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Biochemistry/Metabolism and energy

<< Catalysis | pKa values >>

Anabolism and catabolism
Metabolism (Fig. 1) is, broadly speaking, the conversion of food into energy, cell components, and waste products.

Figure 1: Overview of metabolism

The above diagram shows the different parts of metabolism: Catabolic reactions release energy and are therefore exergonic, while anabolic reactions use up energy and are therefore endergonic.
 * energy source, which is, after all, the sun, whose energy is harvested through photosynthesis
 * catabolism, the breakdown of food into chemical energy, which is needed in
 * anabolism, the construction of complex cell molecules from small environmental molecules, utilizing chemical energy

High-energy phosphates
Due to the large variety of food compounds, and the large number of biochemical reactions which need energy in anabolism, it would be quite inefficient to couple a specific anabolic reaction to a specific energy source in catabolism. Instead, the cell uses an intermediate compound, a kind of universal energy currency. This intermediate is called high-energy phosphate.

But when is a phosphate group called "high-energy", and how does it differ from a "low-energy" phosphate? A giveaway is the ΔG0' of hydrolysis. Hydrolysis separates a phosphate from a compound by adding water: O                     O R-OP-OH + H2O ⇌ R-OH + HO-P-OH O                     O

The ΔG0' of a low-energy (or "inorganic") phosphate group (called Pi) is 9-20 kJ mol-1, while the ΔG0' of a high-energy phosphate (denoted Ⓟ) is ~30 kJ mol-1.

pKa value
Now what makes this Ⓟ so special? To explain this, we must take a little excourse into pH and pKa values. A phosphate group has between zero and three OH groups. This allows Ⓟ to exist in up to four different forms (0, 1, 2, and 3 OH groups, Fig. 2), depending on the pH value of the surrounding solution. A pKa value gives us the pH value at which 50% of the molecules are in one form (e.g., 1 OH group) and another (e.g., 2 OH groups). This is expressed by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation :

 * $${pH} = {pK}_{a} + log{[base] \over [acid]}$$

Figure 2: The four possible forms of a phosphate group. pKa2 represents the conditions in the cell.

Now to the promised difference between Ⓟ and PPi. The breaking of the ester bond of an ROⓅ releases more energy than the breaking of a PPi bond (Fig. 3), because of
 * 1) electrostatic repulsion between the two phosphate groups in PPi
 * 2) resonance stabilization of two Pi groups, compared to PPi (Fig. 4)

Figure 3: Hydrolysis of Ⓟ and PPi.

Figure 4: Resonance stabilization of Pi.

Resonance stabilization means that both OH and =O can "travel" around the phosphate. Of course, this is a crude analogy; they do not really move, the electrons are just "smeared" around the phosphate atom. This is also indicated by the use of the ↔ arrow, instead of ⇌; the three forms do not exist, they are just a way of writing down the chemical reality.

As you can see in Fig. 3, the ΔG0' value for PPi⇌2Pi is ≪0, shifting the reaction strongly in favor of the 2Pi.

Anhydride between phosphoric acid and carboxyl group
Hydrolysis : ΔG0' = -49.3 kJ mol-1

Guanidine phosphate
Hydrolysis : ΔG0' = -43.0 kJ mol-1

Enol phosphate
In the below picture, the final product should not have a carbon-carbon double bond, but a single bond with CH3 on the top. It is an error. Hydrolysis : ΔG0' = -61.9 kJ mol-1

ATP
Adenosine triphosphate contains one low-energy and two high-energy phosphate bonds: Low energy : ΔG0' = -14,2 kJ mol-1 High energy : ΔG0' = -30.5 kJ mol-1

 * ATP is regenerated from ADP (adenosine diphosphate), Pi and energy (from food); H2O is released in the process.
 * ATP is the short-term energy "currency" of the cell.
 * ATP concentration in the cell is low (ATP: 2-8mM; ADP:0,2-0,8mM). ATP is generated in high "turn over".
 * ATP performs its chemical work through coupled reactions.
 * Coupled reactions are always Ⓟ transfers, never direct hydrolysis

Basically, any ATP-driven reaction is reversible, building ATP from ADP and Pi in the process. However, some ATP-driven reactions should never be reversed; these include nucleotide and protein synthesis. If these were reversed, the organism would disassemble its own DNA and proteins for energy, a rather unfortunate strategy. For reactions that should never be reversed, ATP can be broken down into AMP (adenosine monophosphate) and PPi, which in turn becomes 2×Pi. This reaction has a ΔG0' of -65,7 kJ mol-1, which is totally irreversible under in vivo conditions.

It should be noted that AMP can not directly be converted to ATP again. Instead, the enzyme AMP kinase forms two ADP molecules from one ATP and one AMP. The resulting ADPs are then treated as described above.

Non-covalent bonds
The destruction of covalent bonds takes up huge amounts of energy. The breakdown of an O2 molecule into two oxygen atoms needs ~460 kJ mol-1. Thus, nowhere in "living" biochemistry are covalent bonds actually destroyed; if one is broken, another one is created. This is where non-covalent bonds come in, they are weak enough to be broken down easily, and to form "bonds" again. For this reason, many biochemical functions are using so-called weak/secondary/non-covalent bonds.

