.S. Intelligence Community uses some formal definition of the kinds of information.

Collation describes the process of organizing raw data, interpolating known data, evaluating the value of data, putting in working hypotheses. The simplest approaches often are an excellent start. With due regard for protecting documents and information, a great deal can be done with pieces of paper, a whiteboard, a table, and perhaps a corkboard. Maps often are vital adjuncts, maps that can be written upon.

There are automated equivalents of all of these functions, and each analyst will have a personal balance between manual and machine-assisted methods. Unquestionably, when quantitative methods such as modeling and simulation are appropriate, the analyst will want computer assistance, and possibly consultation from experts in methodology. When combining maps and imagery, especially different kinds of imagery, a geographic information system is usually needed to normalize coordinate systems, scale and magnification, and the ability to suppress certain details and add others.

Outlining, possibly in a word processing program, or using visualization tools such as mind maps can give structure, as can file folders and index cards. Data bases, with statistical techniques such as correlation, factor analysis, and time series analysis can give insight.

Some analysts speak of a Zen-like state in which they allow the data to "speak" to them. Others may meditate, or even seek insight in dreams, hoping for an insight such as that given to August Kekulé in a daydream that resolved one of the fundamental structural problems of organic chemistry.

Krizan took criteria from. Regardless of its form or setting, an effective collation method will have the following attributes:
 * 1) Be impersonal. It should not depend on the memory of one analyst; another person knowledgeable in the subject should be able to carry out the operation.
 * 2) Not become the "master" of the analyst or an end in itself.
 * 3) Be free of bias in integrating the information.
 * 4) Be receptive to new data without extensive alteration of the collating criterion.

Semantic maps are related to mind maps, but are more amenable to computer discovery of relationships.

The more interactive that the relationship between producer and consumer becomes, the more important will be tools:
 * Collaboration tools. These include all media: voice, video, instant messaging, electronic whiteboards, and shared document markup
 * Databases. Not only will these need to be interoperable, they need to reflect different models, when appropriate, such as the semantic web. There may no longer be a clear line between databases and web applications.
 * Analytic tools. These will cover a wide range of pattern recognition and knowledge organization.

The nature of analysis
An analysis should have a summary of the key characteristics of the topic, followed by the key variables and choices. Increasingly deep analysis can explain the internal dynamics of the matter being studied, and eventually to prediction, known as estimation.

The purpose of intelligence analysis is to reveal to a specific decision maker the underlying significance of selected target information. Analysts should begin with confirmed facts, apply expert knowledge to produce plausible but less certain findings, and even forecast, when the forecast is appropriately qualified. Analysts should not, however, engage in fortunetelling that has no basis in fact.

The mnemonic "Four Fs Minus One" may serve as a reminder of how to apply this criterion. Whenever the intelligence information allows, and the customer's validated needs demand it, the intelligence analyst will extend the thought process as far along the Food Chain as possible, to the third "F" but not beyond to the fourth.

Types of reasoning
Objectivity is the intelligence analyst's primary asset in creating intelligence that meets the Four Fs Minus One criterion. To produce intelligence objectively, the analyst must employ a process tailored to the nature of the problem. Four basic types of reasoning apply to intelligence analysis: induction, deduction, abduction and the scientific method.

Induction: seeking causality
The induction process is one of discovering relationships among the phenomena under study. It may come from human pattern recognition ability, looking at a seemingly random set of events, perhaps writing them on cards and shuffling them until a pattern emerges.

An analyst might notice that when Country X's command post with call sign ABC sent out a message on frequency 1 between Thursday and Saturday, an air unit will move to a training range within one week. The acknowledgement will take one day, so the analyst should recommend intensified COMINT monitoring of the appropriate frequencies between Friday and Sunday. Another kind of causality could come from interviews, in which soldiers might describe the things that warn them of an impending attack, or how the ground might look when an improvised explosive device has been emplaced.

While induction, for human beings, is usually not at a fully rational level, do not discount the potential role of software that uses statistical or logical techniques for finding patterns. Induction is subtly different from intuition: there usually is a pattern that induction recognizes, and this pattern may be applicable to other situations.

Deduction: applying the general
Deduction, is the classic process of reasoning from the general to the specific, a process made memorable by Sherlock Holmes: "How often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth?" Deduction can be used to validate a hypothesis by working from premises to conclusion.

The pattern of air maneuvers described above may be a general pattern, or it may be purely General X's personal command style. Analysts need to look at variables, such as personalities, to learn whether a pattern is truly general doctrine, or simply idiosyncratic.

Not all intelligence officers regard this as a desirable approach. At his confirmation hearing for CIA Director, Gen. Michael V. Hayden said he believes that intelligence analysis should be done by "induction", under which "all the data" are gathered and general conclusions determined, rather than by "deduction", under which you have a conclusion and seek out the data that support it.

Trained intuition
Analysts need to harness trained intuition: the recognition that one has come to a spontaneous insight. The steps leading there may not be apparent, although it is well to validate the intuition with the facts and tools that are available.

Polish cryptanalysts first were reading German Enigma ciphers in 1932, although the commercial version may have been broken by the British cryptanalyst, Dilwyn Knox, in the 1920s. Poland gave critical information to the French and British in 1939, and production British cryptanalysis was well underway in 1940. The Enigma, with German military enhancements, was quite powerful for a mechanical encryption device, and it might not have been broken as easily had the Germans been more careful about operating procedures. Throughout the war, Germany introduced enhancements, but never realized the British were reading the traffic almost as fast as the Germans.

US cryptanalysts had broken several Japanese diplomatic ciphers, but, without ever seeing the PURPLE machine until after the war, they deduced the logic. Purple was actually mechanically simpler than Enigma, but the U.S. Army team struggled with a mechanical reproduction until Leo Rosen had the unexplained insight that the critical building block in the Purple machine was a telephone-type stepping switch rather than the rotor used in Enigma and in more advanced U.S. and UK machines. Rosen, Frank Rowlett, and others of the team recognized Rosen's insight as based on nothing but a communication engineer's intuition.

Experienced analysts, and sometimes less experienced ones, will have an intuition about some improbable event in a target country, and will collect more data, and perhaps send out collection requests within his or her authority. These intuitions are useful just often enough that wise managers of analysts, unless the situation is absolutely critical, allow them a certain amount of freedom to explore.

Scientific method
Astronomers and nuclear physicists, at different ends of the continuum from macroscopic to microscopic, share the method of having to infer behavior, consistent with hypothesis, not by measuring phenomena to which they have no direct access, but by measuring phenomena that can be measured and that hypothesis suggests will be affected by the mechanism of interest. Other scientists may be able to set up direct experiments, as in chemistry or biology. If the experimental results match the expected outcome, then the hypothesis is validated; if not, then the analyst must develop a new hypothesis and appropriate experimental methods.

In intelligence analysis, the analyst rarely has direct access to the observable subject, but gathers information indirectly. Even when the intelligence subject at hand is a technical one, analysts must remain aware that the other side may be presenting deliberately deceptive information.

From these gathered data, the analyst may proceed with the scientific method by generating tentative explanations for a subject event or phenomenon. Next, each hypothesis is examined for plausibility and compared against newly acquired information, in a continual process toward reaching a conclusion. Often the intelligence analyst tests several hypotheses at the same time, whereas the scientist usually focuses on one at a time. Furthermore, intelligence analysts cannot usually experiment directly upon the subject matter as in science, but must generate fictional scenarios and rigorously test them through methods of analysis suggested below.

Methods of analysis
As opposed to types of reasoning, which are ways the analyst drafts the product, the following methods are ways of validating the analyst's results of reasoning. Structured analytic techniques are used to help challenge judgments, identify mental mindsets, overcome biases, stimulate creativity, and manage uncertainty. Examples include the key assumptions check, analysis of competing hypotheses, Devil's advocacy, Red Team Analysis, and Alternative Futures/Scenarios analysis, among others.

Opportunity analysis
Opportunity analysis identifies for policy officials opportunities or vulnerabilities that the customer's organization can exploit to advance a policy, as well as dangers that could undermine a policy. Lawyers apply the test cui bono (who benefits?) in a rather similar way.

To make the best use of opportunity analysis, there needs to be a set of objectives for one's own country, preferably with some flexibility to them. The next step is to examine personalities and groups in that target country to see if there are any with a commonality of interest. Even though the different sides might want the same thing, it is entirely possible that one or the other might have deal-breaking conditions. If that is the case, then ways to smooth that conflict need to be identified, or no more work should be spent on that alternative.

Conversely, if there are elements that would be utterly opposed to the objectives of one's side, ways of neutralizing those elements need to be explored. They may have vulnerabilities that could render them impotent, or there may be a reward, not a shared opportunity, that would make them cooperate.

Linchpin analysis
Linchpin analysis proceeds from information that is certain, or with a high probability of being certain. In mathematics and physics, a similar problem formation, which constrains the solution by certain known or impossible conditions, is the boundary value condition.

By starting from knowns (and impossibilities), the analyst has a powerful technique for showing consumers, peers, and managers that a problem has both been thoroughly studied and constrained to reality. Linchpin analysis was introduced to CIA by deputy director for Intelligence (1993–1996) Doug MacEachin, as one of the "muscular" terms he pressed as an alternative to academic language, which was unpopular with many analysts. He substituted linchpin analysis for the hypotheses driving key variables. MacEachin required the hypotheses—or linchpins—needed to be explicit, so policymakers could be aware of coverage, and also aware of changes in assumptions.

This method is an "anchoring tool" that seeks to reduce the hazard of self-inflicted intelligence error as well as policymaker misinterpretation. It forces use of the checkpoints listed below, to be used when drafting reports:

 * 1) Identify the main uncertain factors or key variables judged likely to drive the outcome of the issue, forcing systematic attention to the range of and relationships among factors at play.
 * 2) Determine the linchpin premises or working assumptions about the drivers. This encourages testing of the key subordinate judgments that hold the estimative conclusion together.
 * 3) Marshal findings and reasoning in defense of the linchpins, as the premises that warrant the conclusion are subject to debate as well as error.
 * 4) Address the circumstances under which unexpected developments could occur. What indicators or patterns of development could emerge to signal that the linchpins were unreliable? And what triggers or dramatic internal and external events could reverse the expected momentum?

Analysis of competing hypotheses
Dick Heuer spent years in the CIA Directorate of Operations (DO) as well as the DI, and worked on methodology of analysis both in his later years and after retirement. Some of his key conclusions, coming from both experience and an academic background in philosophy, include:

 * 1) The mind is poorly "wired" to deal effectively with both inherent uncertainty (the natural fog surrounding complex, indeterminate intelligence issues) and induced uncertainty (the man-made fog fabricated by denial and deception operations).
 * 2) Even increased awareness of cognitive and other "unmotivated" biases, such as the tendency to see information confirming an already-held judgment more vividly than one sees "disconfirming" information, does little by itself to help analysts deal effectively with uncertainty.
 * 3) Tools and techniques that gear the analyst's mind to apply higher levels of critical thinking can substantially improve analysis on complex issues on which information is incomplete, ambiguous, and often deliberately distorted. Key examples of such intellectual devices include techniques for structuring information, challenging assumptions, and exploring alternative interpretations.

In 1980, he wrote an article, "Perception: Why Can't We See What Is There to be Seen?" which suggests to Davis that Heuer's ideas were compatible with linchpin analysis. Given the difficulties inherent in the human processing of complex information, a prudent management system should
 * 1) Encourage products that (a) clearly delineate their assumptions and chains of inference and (b) specify the degree and source of the uncertainty involved in the conclusions.
 * 2) Emphasize procedures that expose and elaborate alternative points of view—analytic debates, devil's advocates, interdisciplinary brainstorming, competitive analysis, intra-office peer review of production, and elicitation of outside expertise.

According to Heuer, analysts construct a reality based on objective information, filtered through complex mental processes that determine which information is attended to, how it is organized, and the meaning attributed to it. What people perceive, how readily they perceive it, and how they process this information after receiving it are all strongly influenced by past experience, education, cultural values, role requirements, and organizational norms, as well as by the specifics of the information received. To understand how the analysis results, one must use good mental models to create the work, and understand the models when evaluating it. Analysts need to be comfortable with challenge, refinement, and challenge. To go back to linchpin analysis, the boundary conditions give places to challenge and test, reducing ambiguity.

More challenge, according to Heuer, is more important than more information. He wanted better analysis to be applied to less information, rather than the reverse. Given the immense volumes of information that modern collection systems produce, the mind is the limiting factor. Mirror-imaging is one of Heuer's favorite example of a cognitive trap, in which the analyst substitutes his own mindset for that of the target. "To see the options faced by foreign leaders as these leaders see them", according to Heuer, " one must understand [the foreign leaders'] values and assumptions and even their misperceptions and misunderstandings. ... Too frequently, foreign behavior appears "irrational" or "not in their own best interest." Projecting American values created models that were inappropriate for the foreign leader.

A significant problem during the Vietnam War is that Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara, an expert on statistical decision-making, assumed that Ho Chi Minh, Võ Nguyên Giáp, and other North Vietnamese officials would approach decision-making as he did. For example, in McNamara's thinking, if the United States did not attack SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles, the enemy would interpret that as "restraint" and not use them against U.S. aircraft The North Vietnamese leadership, not privy to McNamara's thinking, were unaware of the "signaling" and did their best to shoot down U.S. aircraft with those missiles.

Heuer's answer was making the challenge of Analysis of Competing Hypotheses (ACH) the core of analysis. In ACH, there is competition among competing hypotheses of the foreign leader's assumptions, which will reduce mirror-imaging even if they do not produce the precise answer. The best use of information, in this context, is to challenge the assumption the analyst likes best.

One of the key motivations for ACH, according to Heuer, is to avoid rejecting deception out of hand, because the situation looks straightforward. Heuer observed that good deception looks real. "Rejecting a plausible but unproven hypothesis too early tends to bias the subsequent analysis, because one does not then look for the evidence that might support it. The possibility of deception should not be rejected until it is disproved or, at least, until a systematic search for evidence has been made and none has been found."

The steps in ACH are:
 * 1) Identify the possible hypotheses to be considered. Use a group of analysts with different perspectives to brainstorm the possibilities.
 * 2) Make a list of significant evidence and arguments for and against each hypothesis.
 * 3) Prepare a matrix with hypotheses across the top and evidence down the side. Analyze the "diagnosticity" of the evidence and arguments—that is, identify which items are most helpful in judging the relative likelihood of the hypotheses.
 * 4) Refine the matrix. Reconsider the hypotheses and delete evidence and arguments that have no diagnostic value.
 * 5) Draw tentative conclusions about the relative likelihood of each hypothesis. Proceed by trying to disprove the hypotheses rather than prove them.
 * 6) Analyze how sensitive your conclusion is to a few critical items of evidence. Consider the consequences for your analysis if that evidence were wrong, misleading, or subject to a different interpretation.
 * 7) Report conclusions. Discuss the relative likelihood of all the hypotheses, not just the most likely one.
 * 8) Identify milestones for future observation that may indicate events are taking a different course than expected.