Weak bonds are created and destroyed much more easily than covalent ones. The typical range of energy needed to destroy such a weak bond is 4-30 kJ mol-1. Thus, the formation of weak bonds is energetically favorable, but these bonds are also easily broken by kinetic (thermal) energy (the normal movement of molecules). Biochemical interactions are often temporary (e.g., a substrate has to leave an enzyme quickly after being processed), for which the weakness of these bonds is essential. Also, biochemical specificity (e.g., enzyme-substrate-recognition) is achieved through weak bonds, utilizing two of their major properties:
 * Since individual weak bonds are, well, weak, several of them have to occur in a specific pattern at the same time in roughly the same place.
 * The short range of weak bonds.

The link that follows demonstrates the type of non-covalent forces: There are three basic types of weak bonds, and a fourth "pseudo-bond":

Ionic bonds
Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between permanently charged groups. Ionic bonds are not directed. Example:
 * X-CO2- ..... H3+N-Y
 * ~ 20 kJ mol-1

Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds are also established by electrostatic attraction. These attractions do not occur between permanently charged groups, but rather between atoms temporarily charged by a dipole moment, resulting from the different electronegativity of atoms within a group. Hydrogen bonds are even weaker than ionic bonds, and they are highly directional, usually along a straight line. Besides being weaker than ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds are also weaker, and longer than similar covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonds are unique because they only exist when the Hydrogen is bonded to an oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), or Fluorine (F), but the most common hydrogen bonds in biochemistry are:
 * X-OH ..... O-Y
 * X-OH ..... N-Y
 * X-NH ..... O-Y
 * X-NH ..... N-Y

Hydrogen bonds equal an energy between 12-29 kJ mol, whereas covalent bonds are much higher. For example, the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is about 492 KJ mol-1.

Hydrogen Bonds and Water
Water has unique properties; after all, it is chosen to be the universal solvent. The unique properties of water are due to hydrogen bonding between all the oxygen and hydrogen atoms of the content. The hydrogen bonds occurring in water are about 2 angstroms apart from each other. Although hydrogen bonding is only about 5% as strong as covalent bond, they still cause water to have a high boiling point, and a high surface tension. The following link will take you to the structure of water and its Hydrogen Bonding.

Van der Waals attractions
Van der Waals attractions are established between electron density-induced dipoles. They form when the outer electron shells of two atoms almost (but not quite) touch. The distance of the atoms is very important for these weak interactions. If the atoms are too far apart, the interactions are too weak to establish; if the atoms are too close to each other, their electron shells will repel each other. Van der Waals attractions are highly unspecific; they can occur between virtually any two atoms. Their energy is between 4-8 kJ mol-1.

Hydrophobic interactions
Hydrophobic forces are not actually bonds, so this list has four items, but still just three bond types. In a way hydrophobic forces are the negation of the hydrogen bonds of a polar solute, usually water, enclosing a nonpolar molecule. For a polar solute like water, it is energetically unfavorable to "waste" a possible hydrogen bond by exposing it towards a nonpolar molecule. Thus, water will arrange itself around any nonpolar molecule in such a way that no hydrogen bonds point towards that molecule. This results in a higher order, compared to "freely" moving water, which leads to a lower entropy level and is thus energetically unfavorable. If there is more than one nonpolar molecule in the solute, it is favorable for the nonpolar molecules to aggregate in one place, reducing their surrounding, ordered "shell" of water to a minimal surface. Also, in large molecules, such as proteins, the hydrophobic (nonpolar) parts of the molecule will tend to turn towards the inside, while the polar parts will tend to turn towards the surface of the molecule.

title: Biochemistry/Metabolism and energy


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Northern Khorat Plateau moist deciduous forests

The Northern Khorat Plateau moist deciduous forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0138) covers a small area on the border between northeastern Thailand and Laos, in the transition zone between the drier Khorat Plateau to the south and the wetter Annamite Range and Luang Prabang Range mountains to the north. Much of the ecoregion has been converted to agriculture along the floodplain of the middle course of the Mekong River.

Location and description
The ecoregion follows the floodplain of the Mekong River for 350 km along the border between Thailand and Laos. Vientiane, the capital city of Laos, is near the western edge of the region. The river through this region cuts through a number of low mountain ridges that reach to 800 meters, although the majority of the ecoregion is on the river plain averaging 200 meters.

Climate
The climate of the ecoregion is Tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification (Aw)). This climate is characterized by relatively even temperatures throughout the year (all months being greater than 18 C average temperature), and a pronounced dry season. The driest month has less than 60 mm of precipitation, but more than (100-(average/25) mm. This climate is mid-way between a tropical rainforest and a tropical savannah. The dry month usually at or right after the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere. Precipitation in this ecoregion has averaged 1,629 mm/year in recent years.