Keith Devlin has been researching the use of mathematics and formal logic in implementing Heuer's ACH paradigm.

Analogy
Analogy is common in technical analysis, but engineering characteristics seeming alike do not necessarily mean that the other side has the same employment doctrine for an otherwise similar thing. Sometimes, the analogy was valid for a time, such as the MiG-25 aircraft being designed as a Soviet counter to the perceived threat of the high-altitude, supersonic B-70 bomber. The Soviets could have canceled the MiG-25 program when the US changed doctrines to low altitude penetration and canceled the B-70 program, but they continued building the MiG-25.

One of the Soviet variants was a high-speed, high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft (MiG-25RB), which, for a time, was thought comparable to the US SR-71 aircraft. Several additional points of data, however, showed that an analogy between the SR-71 and MiG-25RB was not complete. HUMINT revealed that a single Mach 3.2 flight of the MiG wrecked the engines beyond hope of repair, and the cost of replacement was prohibitive. The SR-71, however, could make repeated flights with the same engines. The dissimilarity of engine life was not only expensive, but meant that the MiG-25RB could operate only from bases with the capability to change engines.

The United States had applied "reverse engineering" to the MiG, essentially saying "if we had an aircraft with such capabilities, what would we do with it?" In the fighter-interceptor role, however, the US gives the pilot considerable flexibility in tactics, where the Soviets had a doctrine of tight ground control. For the U.S. doctrine, the aircraft was too inflexible for American fighter tactics, but made sense for the Soviets as an interceptor that could make one pass at a penetrating bomber, using an extremely powerful radar to burn through jamming for final targeting.

Many of these assumptions fell apart after Viktor Belenko flew his MiG-25 to the West, where TECHINT analysts could examine the aircraft, and doctrinal specialists could interview Belenko.

The analytic process
Analysts should follow a series of sequential steps:

Define the problem
Policy makers will have questions based on their intelligence requirements. Sometimes questions are clear and can easily be addressed by the analyst. Sometimes however, clarification is required due to vagueness, multiple layers of bureaucracy between customer and analyst, or due to time constraints. Just as analysts need to try to understand the thinking of the adversary, analysts need to know the thinking of their customers and allies.

Generate hypotheses
Once the problem is defined, the analyst is able to generate reasonable hypotheses based on the question. For example, a business may want to know whether a competitor will lower their prices in the next quarter. From this problem, two obvious hypotheses are:
 * 1) The competitor will lower prices or
 * 2) The competitor will not lower prices.

However, with a little brainstorming, additional hypotheses may become apparent. Perhaps the competitor will offer discounts to long term customers, or perhaps they may even raise prices. At this point, no hypothesis should be discarded.

Determine information needs and gather information
In intelligence, collection usually refers to the step in the formal intelligence cycle process. In many cases, the information needed by the analyst is either already available or is already being sought by collection assets (such as spies, imagery satellites). If not, the analyst may request collection on the subject, or if this is not possible identify this information gap in their final product. The analyst will generally also research other sources of info, such as open source (public record, press reporting), historical records, and various databases.

Evaluate sources
Information used for military, commercial, state, and other forms of intelligence analysis has often been obtained from individuals or organizations that are actively seeking to keep it secret, or may provide misleading information. Adversaries do not want to be analyzed correctly by competitors. This withholding of information is known as counterintelligence, and is very different from similar fields of research, such as science and history where information may be misleading, incomplete or wrong, but rarely does the subject of investigation actively deny the researcher access. So, the analyst must evaluate incoming information for reliability (has the source reported accurate information in the past?), credibility (does the source reasonably have access to the information claimed? Has the source lied in the past?), and for possible denial and deception (even if the source is credible and reliable, they may have been fooled).

Evaluate (test) hypotheses
All hypotheses must be rigorously tested. Methods such as Analysis of Competing Hypotheses or link charts are key. It is essential to triage which may be valid, which fail readily, and which require more information to assess.

Be especially alert to cognitive and cultural biases in and out of the organization. Recent scholarship on theories of the sociology of knowledge raise important caveats.

As Jones and Silberzahn documented in the 2013 volume Constructing Cassandra: Reframing Intelligence Failure at the CIA, 1947–2001, while hypotheses are essential to sorting "signals" from "noise" in raw intelligence data, the variety, types and boundaries of the types of hypotheses an intelligence organization entertains are a function of the collective culture and identity of the intelligence producer. Often, these hypotheses are shaped not merely by the cognitive biases of individual analysts, but by complex social mechanism both inside and outside that analytic unit. After many strategic surprises, "Cassandras" – analysts or outsiders who offered warnings, but whose hypotheses were ignored or sidelined – are discovered. Therefore, careful analysts should recognize the key role that their own and their organization's identity and culture play in accepting or rejecting hypotheses at each step in their analysis.

Production and packaging
Once hypotheses have been evaluated, the intelligence product must be created for the consumer. Three key features of the intelligence product are:
 * Timeliness. Timeliness includes not only the amount of time required to deliver the product, but also the usefulness of the product to the customer at a given moment.
 * Scope. Scope involves the level of detail or comprehensiveness of the material contained in the product.
 * Periodicity. Periodicity describes the schedule of product initiation and generation.

Government intelligence products are typically packaged as highly structured written and oral presentations, including electrical messages, hardcopy reports, and briefings. Many organizations also generate video intelligence products, especially in the form of live daily "newscasts", or canned documentary presentations.

Analysts should understand the relationship between the analyst's and the consumer's organization. There may be times that while the ultimate consumer and originating analyst simply want to pass information, a manager in either chain of command may insist on a polished format.

Peer review
Peer review is essential to assess and confirm accuracy. "Coordination with peers is necessary...If you think you are right, and the coordinator disagrees, let the assessment reflect that difference of opinion and use a footnote, called a reclama, inside the U.S. intelligence community if necessary. But never water down your assessment to a lowest common denominator just to obtain coordination. When everyone agrees on an issue, something probably is wrong. "As an example, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was an almost unanimous belief that large numbers of Russian ballistic missile specialists would flood into the Third World and aid missile programs in other states (the so-called brain drain)...As it turned out, there was no [expected] mass departure of Russian missile specialists, but Russian expertise was supplied to other states in ways that had been ignored due to the overemphasis on the brain drain.

In large intelligence establishments, analysts have peers at other agencies. The practical amount of coordination, indeed inside one's own agency, will depend on the secure collaboration tools available (wikis, analyst webpages, email), the schedule and availability of the other analysts, any restrictions on dissemination of the material, and the analyst's ability to play nicely with others. Extremely specialized issues might have very few people who could meaningfully look at it.

An intelligence community document, as opposed to a spot report from a single agency, is expected to be coordinated and reviewed. For example, in reports on the Iraqi WMD program, given a field report that aluminum tubes were on order, which might have been received both at the geographic desk and the Counterproliferation Center, someone might have thought they were for use in uranium separation centrifuges. It has been reported that some analysts thought they might be used for rocket casings, which apparently was the correct interpretation. The question needs to be asked "did the original analyst contact a technical specialist in separation centrifuges, perhaps at Department of Energy intelligence?"

Such an analyst might have mentioned that while aluminum has been used, maraging steel is the material of choice for Zippe-type centrifuges. The alternative, the Helikon vortex separation process, has no moving parts and thus less demand on the tubes, but takes much more energy. If the Helikon had been under consideration, the consultation could have gone farther, perhaps to IMINT analysts familiar with power generation in the area or infrared MASINT specialists who could look for the thermal signature of power generation or the cascade itself. Both Zippe and Helikon techniques take a great deal of energy, and often have been placed near hydroelectric dam power plants so power will be nearby.