Flora and fauna
About 42% is given over to agriculture, about 50% is closed or open forest, and the remainder is urbanized, scrub, or water. Most of the forest is semi-evergreen deciduous trees, characterized by Lagerstroemia angustifolia (a species of myrtle tree), Afzelia xylocarpa, Xylia xylocarpa (a hardwood with bright yellow flowers), Peltophorum dasyrrhachis (another deciduous tree with yellow flowers), and the Burma padauk (Pterocarpus macrocarpus).

Within the forests of this ecoregion, the dry evergreen portion contain more species of mammals than the deciduous forest which produces less suitable food. Mammal species include the endangered Pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus) and the endangered wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). There are also sites of high biodiversity along the banks of the Mekong River, with extensive habitat of shifting sand bars and exposed bedrock. A popular cover in these riverine habitats is willow-leaved water croton (Homonoia riparia) which grows in wet soils near the river.

Protected areas
2.35% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include:
 * Phou Khao Khouay National Park, a mixture of river plain and mountainous territory 40 km northeast of Vientiane, Laos.
 * Phou Pha Nang National Protected Area in Laos
 * Phu Kao–Phu Phan Kham National Park, a mountainous region in Thailand south of Vientiane.
 * Phu Langka National Park in Thailand
 * Phu Wua Wildife Sanctuary in Thailand

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Bernardo Navagero

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title: Talk:Bernardo Navagero


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Deborah DeHaas

Deborah "Deb" DeHaas is the Vice Chairman, Chief Inclusion Officer & National Managing Partner of Deloitte, and the first woman to be named Midwest managing partner of Deloitte. She was the first woman Chairman of the Board of Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce, and she serves as a trustee of Northwestern University and the Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago). DeHaas is known for her efforts toward diversity and inclusion in the workplace.

Personal life
DeHaas grew up in Washington, Pennsylvania. Her mother was the only woman from the accounting program to graduate from University of Pittsburgh in 1951, and worked in Gulf Oil's accounting department while DeHaas's father went to medical school. After DeHaas's father became an obstetrician, her mother left accounting but became involved in local affairs. She started the Head Start program in Washington, and was the first woman on the local city council. DeHaas considers her mother to be a great influence in her career.

DeHaas is married to Dave Underwood, who she met at Arthur Andersen. They have three sons.

Career
DeHaas attended Duke University and graduated with a Bachelor's degree in management science and accounting in 1981. Also, in 1981, DeHaas joined the accounting firm Arthur Andersen as a staff member, then a senior auditor. In 1985, DeHaas rose to manager; in 1993, she became a partner; and in 1999, she became a managing partner of Arthur Andersen.

When Arthur Andersen folded in 2002, DeHaas chose to join Deloitte because she admired the culture of fostering diversity and inclusion. At Deloitte, she helped lead the initiative in which Deloitte hired 950 former Andersen employees. According to Crain's Chicago Business, at Deloitte, DeHaas "oversees the region's efforts to recruit and promote women and minorities, mentors employees and meets with the firm's national senior management to set performance targets and plan new strategies."

DeHaas is heavily civically involved. She is on the boards of Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce, Northwestern University, the Executives' Club of Chicago, the Museum of Science and Industry, United Way of Metropolitan Chicago, WTTW, and Partnership for a Healthier America. DeHaas is a director of World Business Chicago and After School Matters, Inc. She is the treasurer and a trustee of the Northlight Theatre. She was the co-chair of fundraising for Chicago's bid to host the 2016 Olympics.

Awards
DeHaas is a member of the Junior Achievement Chicago Business Hall of Fame, and received the 2010 City Year Chicago Ripples of Hope Award, the American Red Cross of Greater Chicago 2008 Heritage Award, and the YWCA’s 2006 Outstanding Women’s Leaders Award for Community Leadership. DeHaas was the first Chicago recipient of the Athena Award in 2005. She received the Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce 2004 Daniel H. Burnham Award, the Anti-Defamation League 2004 Women of Achievement Award, and the 2003 United Way Campaign Chair Award.

DeHaas was among the “100 Most Powerful Chicagoans” named in 2012 by Chicago magazine, in addition to the “100 Women of Influence 2013” by Today’s Chicago Woman. DeHaas was named one of Accounting Today’s “Top 100 Most Influential” list in 2013 and 2014. She was included in the 2015 and 2016 NACD Directorship 100.

title: Deborah DeHaas


text:
Portal:Physical Sciencesnew/Physical Sciencesnew news

Geology. "Geology may work in favor of energy producers" by David Elbert. Sandstone domes in the remnants of the North American Midcontinent Rift can be used to store energy.


text:
pamidronic acid

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1)  (3-amino-1-hydroxy-1-phosphono-)phosphonic acid—a bisphosphonate drug to inhibit bone loss.

Translations

 * Finnish: pamidronihappo

title: pamidronic acid


text:
User:Ogom Chijindu

Ogom Chijindu (Born in Los Angeles, California) is a Fashion Designer, Television Personality, Actor and American Football player for the Los Angeles Temptation of the Lingerie Football League.

title: User:Ogom Chijindu


text:
Prentice Penny

Prentice Penny (born December 1, 1973) is an American producer, writer and director. He is best known as the showrunner for the HBO series Insecure. He is the writer and director of the Netflix film Uncorked, and the creator and host of Upscale with Prentice Penny. He is also known as a writer and producer of the series Brooklyn Nine-Nine, The Hustle, and Scrubs.