Customer feedback and production evaluation
The production phase of the intelligence process does not end with delivering the product to the customer. Rather, it continues in the same manner in which it began: with interaction between producer and customer. For the product to be useful, the analyst and policymaker need to hear feedback from one another, and they refine both analysis and requirements.

Feedback procedures between producers and customers includes key questions, such as: Is the product usable? Is it timely? Was it in fact used? Did the product meet expectations? If not, why not? What next? The answers to these questions lead to refined production, greater use of intelligence by decision makers, and further feedback sessions. Thus, production of intelligence generates more requirements in this iterative process.

Never forget the end user
Effective intelligence analysis is ultimately tailored to the end user. William Donovan, the head of the World War II OSS, began to get FDR's ear because he gave vividly illustrated, well-organized briefings that would be common today, but were unprecedented in World War II. Today, there is danger of becoming too entranced with the presentation and less with its subject. This is also a delicate dance of overemphasizing the subjects that interest high officials, and what they want to hear declared true about them, rather than hearing what the analysts believe is essential.

"Most consumers do not care how attractive a report looks or whether the format is correct. I have lost count of the number of times consumers have told me they do not care if an assessment has a CIA seal on it, if it is in the proper format, or even if it has draft stamped all over it; they just want the assessment in their hands as soon as possible, at least in time to help make a decision. Unfortunately, a number of mid-level managers get overly worried about form, and wise top-level intelligence officials make sure that does not happen."

At the same time, analysts must always be wary of mirroring the desires, attitudes, and views of intelligence consumers. They must raise awkward facts and ask probing questions, even if this makes the decision-maker's job harder.

title: Intelligence analysis


text:
Portal:Classics

Classics is the study of the ancient world. It encompasses art, politics, history, literature, language and archeology. Classics is also concerned with the later reception of those artifacts - such as the use of Medieval Latin, or modern architecture's ancient roots. The traditional European university was concerned chiefly with Greece and Rome, but this school hopes to represent "classical" culture from across the globe.

Welcome
{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 100%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"
 * style="width: 60%; background-color: BlanchedAlmond; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" rowspan="1" |

Students, please start here!

 * Greek classics
 * English classics

Future resources
We are a young school; the following future resources have been proposed.

 * Classical & Near Eastern Archaeology
 * Oral literature

Written literature

 * European Classics
 * Icelandic Classics - Edda, Skaldic literature
 * Indian Classics
 * Tamil Classics
 * Pāli Classics
 * Marathi Classics
 * East Asian Classics
 * Japanese Classics
 * Middle East and Africa
 * Arabian Classics - Islamic theology, philosophy etc.
 * Ge'ez Classics - Ethiopian theology and philosophy
 * Egyptian Classics
 * Mesopotamian classics Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian.
 * Egyptian Classics
 * Mesopotamian classics Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian.

 * style="width: 40%; background-color: cornsilk; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px; height: 200px;" |

Participate
For more information on current works in project and proposed departments please see Participate The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this school, you can list your name here (this can help small schools grow and the participants communicate better; for large schools it is not needed).
 * Active Participants
 * Marshallsumter since 26 February 2013 --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 00:48, 7 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Inactive Participants
 * JManning 17:47, 15 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Sara Anne Miller 14:30, 04 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Nannus 23:26, 5 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Jicannon 04:51, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Laleena 14:53, 10 July 2007 (UTC)
 * User:Chocoman
 * Enlil Ninlil 05:46, 13 April 2008 (UTC)
 * James 01:50, 18 April 2008 (UTC)
 * PoBoy321 03:35, 19 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Ninquelosse 16:34, 12 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Wasami007 (discuss • contribs) 14:22, 19 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Things you can do

Learning Resources
For now, any learning resources will be placed here. This will help editors when searching for resources to place within departments.
 * Greek Mythology from Wikibooks!
 * Category:Classical Mythology
 * Category:Classics
 * Introduction to Classical Studies
 * Department of Latin

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Portal:Classics


text:
Talk:David Eisenhower

Letter to Dwight David Eisenhower 2
I need the address of Dwight David Eisenhower 2. —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 23:08, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

section on fortunate son
Is there a reason why is cites Fogerty as a registered democrat? —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 07:32, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

Re: Identification with the Nixon administration
In 1970, David Eisenhower got to throw out the ceremonial first pitch at the Washington Senators season opener. Not only was President Nixon too busy, but Vice President Agnew had to preside over the U.S. Senate where his tie-breaking vote might be needed -- I believe that the (unsuccessful) Carswell nomination to the Supreme Court was being decided. At the time, it was quite unusual for neither the President nor the V.P. to perform the task. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pitch WHPratt (talk) 14:00, 14 January 2011 (UTC)

Naval service?
That portrait of David and his wife, Mrs. Nixon, shows him in a Naval uniform. That means he served time in the navy, so shouldn't that also be mentioned somewhere in the article, if not in the infobox itself? <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 07:30, 9 January 2015 (UTC)

 * Naval service detail have been added. TeriEmbrey (talk) 15:55, 18 December 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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List of Works
David Eisenhower’s occupation is listed as “author”, but when I look him up on Amazon, I only see two books: Eisenhower at War 1943 - 1945 and Going Home To Glory: A Memoir of Life with Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1961-1969.

In the Introduction of ‘’Eisenhower at War 1943 - 1945’’ David Eisenhower states that volume is the first of three, but it appears he has only written two books. So can we get a list of David Eisenhower’s books on this article? ProfessorTom (talk) 23:22, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Eisenhower


text:
pasiv

Etymology
A modern borrowing, from.

Adjective

 * 1) passive

Etymology
.

Noun

 * 1) passive

Noun

 * 1)  passive voice

title: pasiv


text:
Peru at the 2013 World Games

Peru competed at the 2013 World Games held in Cali, Colombia.

Karate
Isabel Aco won the bronze medal in the women's kumite +68 kg event.

Squash
Diego Elías competed in the men's singles event.

title: Peru at the 2013 World Games


text:
User:Nelsonitodo

Nelson Itodo is a blogger, song promoter, media influencer and advertisement manager.

Nelson hails from Enugu State in eastern Nigeria.

He is currently a student of University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Nelson was born on 1st November, 2001.

title: User:Nelsonitodo


text:
liberticide

Etymology
From, coined around the time of the French Revolution. Equivalent to.

Adjective

 * 1) Causing the destruction of liberty; oppressive, liberticidal
 * 2) * 1798, translation of Madame Roland, An Appeal to Impartial Posterity, First American Edition—Corrected, Volume I, A. Van Hook (publisher), pages 151–152:
 * by aſſembling at her houſe, in ſecret council, the principal chiefs of that conſpiracy, and by keeping up a correſpondence tending to facilitate their liberticide deſigns.
 * 1) * 1811 January 26, Thomas Jefferson, letter to M. D. Destutt Tracy, in Thomas Jefferson Randolph (editor), Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Volume IV, Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley (publishers, 1829), page 166:
 * The conservative body you propose might be so constituted, as, while it would be an admirable sedative in a variety of smaller cases, might also be a valuable sentinel and check on the liberticide views of an ambitious individual.
 * 1) * 1823, Public Characters of All Nations, Volume II, Sir Richard Phillips and Co. (publisher), page 502:
 * M. Labriffe is a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and has, of course, voted for the liberticide laws.