Early life
Penny grew up in the Windsor Hill neighborhood of Los Angeles. His father ran a furniture business started by his grandfather in Compton. His mother, Brenda J. Penny, is a judge for the Los Angeles County Superior Court. He graduated in 1995 from the University of Southern California's screenwriting program, where he was a member of the African American Cinema Association. He worked as a substitute teacher before getting his first writing job in television.

Career
Penny began his professional career as a writer's trainee on the show Girlfriends where he eventually became a staff writer. He moved on to work as a writer and co-producer on the series Do Not Disturb, where he was the only Black writer. He co-produced the series Scrubs before gaining his first producer credit on the series Breaking In. In 2013 he joined The Hustle as executive producer, then joined Brooklyn Nine-Nine as a co-executive producer and writer. In 2017 he created, produced and starred in the series Upscale with Prentice Penny, a lifestyle series focusing on conscious consumption. In 2016 he became the showrunner for HBO's Insecure, a role he has maintained for all of its seasons. In 2020 Insecure was nominated for eight Emmy Awards for its fourth season, including for Outstanding Comedy Series.

In March 2020, his first feature film Uncorked, a father/son story of an African-American man attempting to become a sommelier, premiered on Netflix.

As of July 2020, Penny had several new projects in the works. He will be partnering with Chernin Entertainment and Netflix to direct a holiday film, the idea for which came from Penny and his wife. He said, "When my wife Tasha and I came up with the idea, we felt that African-American movies centered around Christmas never got to play in the same ‘magical’ sandbox that traditionally white movies do, like The Santa Clause or Elf. We wanted to see images of ourselves portrayed in this genre and create a movie that black families could enjoy having themselves represented in for generations." He is also working with HBO to develop two new series: The Untamed, a culturally diverse epic fantasy based on a series of comic books set in the Asunda universe; and queens, a show set in New York City and focusing on the lives of immigrant women.

In 2021, Penny partnered with comedian Sam Jay to create PAUSE with Sam Jay for HBO, where he serves as executive producer. It was renewed in 2021 for a second season. It is confirmed that Penny will have an overall deal with Onyx Collective.

Personal life
Penny is married to attorney Tasha Penny, whom he met in college at the University of Southern California. They have three children.

title: Prentice Penny


text:
P-18 Training

About the Open Source Learning Project

[[media:P-18_LP.pdf|Lesson Plan]]

[[media:P-18_SG.pdf|Student Guide]]

Cognitive Applications

title: P-18 Training


text:
Tropidonophis montanus

Tropidonophis montanus, the North Irian montane keelback, is a species of colubrid snake. It is found in New Guinea.

title: Tropidonophis montanus


text:
hallussa

Etymology
From (inessive singular), with the root borrowed from, from  (compare 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬).

Postposition

 * 1)  in someone's possession, care or custody

title: hallussa


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IB Chemistry/States of Matter

5.1.1 Solids
In a solid-state molecules/atoms are tightly packed. The force of attraction between molecules/atoms overcomes any translational motion of molecules (they do, however, vibrate in position).

5.1.2 Liquids
Liquids are particles that are held close together, but not as strongly as solids in that they are free to move, but not to escape the liquid (except for fast traveling particles -> evaporation).

5.1.3 Gas
Gas consists of particles that can move independently and randomly, with no significant forces between particles, and a large (comparatively) amount of space between them. An ideal gas is composed of randomly moving point masses occupying no space and with no forces between masses. The average (rms) speed of the movement of particles is proportional to temperature (in K). As a result, the kinetic energy of the particles is also proportional to temperature.

5.1.4 Transitions
Solid into liquid, the rigid structure of the solid is overcome due to increased vibration of particles (due to energy being added in the form of heat). The particles cannot escape from the liquid, but can move within it (thus dissolving in it). Liquid to gas, as energy (in the form of heat) is given to the liquid, the particles gain enough energy to escape the liquid, and become a gas, with particles widely spaced gas can take tremendous volumes. Gas into liquid, as heat (energy) is removed, the particles slow down to the point where the forces between particles are strong enough to hold them together, a liquid is formed! Liquid into solid, even more energy is removed and particles move slower. Stronger forces build a more rigid structure for the material.

5.1.5 Increasing the temperature
Causes the material to become larger in volume or higher pressure. An increase in volume (which holds the material) will translate itself in a decrease in temperature or a decrease in pressure. An increase in pressure(on the other hand) will cause a decrease in volume or increase in temperature.

5.1.6 Diffusion
Since the particles are moving at random (here: in a gas), two separated samples of gas will eventually mix causing diffusion. This will occur at a higher rate with higher temperature since the particles are moving faster.

title: IB Chemistry/States of Matter


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The origins of philosophy

< Back to Ancient Greek Philosophy

"In all history, nothing is so surprising or difficult to account for as the sudden rise of civilization in Greece. (Bertrand Russell History of Western Philosophy and its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from Earliest Times to the Present Day Second edition, 1961)

Ancient Greece
Our story begins in the sixth century B.C., at the time of a profound change in the heart of Greek society. Traditional wisdom, all the knowledge handed down through generations in the form of myths, was no longer seen as certain and it was subjected to a severe critique. Cosmology, moral values, sociology and theology were all challenged by a diverse range of thinkers, who no longer took what had gone before as certain. The range and extent of these challenges vary, each retaining different portions of the pre-philosophical culture and criticizing others. ``In africa,OBANOR OSAYANDE ,for instance,argues that,"philosophy,like other discipline was not exempt in having its origin in africa" and G.M.james in his book stolen legacies posits that ``the Greeks were not the author of Greek philosophy,but the people of North Africa,commonly called the Egyptians." The Greeks were a loose collection of city states and territories bound together by a common language and cultural ties. They distinguished themselves from non-Greeks, or barbarians, whose speech to them sounded like 'barbarbarbar', hence the name. Although many different forms of government existed across Greece, aristocracy was prominent everywhere. The nobles, who would lead the people in times of war, were conceived as the only possessors of virtue. The Greek word for virtue (Αρετή) is often translated as excellence in an attempt to escape some of its connotations in English, many of which were introduced by Christian thought at a later stage. A man was considered especially virtuous if he possessed fame, noble ancestry and success. Failure was punished and considered shameful.

Bertrand Russell argued in his History of Western Philosophy that the greatness of the Greeks came both from their passion and their intellect. "They had a maxim 'nothing too much', but they were in fact excessive in everything--in pure thought, in poetry, in religion, and in sin. It was the combination of passion and intellect that made them great, while they were great. Neither alone would have transformed the world for all future time as they transformed it. Their prototype in mythology is not Olympian Zeus, but Prometheus, who brought fire from heaven and was rewarded with eternal torment.(Bertrand Russell: History of Western Philosophy and its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from Earliest Times to the Present Day. Second edition, 1961. p. 41)"

Essential Reading

 * Ancient Greece
 * Αρετή
 * The myth of Prometheus in Hesiod's Theogony (507-616). A summary can be found in the Wikipedia entry for Prometheus.

Myth
F. M. Cornford's book From Religion to Philosophy begins with the following lines: "The words, Religion and Philosophy, perhaps suggest to most people two distinct provinces of thought, between which, if (like the Greeks) we include Science under Philosophy, there is commonly held to be some sort of border warfare. It is, however, also possible to think of them as two successive phases or modes, of the expression of man's feelings and beliefs about the world; and the title of this book implies that our attention will be fixed on that period, in the history of the western mind, which marks the passage from the one to the other. It is generally agreed that the decisive step was taken by the Greeks about six centuries before our era. At that moment, a new spirit of rational inquiry asserted its claim to pronounce upon ultimate things which had hitherto been objects of traditional belief. What I wish to prove, however, is that the advent of this spirit did not mean a sudden and complete breach with the older ways of thought." < Back to Ancient Greek Philosophy

title: The origins of philosophy


text:
nonvocal

Adjective

 * 1) Not vocal; silent; not using one's voice.
 * The guitar solo is the main nonvocal part of this song.

title: nonvocal


text:
User:Fungjennifer1/sandbox

Article Evaluation

Universal health care

Universal health care is a broad topic. This page covered many aspects regarding funding, financing, insurance, implementation, and history. I found the history part a bit hard to follow. I feel like the content was rushed. The article is neutral and is based heavily on definitions and facts. The author pulled resources from scholarly journals and WHO. These resources do support the claims. Citations do work. Links of the citation also work. I think a social aspect should be added to this article. I would like to know who benefits from universal healthcare. I would also like to learn more about the benefits and drawbacks of this system. This article is an interest for WikiProject Medicine, WikiProject Politics, WikiProject United States Public Policy, WikiProject United States / Government / Public Policy and is rated B-class for mid-importance.

This article seems more factual based. In class we discuss sensitive topics and take a stance toward our beliefs. I feel like discussions in class seem to incorporate more feelings and beliefs, whereas this article heavily based on facts.

Updated- I picked a random article, not realizing there was a set of articles on the Wikipedia page

Here is the correct article

Bioethics

Everything in the article was relevant to the topic, although the topic regarding perspectives and methodology distracted me. There seemed to be a lot of beliefs and philosophers regarding bioethics crammed into two paragraphs. This article is neutral in describing the meaning and perspectives regarding bioethics, but I did feel like the author was slightly biased toward individual right to choose medical intervention and religion. The author pulled information from many scholarly articles and research journals. Author's references do support the claims in the article. Citation links also work. I think the section for perspectives and methodology need to be expanded on, There was not a lot of discussion about methodology in this section and was based more on the perspectives. Also, the different aspects should be elaborated. This article is a midlevel interest (start class) for WikiProject Medicine, start class for WikiProject Biology, high importance in Wikipedia Philosophy.

This article talks about the morals and principles regarding ethical care of medicine. But it does not go into detail about the controversial practices of medicine and the rights human beings have in choosing care. In class, we seem to touch more about these topics and controversies.