Translations

 * Catalan: lliberticida
 * Dutch: vrijheidsberovend
 * Finnish: vapauden tukahduttava
 * French:
 * Galician: liberticida
 * German: freiheitsfeindlich
 * Greek:
 * Italian:
 * Polish: niszczący wolności
 * Portuguese: liberticida
 * Spanish:

Noun

 * 1) The destruction of liberty.
 * 2) * 1819, “Ouida” (pseudonym), “An Impeachment of Modern Italy”, in The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Volume 18, Number 5 (1819 November), page 557:
 * All that has been done by the state since the revolt of May is liberticide of the most violent character.
 * 1) * 1976, Lance Banning, “Jeffersonian Ideology and the French Revolution: A Question of Liberticide at Home”, in Studies in Burke and His Time, Volume 17, Number 1, Texas Tech Press, page 20:
 * In the hands of a designing executive, a standing army was the classic instrument of liberticide.
 * 1) * 1981, Thomas Szasz, quoted in Margot Joan Fromer, Ethical Issues in Health Care, Mosby, ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>287, page 399:
 * In language and logic we are the prisoners of our premises, just as in politics and law we are prisoners of our rules. Hence we had better pick them well. For if suicide is an illness because it terminates in death, and if the prevention of death by any means necessary is the physician’s therapeutic mandate, then the proper remedy for suicide is liberticide.
 * 1) One who causes the destruction of liberty.

Translations

 * Catalan: lliberticidi
 * Finnish: vapauden tuhoaminen
 * French:
 * Galician: liberticidio
 * Italian: liberticidio
 * Polish: zniszczenie wolności
 * Portuguese:
 * Romanian:
 * Russian:
 * Spanish: liberticidio

 * Catalan: lliberticida
 * French:
 * Galician: liberticida
 * Italian:
 * Polish: zabójca wolności
 * Portuguese: liberticida
 * Spanish:

Etymology
1791. From

Adjective

 * , liberticidal

Noun

 * 1)  one who causes the destruction of liberty

Noun

 * 1)  the destruction of liberty

title: liberticide


text:
Alex Speas

Alex JoVaughn Speas (born March 4, 1998) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the Texas Rangers and Houston Astros.

Amateur career
Speas attended McEachern High School in Powder Springs, Georgia. Speas participated in the 2015 Under Armour All-America Baseball Game. He was rated as the 36th ranked prospect entering the 2016 MLB draft by Baseball America. He committed to play college baseball at Auburn University. Speas was drafted by the Texas Rangers in the 2nd round, with the 63rd overall selection, of the 2016 MLB draft. He signed with Texas for a $1,024,900 signing bonus.

Texas Rangers
Speas spent his debut season of 2016 with the AZL Rangers of the Rookie-level Arizona League, recording eight scoreless innings over four appearances. In 2017, Speas played for the Spokane Indians of the Low–A Northwest League, going 1–6 with a 6.15 ERA over $33 2/3$ innings in 16 games (7 starts). Speas was transitioned to a full-time relief role in 2018, and went 2–0 with a 2.20 ERA and 49 strikeouts over $28 2/3$ innings for the Hickory Crawdads of the Single–A South Atlantic League. His season was cut short that June when he underwent Tommy John surgery after suffering a torn ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint. Speas spent the majority of the 2019 season rehabbing his elbow to full health, making just two appearances for the AZL Rangers. Once returned to full health in 2019, Speas was clocked throwing as hard as 102 mph. Speas did not play in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Minor League Baseball season because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Speas split the 2021 season between the ACL Rangers and the with the Frisco RoughRiders of the Double-A Central, going a combined 2–3 with an 11.15 ERA over $15 1/3$ innings.

Speas spent the 2022 season on the restricted list, as he stepped away from playing. He spent the year working as a coach/instructor at Combine Academy in Lincolnton, North Carolina, which brands itself as an international boarding school and professional sports performance center. He returned to the Rangers organization and was assigned back to Frisco to open the 2023 season. He was promoted to the Round Rock Express of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League on June 27, after posting a 3–0 record with a 0.64 ERA and 47 strikeouts over $28 1/3$ innings. After 5 games with Round Rock, on July 19, Texas selected Speas' contract and promoted him to the major leagues for the first time. He made his MLB debut that day versus the Tampa Bay Rays, throwing $1 2/3$ scoreless innings in relief. He recorded 3 swinging strikeouts, including the first batter he faced, Wander Franco. In only three games for Texas, he struggled to a 13.50 ERA with four strikeouts in two innings pitched. On September 30, Speas was designated for assignment following the promotion of Matt Bush.

Chicago White Sox
On October 3, 2023, Speas was claimed off waivers by the Chicago White Sox. He was optioned to the Triple–A Charlotte Knights to begin the 2024 season. On April 5, 2024, Speas was designated for assignment following the promotion of Robbie Grossman.

Oakland Athletics
On April 6, 2024, Speas was traded to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for cash considerations; he was subsequently assigned to the Triple-A Las Vegas Aviators. In 9 games for Las Vegas, he struggled to an 11.32 ERA with 15 strikeouts across $10 1⁄3$ innings pitched. On May 8, Speas was designated for assignment by Oakland.

Houston Astros
On May 10, 2024, Speas was claimed off waivers by the Houston Astros. He made one appearance for Houston, allowing one run on two hits with two strikeouts in two innings of relief against the Minnesota Twins. Speas was designated for assignment following the promotion of Bryan King on June 22.

Boston Red Sox
On June 29, 2024, Speas was claimed off waivers by the Boston Red Sox and assigned to the Triple-A Worcester Red Sox.

title: Alex Speas


text:
Organic Chemistry/Chirality

Introduction
Chirality (pronounced kie-RAL-it-tee) is the property of handedness. If you attempt to superimpose your right hand on top of your left, the two do not match up in the sense that your right hand's thumb overlays your left hand's pinky finger. Your two hands cannot be superimposed identically, despite the fact that your fingers of each hand are connected in the same way. Any object can have this property, including molecules.

An object that is chiral is an object that can not be superimposed on its mirror image. Chiral objects don't have a plane of symmetry. An achiral object has a plane of symmetry or a rotation-reflection axis, i.e. reflection gives a rotated version.

Optical isomers or enantiomers are stereoisomers which exhibit chirality. Optical isomerism is of interest because of its application in inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, pharmacology and biochemistry.

They are often formed when asymmetric centers are present, for example, a carbon with four different groups bonded to it. Every stereocenter in one enantiomer has the opposite configuration in the other.

When a molecule has more than one source of asymmetry, two optical isomers may be neither perfect reflections of each other nor superimposeable: some but not all stereocenters are inverted. These molecules are an example of diastereomers: They are not enantiomers. Diastereomers seldom have the same physical properties. Sometimes, the stereocentres are themselves symmetrical. This causes the counterintuitive situation where two chiral centres may be present but no isomers result. Such compounds are called meso compounds.

A mixture of equal amounts of both enantiomers is said to be a racemic mixture.

It is the symmetry of a molecule (or any other object) that determines whether it is chiral or not. Technically, a molecule is achiral (not chiral) if and only if it has an axis of improper rotation; that is, an n-fold rotation (rotation by 360°/n) followed by a reflection in the plane perpendicular to this axis which maps the molecule onto itself. A chiral molecule is not necessarily dissymmetric (completely devoid of symmetry) as it can have, e.g., rotational symmetry. A simplified rule applies to tetrahedrally-bonded carbon, as shown in the illustration: if all four substituents are different, the molecule is chiral.

It is important to keep in mind that molecules which are dissolved in solution or are in the gas phase usually have considerable flexibility and thus may adopt a variety of different conformations. These various conformations are themselves almost always chiral. However, when assessing chirality, one must use a structural picture of the molecule which corresponds to just one chemical conformation – the one of lowest energy.

Chiral Compounds With Stereocenters
Most commonly, chiral molecules have point chirality, centering around a single atom, usually carbon, which has four different substituents. The two enantiomers of such compounds are said to have different absolute configurations at this center. This center is thus stereogenic (i.e., a grouping within a molecular entity that may be considered a focus of stereoisomerism), and is exemplified by the α-carbon of amino acids.

The special nature of carbon, its ability to form four bonds to different substituents, means that a mirror image of the carbon with four different bonds will not be the same as the original compound, no matter how you try to rotate it. Understanding this is vital because the goal of organic chemistry is understanding how to use tools to synthesize a compound with the desired chirality, because a different arrangement may have no effect, or even an undesired one.

A carbon atom is chiral if it has four different items bonded to it at the same time. Most often this refers to a carbon with three heteroatoms and a hydrogen, or two heteroatoms plus a bond to another carbon plus a bond to a hydrogen atom. It can also refer to a nitrogen atom bonded to four different types of molecules, if the nitrogen atom is utilizing its lone pair as a nucleophile. If the nitrogen has only three bonds it is not chiral, because the lone pair of electrons can flip from one side of the atom to the other spontaneously.

Any atom in an organic molecule that is bonded to four different types of atoms or chains of atoms can be considered "chiral".

If a carbon atom (or other type of atom) has four different substituents, that carbon atom forms a chiral center (also known as a stereocenter). Chiral molecules often have one or more stereocenters. When drawing molecules, stereocenters are usually indicated with an asterisk near the carbon.

Example:

Left: The carbon atom has a Cl, a Br, and 2 CH3. That's only 3 different substituents, which means this is not a stereocenter.

Center: The carbon atom has one ethyl group (CH2CH3), one methyl group (CH3) and 2 H. This is not a stereocenter.

Right: The carbon atom has a Cl and 1 H. Then you must look around the ring. Since one side has a double bond and the other doesn't, it means the substituents off that carbon are different. The 4 different substituents make this carbon a stereocenter and makes the molecule chiral.

A molecule can have multiple chiral centers without being chiral overall: It is then called a meso compound. This occurs if there is a symmetry element (a mirror plane or inversion center) which relates the chiral centers.

Fischer projections
Fischer projections (after the German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer) are an ingenious means for representing configurations of carbon atoms. Considering the carbon atom as the center, the bonds which extend towards the viewer are placed horizontally. Those extending away from the viewer are drawn vertically. This process, when using the common dash and wedge representations of bonds, yields what is sometimes referred to as the "bowtie" drawing due to its characteristic shape. This representation is then further shorthanded as two lines: the horizontal (forward) and the vertical (back), as showed in the figure below:

Operations on Fischer projections

 * in a Fischer projection, exchange two substituent positions results in the inversion of the stereocenter
 * rotation by 90° of the Fischer projection results in inversion
 * rotation by 180° of the Fischer projection preserves the configuration

Naming conventions
There are three main systems for describing configuration: the oldest, the relative whose use is now deprecated, and the current, or absolute. The relative configuration description is still used mainly in glycochemistry. Configuration can also be assigned on the purely empirical basis of the optical activity.

By optical activity: (+)- and (-)-
An optical isomer can be named by the direction in which it rotates the plane of polarized light. If an isomer rotates the plane clockwise as seen by a viewer towards whom the light is traveling, that isomer is labeled (+). Its counterpart is labeled (-). The (+) and (-) isomers have also been termed d- and l-, respectively (for dextrorotatory and levorotatory). This labeling is easy to confuse with D- and L- and is therefore not encouraged by IUPAC.

The fact that an enantiomer can rotate polarised light clockwise (d- or +- enantiomer) does not relate with the relative configuration (D- or L-) of it.

By relative configuration: D- and L-
Fischer, whose research interest was in carbohydrate chemistry, took glyceraldehyde (the simplest sugar, systematic name 2,3-dihydroxypropanal) as a template chiral molecule and denoted the two possible configurations with D- and L-, which rotated polarised light clockwise and counterclockwise, respectively.

All other molecules are assigned the D- or L- configuration if the chiral centre can be formally obtained from glyceraldehyde by substitution. For this reason the D- or L- naming scheme is called relative configuration.

An optical isomer can be named by the spatial configuration of its atoms. The D/L system does this by relating the molecule to glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde is chiral itself, and its two isomers are labeled D and L. Certain chemical manipulations can be performed on glyceraldehyde without affecting its configuration, and its historical use for this purpose (possibly combined with its convenience as one of the smallest commonly-used chiral molecules) has resulted in its use for nomenclature. In this system, compounds are named by analogy to glyceraldehyde, which generally produces unambiguous designations, but is easiest to see in the small biomolecules similar to glyceraldehyde.

One example is the amino acid alanine: alanine has two optical isomers, and they are labeled according to which isomer of glyceraldehyde they come from. Glycine, the amino acid derived from glyceraldehyde, incidentally, does not retain its optical activity, since its central carbon is not chiral. Alanine, however, is essentially methylated glycine and shows optical activity.

The D/L labeling is unrelated to (+)/(-); it does not indicate which enantiomer is dextrorotatory and which is levorotatory. Rather, it says that the compound's stereochemistry is related to that of the dextrorotatory or levorotatory enantiomer of glyceraldehyde. Nine of the nineteen L-amino acids commonly found in proteins are dextrorotatory (at a wavelength of 589 nm), and D-fructose is also referred to as levulose because it is levorotatory.

The dextrorotatory isomer of glyceraldehyde is in fact the D isomer, but this was a lucky guess. At the time this system was established, there was no way to tell which configuration was dextrorotatory. (If the guess had turned out wrong, the labeling situation would now be even more confusing.)

A rule of thumb for determining the D/L isomeric form of an amino acid is the "CORN" rule. The groups:

 * COOH, R, NH2 and H (where R is an unnamed carbon chain)

are arranged around the chiral center carbon atom. If these groups are arranged clockwise around the carbon atom, then it is the L-form. If counter-clockwise, it is the D-form.This rule only holds when the hydrogen atom is pointing out of the page.

By absolute configuration: R- and S-
Main article: R-S System

The absolute configuration system stems from the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules, which allow a precise description of a stereocenter without using any reference compound. In fact the basis is now the atomic number of the stereocenter substituents.

The R/S system is another way to name an optical isomer by its configuration, without involving a reference molecule such as glyceraldehyde. It labels each chiral center R or S according to a system by which its ligands are each assigned a priority, according to the Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules, based on atomic number.

This system labels each chiral center in a molecule (and also has an extension to chiral molecules not involving chiral centers). It thus has greater generality than the D/L system, and can label, for example, an (R,R) isomer versus an (R,S) — diastereomers.

The R/S system has no fixed relation to the (+)/(-) system. An R isomer can be either dextrorotatory or levorotatory, depending on its exact ligands.

The R/S system also has no fixed relation to the D/L system. For example, one of glyceraldehyde's ligands is a hydroxy group, -OH. If a thiol group, -SH, were swapped in for it, the D/L labeling would, by its definition, not be affected by the substitution. But this substitution would invert the molecule's R/S labeling, due to the fact that sulfur's atomic number is higher than carbon's, whereas oxygen's is lower. [Note: This seems incorrect. Oxygen has a higher atomic number than carbon. Sulfur has a higher atomic number than oxygen. The reason the assignment priorities change in this example is because the CH2SH group gets a higher priority than the CHO, whereas in glyceraldehyde the CHO takes priority over the CH2OH.]