Chosen Article

General Idea

I would like to had more details related to the background of the three artists. I would like to add more about how each individual's background shaped their artwork.

I would also like to add more information surrounding the art work around the AIDS epidemic, since there isn't a lot of information on the page.

Felton-Dansky, M. (2011). Artistic Epidemiology. PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art, 33(2), 115-119.

Barkun, D. (2012). The Artist as a Work-in-Progress: General Idea and the Construction of Collective Identity. Forum for Modern Language Studies,48(4), 453-467.

Angel, Sara. (2011). How General Idea predicted the future: Three artists eerily foreshadowed modern phenomena like reality TV and Facebook.(Art)(Jorge Zontal, Felix Partz, and A.A. Bronson). Maclean's, 124(29 30), 82.

Felton-Dansky, M. (2011). Artistic Epidemiology. PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art 33(2), 115-119. The MIT Press. Retrieved October 28, 2017, from Project MUSE database.

Bubonic Plague Article:

George Pardee

I would like to add more details regarding to how he gained support to be elected governor of California after Henry Gage. Also, I would like to include more about how his politics contributed to the Chinatown bubonic plague and its eradication. Since he was also a physician, I would like to include how his medical background contributed to his political decisions.

Bibliography

https://books.google.com/books?id=a7AwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA146&lpg=PA146&dq=george+pardee+sf+bubonic+plague&source=bl&ots=w1QsPAcMU2&sig=ogHN6V6O9wbdCTWj3ci2uNfXSWY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj967ClkbXXAhVT0GMKHYc6DQo4ChDoAQgqMAE#v=onepage&q=george%20pardee%20sf%20bubonic%20plague&f=false

Barde, R. (2003). Prelude to the Plague: Public Health and Politics at America's Pacific Gateway, 1899. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 58(2), 153-86.

Casey Sullivan, J. (2014). Way before the Storm: California, the Republican Party, and a New Conservatism, 1900-1930. Journal of Policy History : JPH, 26(4), 568-594.

Rast, R. (2007). The Cultural Politics of Tourism in San Francisco's Chinatown, 1882-1917. Pacific Historical Review, 76(1), 29-60.

Rodriguez, J., & Echenberg, M. (2008). Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894-1901. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50(4), 1049-1051.

Kalisch, P. (1972). The Black Death in Chinatown: Plague and Politics in San Francisco 1900-1904. Arizona and the West, 14(2), 113-136. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40168068

Draft:
 * would like to add more about Henry Gage and his denials of the Bubonic plague
 * Add more about how Pardee gained Republican support
 * Add more about what Pardee contributed to bubonic plague

Biography
Pardee was born on July 25, 1857, in San Francisco, California, the only child of Enoch H. Pardee and Mary Pardee. The Pardee family was well known in the San Francisco Bay Area. His father was a prominent oculist in San Francisco and Oakland. Enoch's stature within the community helped him get elected to the California State Assembly in the early 1870s, and later as the Mayor of Oakland for a single term from 1876 to 1878.

Raised in the Pardee Home in Oakland, George Pardee closely followed in his father's medical background. He attended the nearby University of California, Berkeley, then studied medicine at the Cooper Medical College in San Francisco. In 1885, Pardee traveled abroad to receive his medical degree at the University of Leipzig in the German Empire. After his return from Germany, Pardee joined his father's medical practice, specializing in eye and ear diseases. Like his father, Enoch, Pardee also developed an early interest in politics. By the early 1890s, Pardee had become an active member of the Republican Party, and was elected to the Oakland Board of Health and the Oakland City Council. In 1893, following a successful election, Pardee became the 29th Mayor of Oakland, serving a single two-year term until 1895. During his mayoralship, Pardee began a public battle with the Southern Pacific Railroad's ownership of the Port of Oakland. At one point, Pardee kicked down a piece of the port's fence erected by the Southern Pacific out of anger.

Governorship
During the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, Pardee's quick rise in East Bay politics was noticed by the state Republican leadership prior to the 1902 general elections. Deeply embarrassed and financially hurt by the denials of an ongoing bubonic plague outbreak in San Francisco's Chinatown by Governor Henry Gage, Republicans withdrew their support of Gage during the state convention. The party, divided by Railroad Republicans with the backing of the Southern Pacific Railroad and Reform Republicans of the growing Progressive movement, nominated Pardee, due to his municipal and medical background, as a compromise candidate. Despite clashes in the past with their interests, Southern Pacific Republicans believed Pardee the better candidate against the Democratic contender Franklin K. Lane, a San Francisco City Attorney and an ardent anti-Southern Pacific campaigner.

In the 1902 general elections, Pardee faced a four-way race between the Democrats' Lane, Socialist Gideon Brower and Prohibitionist Theodore Kanouse. Pardee barely edged over Lane, winning the governorship with a plurality of 0.9%. Less than 3,000 votes separated the two leading candidates.