For this reason, the D/L system remains in common use in certain areas, such as amino acid and carbohydrate chemistry. It is convenient to have all of the common amino acids of higher organisms labeled the same way. In D/L, they are all L. In R/S, they are not, conversely, all S — most are, but cysteine, for example, is R, again because of sulfur's higher atomic number.

The word “racemic” is derived from the Latin word for grape; the term having its origins in the work of Louis Pasteur who isolated racemic tartaric acid from wine.

Chiral Compounds Without Stereocenters
It is also possible for a molecule to be chiral without having actual point chirality (stereocenters). Commonly encountered examples include 1,1'-bi-2-naphthol (BINOL) and 1,3-dichloro-allene which have axial chirality, and (E)-cyclooctene which has planar chirality.

For example, the isomers which are shown by the following figure are different. The two isomers cannot convert from one to another spontaneously because of restriction of rotation of double bonds.

Other types of chiral compounds without stereocenters (like restriction of rotation of a single bond because of steric hindrance) also exist. Consider the following example of the R and S binol molecules:

The biphenyl C-C bond cannot rotate if the X and Y groups cause steric hindrance.

This compound exhibits spiral chirality.

Properties of optical isomers
Enantiomers have – when present in a symmetric environment – identical chemical and physical properties except for their ability to rotate plane-polarized light by equal amounts but in opposite directions. A solution of equal parts of an optically-active isomer and its enantiomer is known as a racemic solution and has a net rotation of plane-polarized light of zero.

Enantiomers differ in how they interact with different optical isomers of other compounds. In nature, most biological compounds (such as amino acids) occur as single enantiomers. As a result, different enantiomers of a compound may have substantially different biological effects. Different enantiomers of the same chiral drug can have very different pharmological effects, mainly because the proteins they bind to are also chiral.

For example, spearmint leaves and caraway seeds respectively contain L-carvone and D-carvone – enantiomers of carvone. These smell different to most people because our taste receptors also contain chiral molecules which behave differently in the presence of different enantiomers.

D-form Amino acids tend to taste sweet, whereas L-forms are usually tasteless. This is again due to our chiral taste molecules. The smells of oranges and lemons are examples of the D and L enantiomers.

Penicillin's activity is stereoselective. The antibiotic only works on peptide links of D-alanine which occur in the cell walls of bacteria – but not in humans. The antibiotic can kill only the bacteria, and not us, because we don't have these D-amino acids.

The electric and magnetic fields of polarized light oscillate in a geometric plane. An axis normal to this plane gives the direction of energy propagation. Optically active isomers rotate the plane that the fields oscillate in. The polarized light is actually rotated in a racemic mixture as well, but it is rotated to the left by one of the two enantiomers, and to the right by the other, which cancel out to zero net rotation.

Chirality in biology
Many biologically-active molecules are chiral, including the naturally-occurring amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), and sugars. Interestingly, in biological systems most of these compounds are of the same chirality: most amino acids are L and sugars are D. The origin of this homochirality in biology is the subject of much debate.

Chiral objects have different interactions with the two enantiomers of other chiral objects. Enzymes, which are chiral, often distinguish between the two enantiomers of a chiral substrate. Imagine an enzyme as having a glove-like cavity which binds a substrate. If this glove is right handed, then one enantiomer will fit inside and be bound while the other enantiomer will have a poor fit and is unlikely to bind.

Chirality in inorganic chemistry

Many coordination compounds are chiral; for example the well-known [Ru(2,2'-bipyridine)3]2+ complex in which the three bipyridine ligands adopt a chiral propeller-like arrangement [7]. In this case, the Ru atom may be regarded as a stereogenic centre, with the complex having point chirality. The two enantiomers of complexes such as [Ru(2,2'-bipyridine)3]2+ may be designated as Λ (left-handed twist of the propeller described by the ligands) and Δ (right-handed twist). Hexol is a chiral cobalt compound.

More definitions

 * Any non-racemic chiral substance is called scalemic
 * A chiral substance is enantiopure or homochiral when only one of two possible enantiomers is present.
 * A chiral substance is enantioenriched or heterochiral when an excess of one enantiomer is present but not to the exclusion of the other.
 * Enantiomeric excess or ee is a measure for how much of one enantiomer is present compared to the other. For example, in a sample with 40% ee in R, the remaining 60% is racemic with 30% of R and 30% of S, so that the total amount of R is 70%.

Enantiopure preparations
Several strategies exist for the preparation of enantiopure compounds. The first method is the separation of a racemic mixture into its isomers. Louis Pasteur in his pioneering work was able to isolate the isomers of tartaric acid because they crystallize from solution as crystals with differing symmetry. A less common and more recently discovered method is by enantiomer self-disproportionation, which is an advanced technique involving the separation of a primarily racemic fraction from a nearly enantiopure fraction via column chromatography.

In a non-symmetric environment (such as a biological environment) enantiomers may react at different speeds with other substances. This is the basis for chiral synthesis, which preserves a molecule's desired chirality by reacting it with or catalyzing it with chiral molecules capable of maintaining the product's chirality in the desired conformation (using certain chiral molecules to help it keep its configuration). Other methods also exist and are used by organic chemists to synthesize only (or maybe only mostly) the desired enantiomer in a given reaction.

Enantiopure medications
Advances in industrial chemical processes have allowed pharmaceutical manufacturers to take drugs that were originally marketed in racemic form and divide them into individual enantiomers, each of which may have unique properties. For some drugs, such as zopiclone, only one enantiomer (eszopiclone) is active; the FDA has allowed such once-generic drugs to be patented and marketed under another name. In other cases, such as ibuprofen, both enantiomers produce the same effects. Steroid receptor sites also show stereoisomer specificity.

Examples of racemic mixtures and enantiomers that have been marketed include:
 * Ofloxacin (Floxin) and Levofloxacin (Levaquin)
 * Bupivacaine (Marcaine) and Ropivacaine (Naropin)
 * Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin)
 * Cetirizine (Zyrtec) and Levocetirizine (Xyzal)
 * Albuterol (Ventolin) and Levalbuterol (Xopenex)
 * Omeprazole (Prilosec) and Esomeprazole (Nexium)
 * Citalopram (Celexa / Cipramil) and Escitalopram (Lexapro / Cipralex)
 * Zopiclone (Imovane) and Eszopiclone (Lunesta)
 * Modafinil (Provigil) and Armodafinil (Nuvigil) — sulfur is the chiral center in modafinil, instead of carbon.

Many chiral drugs must be made with high enantiomeric purity due to potential side-effects of the other enantiomer. (The other enantiomer may also merely be inactive.)

Consider a racemic sample of thalidomide. One enantiomer was thought to be effective against morning sickness while the other is now known to be teratogenic. Unfortunately, in this case administering just one of the enantiomers to a pregnant patient would still be very dangerous as the two enantiomers are readily interconverted in vivo. Thus, if a person is given either enantiomer, both the D and L isomers will eventually be present in the patient's serum and so chemical processes may not be used to mitigate its toxicity.

title: Organic Chemistry/Chirality


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Talk:Dayenu

Untitled
Dayenu doesn not appear in the Nussach (liturgy) of the Rambam's Haggada, as found in his Mishna Torah.

The Ben Kweller song "Lizzy" from the album "Sha Sha," repeats the word "Dayenu" as part of the refrain: Lizzy i'll write i'll sing telegraph telegram telephone tellin you i'll be home soon dayenu

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title: Talk:Dayenu


text:
School:Library and information science

Welcome to Library and Information Science, part of Practical Arts and Sciences. =School=
 * Date founded - 29 March 2006

=Division news=
 * Date founded - Division founded!