San Francisco Bubonic Plague
Pardee took office in January 1903. At the start of his term, Pardee did not fully acknowledge the presence of plague in San Francisco. Preceding his inauguration, the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service act was created by Congress on July 1,1902. This act established that state health officials could initiate a surgeon general call conference, upon request. Due to the uncertainty and fear of the plague, a conference call was requested by eleven states to discuss the plague situation in California. In response, Walter Wyman, Surgeon General, called for a conference to be held on January 19, 1903 at Washington DC. Under the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service law, each state had to send one state health board representative to a surgeon general call conference. The problem for California was that the state health board officers, previously headed by former Governor, Henry Gage, strongly denied the presence of the plague. In efforts to rectify this dilemma, Surgeon Arthur H. Glennan from the U.S Public Health Service was tasked with working with the new governor, Pardee. With his efforts, Matthew Gardner, former surgeon-in-chief of Southern Pacific Railroad, was selected to represent California at the conference.

San Francisco was the heart of trade and commerce. Due to plague rumors, San Francisco commercial circles were alarmed by the advances of the Northwestern Railway and Northern Pacific Railways success. During this time, Northwestern Railway and Northern Pacific Railways wanted to divert commerce towards the western states. A preliminary meeting was held on January 18, 1903, a day before the conference call. Other state health officials that attended were hostile to Gardner, believing that California health officials were interested more in railroad business. Gardner acknowledged the presence of plague and promised to provide statements from Pardee and San Francisco Mayor Eugene Schmitz, promising to sanitary campaign and eradication. Pardee promised to fulfill all the conditions the officials wanted. But the officials did not not take his promise into consideration and voted to change the location troop transport from San Francisco. On the day of the conference call, Wyman discussed inspection results, revealing no detection of plague. But he also did acknowledge it was not fully eradicated. Many health officials were not happy with this answer and proposed two plans. The first plan pertained to the federal support system, which Wyman objected to. The second plan suggested placing embargoes on California borders, where railroads entered, if health officials were not actively participating in plague eradication. This conference concluded the presence of bubonic plague in California and blamed Governor Henry Gage and his state health board for his negligence in acknowledging and eradicating plague. Wyman, after the conference, firmly stated that acknowledging plague would not affect trade. In hopes to avoid a quarantine, Gardner urged Pardee to recognize bubonic plague in San Francisco.

Pardee had won the governor election by a narrow margin. He feared that acknowledging the plague would divide the already split Republican Party. Shortly after his inauguration, Pardee and Glennan met privately. He readily supported the U.S. Public Health Service and agreed to remove state inspectors in Chinatown. Pardee also complied to the resolutions established at the conference. But he continued to avoid directly addressing the presence of plague. He stated any disease regardless of plague required sanitary control. Wyman believed Pardee's stance did not reassure the country health officials and urged Glennan to address the issue again with Pardee and Mayor Schmitz. He believed that acknowledging the presence of plague would ease health officials and foreign countries' fear. Pardee continued to elude the topic of plague but continued to work with the government. On the other hand, Schmitz continued to deny plague existence. The unrest caused by the government and San Francisco Health Board lead to Mexico and Australia to ban San Francisco goods. This ban encouraged more cooperation with Seattle and Vancouver. San Francisco businesses established the Mercantile Joint Committee to promote sanitary and preventive measures, in an effort to prove that plague did not exist. The Mercantile Joint Committee were concerned that officially admitting plague would result in a quarantine, leading to decreased trade and commerce. Merchants continued to ignore Wyman, who was still adamant about officially acknowledging plague. Finally, Glennan stated that if there was no official address regarding plague, the U.S Public Health Service would withdraw from San Francisco. This forced the Mercantile Joint Committee to formally admit that there had been ninety three plague cases over the span of 3 years. They also asked for the support from Schmitz and Pardee to officially admit that there was no current risk or danger from plague. Schmitz was the first to sign this document. Pardee, who was resistant to this, eventually signed it. With this in place, Wyman reported that there were no new outbreaks of plague since December 1902 and Chinatown had met satisfactory sanitary conditions to business leaders. This news encouraged Mexico and other foreign countries to lift the embargoes. Under Pardee's orders, new officials were appointed for the State Health Board. His administration was now focused on being transparenct and would acknowledge all plague cases. Pardee welcomed health officials to visit California and provide input regarding sanitation and sanitary conditions. On September 8, the first California State, County, and Municipal Sanitary Conference was held in San Francisco. This first meeting was able to create a community where sanitary information and preventative measures could be shared. By the end of 1904, the plague had been brought under control. Nearly 200 deaths were attributed to the outbreak.

title: User:Fungjennifer1/sandbox


text:
Cho Hey-jin

Cho Hey-jin (born 25 September 1973) is a South Korean former basketball player who competed in the 2004 Summer Olympics.

title: Cho Hey-jin


text:
Vinogradovka, Altai Krai

Vinogradovka (Виноградовка) is a rural locality (a selo) in Kursky Selsoviet, Kulundinsky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 236 in 2013. There are three streets.