=Resources=

 * Bibliography
 * Informatics
 * Information Services
 * Information Organization
 * Information Policy
 * Library Information Systems
 * Management

=Related Schools, Projects & Services=
 * Wikimedia project Wikicat
 * School of Computer Science
 * Library services

=Active participants= The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this division, you can list your name here (this can help small divisions grow and the participants communicate better; for large divisions a list of active participants is not needed).
 * Sabiona as of 17 December 2017.

=External links=

title: School:Library and information science


text:
Category:National members of the Confederation of Chess for America

The following category contains the national federations who are member of the Confederation of Chess for America, the continental association for World Chess Federation members.


text:
User:Jamelchior/Libertas praestantissimum donum

Libertas praestantissimum donum (On the Nature of Human Liberty) is an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on June 20, 1888.


text:
Skinner Turner

Sir Skinner Turner (2 June 1868 – 5 July 1935) was a British judge who served in Kenya, Uganda, Siam and China. His last position was as the Chief Judge of the British Supreme Court for China from 1921 to 1927.

Early life
Turner was born near Tonbridge, Kent, England in on June 2, 1868 to Frederick and Marsha Turner, the eighth of nine children. In the 1871 census, his father described his profession as “farmer of 560 acres employing 20 men and 2 boys.”

Education
Turner was educated at King's College School, Strand, and at London University. Turner was called to the Bar at the Middle Temple in 1890.

Career
Turner started his career in law on the Western Circuit and at the Hampshire Sessions.

Judicial
Turner joined the Foreign Office Judicial Service in 1900. He was appointed Registrar to the British Court of the East Africa Protectorate. The following year he was transferred to the Uganda Protectorate to act as Vice-Consul. Early in 1902 he was appointed magistrate in Mombasa and in May the same year was transferred to Zanzibar as acting Assistant Judge. He was appointed Second Assistant Judge in October 1902 and promoted to Senior Assistant Judge in February 1904. Throughout his time in Zanzibar he sat as one of the judges of the Court of Appeal for the East Africa Protectorates and was present at the first sitting of that court. In 1905, he was appointed Judge of the British Court for Siam, replacing acting judge Hiram Parkes Wilkinson. In 1909, on conclusion of the treaty partially bringing extraterritoriality to an end between Siam and Great Britain, he was lent to the Siamese Government as legal adviser. In this role, he sat on the Siamese Court of Appeal. In recognition of his valuable services as judicial adviser, he was awarded the Insignia of the Third Class of the Ratanabhon Personal Order by the King of Siam. In 1915, Turner was appointed Assistant Judge of the British Supreme Court for China in Shanghai on the retirement of Sir Frederick Bourne. In 1921, he was promoted to Chief Judge. In 1926 he served as the British Representative on the Extraterritoriality Commission that had been set up to investigate the application of extraterritoriality in China with the view to its eventual abolition.

Turner retired in 1927 and was succeeded by Peter Grain.

Personal life
Turner married in The Lady Chapel of Winchester Cathedral on 2 October 1902 Millicent Harriet Hewitt, daughter of Rev. W. H. Hewett.

Turner died eight years after his retirement, on 5 July 1935, at a nursing home in Winchester at the age of 67.

title: Skinner Turner


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Marquette–Wisconsin men's basketball rivalry

The Marquette–Wisconsin men's basketball rivalry is an intercollegiate basketball rivalry between the Marquette Golden Eagles and Wisconsin Badgers. The rivalry series is between the two major college athletics programs in the state of Wisconsin and is known as the I-94 Rivalry, given the 78 miles along the highway separating the two schools. The game was ranked the 16th-best among college basketball programs in 2013 and 13th in 2020. The series is the second most-played for the Golden Eagles, only trailing its series with DePaul. In turn, Marquette is Wisconsin's most-played non-conference opponent. Marquette and Wisconsin have met 130 times and has been played annually since 1958. As of 2023, the series is led by Wisconsin, which holds a 71–59 advantage. Since the 1949–50 season, the total point differential has only been 48, signifying the relative competitiveness of the series. Both programs are in the top-50 for all-time Division I basketball victories.

Series history
Under head coach Al McGuire, Marquette dominated the 1970s as the program became a national powerhouse, including a series-record 15 straight victories from 1969 to 1978 that inflamed tensions to their then-high. During the stretch, Marquette was ranked in the Top 12 for all but one year, while the Badgers entered unranked each season. One of the most memorable games occurred in 1974, as the Golden Eagles' Maurice Lucas hit a 20-foot jumpshot as time expired to lift Marquette to a 59–58 victory. In celebration, McGuire jumped onto the scorer's table and raised his fists as Badgers coach John Powless walks away dejectedly. The moment was captured in a famous photograph by Robert "Buck" Miller.

Wisconsin finally snapped the streak in 1978 after McGuire retired, flipping the narrative on the series after a 65 to 52 victory. Coming into the game, Marquette had won 25 of the last 40 matchups; since, the Badgers have compiled a 25–19 record. In the most recent meeting, Wisconsin beat #3 Marquette 75–64, after scoring first and never giving up the lead.

Rival accomplishments
The following summarizes the accomplishments of the two programs.


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Wikipedia:Goings-on/August 16, 2020

Wikipedia always has a lot going on. This page is for news and updates about existing or new projects or initiatives of Wikipedians (e.g. new Collaboration articles, WikiProject help requests or announcements of success, backlogs that really need help, etc.)

 Goings-on in the week starting Sunday, August 16, 2020

{| role="presentation" style="width: 100%; border-spacing: 0.3em 0;"
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 * style="width: 50%; border: 1px solid black; padding: 0 1em; background-color: #fffff6;"|

New featured content
Articles that gained featured status
 * Treaty of Lutatius (16 Aug)
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Lists that gained featured status
 * List of Hennepin County Library branches (16 Aug)
 * NWA World Welterweight Championship (16 Aug)
 * DHL Fastest Lap Award (16 Aug)
 * Natalie Wood filmography (16 Aug)
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 * PCA Young Player of the Year (16 Aug)
 * List of Roman Catholic archbishops of New York (16 Aug)

Pictures that gained featured status
 * Jessie Bonstelle (16 Aug)
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Topics that gained featured status

 * }

title: Wikipedia:Goings-on/August 16, 2020


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Talk:David Hinds

Request edit for grammar
Just wondering what English Rhythm Guitar is? Is that a different style ;) <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 21:30, 4 April 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Hinds


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User:Denslenovo

This is me learning how to use the editing suite. ΔδΕ

$$E=MC^2$$

Energetically modified cement

UN Climate Change

title: User:Denslenovo


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/InoForum

The result was delete. Malcolmxl5 (talk) 02:40, 23 August 2020 (UTC)

InoForum

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Doesn't pass WP:GNG, as there is no coverage by reliable sources (the only RS in the article does not even mention InoForum). Looks like an advertisement. Wikisaurus (talk) 20:30, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Delete. As per nominator. Fails GNG.Knox490 (talk) 04:12, 16 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Automated comment: This AfD was not correctly transcluded to the log (step 3). I have transcluded it to Articles for deletion/Log/2020 August 15.  —cyberbot I   Talk to my owner :Online 20:50, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Internet-related deletion discussions.  Megan Barris   (Lets talk📧)  21:17, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Russia-related deletion discussions.  Megan Barris   (Lets talk📧)  21:17, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Delete. As per nom. Deathlibrarian (talk) 13:43, 16 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Delete as advertisement. TheodoreIndiana (talk) 16:46, 17 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom. Olaf Kosinsky (talk) 22:17, 20 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom, advert -- Devoke water  (talk)  14:45, 22 August 2020 (UTC)