Geography
Vinogradovka is located 20 km southeast of Kulunda (the district's administrative centre) by road. Mirny is the nearest rural locality.

title: Vinogradovka, Altai Krai


text:
Talk:List of St. Louis Eagles players

redirect to the Senators
All the players who played for the Eagles can be found here: List of Ottawa Senators (Original) players. There was a reason that an Eagles list was never created; not enough players played for them to make it worth an entire article. Masterhatch 21:52, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of St. Louis Eagles players


text:
User:Space bear gultch/sandbox

Daniel Hill Also know as Danny Hill, Is 1 of the three amigos. Danny Hill, Jay Knapton and Lewis O'Brien.

title: User:Space bear gultch/sandbox


text:
Minister of Foreign Affairs (South Ossetia)

This is a list of foreign ministers of South Ossetia.

 * 1994–1996: Dmitry Medoyev
 * 1996–1998: Yury Gagloyty
 * 1998–2012: Murat Dzhioyev
 * 2012–2016: David Sanakoyev
 * 2016–2017: Murat Dzhioyev
 * 2017–2022: Dmitry Medoyev
 * 2022–present: Akhsar Dzhioev


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/top5bestnew.com

Links

 * top5bestnew.com resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is globally blacklisted by \btop5bestnew\.com\b
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is globally blacklisted by \btop5bestnew\.com\b

Users
No users found.

Additions
No additions recorded.


text:
Talk:Gasosaurus

I have seen fossils of this species before in museum exhibitions, and have a query - if the skeletons are lacking a skull, what was the basis for the skull used in said exhibits (it is very recognisable)

I was curious along the same lines. In the article, it states that Gasosaurus is known to be a carnivore as it has a robust skull. However, the skull has never been found. I am not doubting whether Gasosaurus was a carnivore, I am simply saying that such a statement cannot be made. You cannot say it has a robust skull if the skull is unknown. Do the newly uncovered specimens reveal any information about the skull? —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 22:12, 25 May 2008 (UTC)
 * This seems to be based on (assumed) related forms. It's common (standard practice, usually) for museums to complete mounted skeletons by creating missing bones using educated guesswork. Sometimes they get a little artistic, like the famously Deltadromeus skull with prominent lacrimal horns there's no evidence for. Of course, any mention of skull characteristics should be removed, because there is no skull known. Dinoguy2 (talk) 02:09, 26 May 2008 (UTC)

New specimens of Gasosaurus
According to http://students.washington.edu/eoraptor/Carnosauria.htm, Gasosaurus is a carnosaur, based on newly uncovered specimens (Currie, pers. comm., 1998, to Holtz).
 * Right, which is why it's listed as ?Carnosauria here. I'm hesitant to incude this in discussion or to solidly refer it to carnosauria based on personal communication, howver. If and when the new specimens get published, this can be expanded upon.Dinoguy2 20:12, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Gasosaurus. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050307120910/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Dinos/Genlist/GenG/Gasostxg.html to http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Dinos/Genlist/GenG/Gasostxg.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050207090709/http://www.dinosaur.net.cn/Class_Dinosauria_Owen.htm to http://www.dinosaur.net.cn/Class_Dinosauria_Owen.htm

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 16:33, 11 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gasosaurus


text:
Talk:Sillustani

Quick Fact Check...
I'm not an experienced editor (as in have none at all), but there are several factual errors here. I was just at Sillustani a month ago so it's mostly fresh in my mind. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 06:43, 9 November 2010 (UTC)
 * The openings all face WEST not east. I took this picture in the mid-afternoon. The sun is SSW and you can see by the shadow it is in fact to the west.
 * Only one chullpa has a lizard on it. Another has a snake. A different explanation of some sort of family iconography was given by our local guide (and at the museum next door).
 * There are pre-Incan chullpas with very rough stones and post-Incan towers with smooth stones (as pictured). It's strange to compare the stonework to Incan as the specific chullpas they are referring to are "Incan" (or under Incan rule). In fact, you can see from the picture on the page that the stone work is substantially inferior to other Incan work such as at Qorikancha where the stones are perfectly mated all the way through (and "rectangular" in shape too though all are actually trapezoidal for seismic stability). It's pretty clear that the smooth walled towers are very heavily influenced and almost certainly made using Incan techniques.

title: Talk:Sillustani


text:
Loona (singer) discography

The discography of Loona, a Dutch singer, consists of 7 studio albums, 3 compilation albums, 2 extended plays, 37 singles, including 12 as featured artist, 8 promotional singles, and 42 music videos, including 12 as featured artist. Loona was first featured on numerous singles by DJ Sammy under the artist name Carisma. The first release as Loona was the debut studio album Lunita in 1999, preceded by "Bailando", a Paradisio cover version, and Mecano's "Hijo de la Luna", both released in 1998. This success was followed with Entre dos aguas in 2000, preceded by "Mamboleo", a cover version of Herbert Grönemeyer's song "Mambo", which has been removed on later pressings. The albums Colors, Wind of Time, Moonrise and Rakatakata (Un Rayo de Sol) followed in 2002, 2005, 2008 and 2013 respectively. In 2014, Loona released her first single "Ademloos door de Nacht" under her real name Marie-José van der Kolk, a Dutch-language cover version of German singer Helene Fischer's single "Atemlos durch die Nacht".

title: Loona (singer) discography


text:
London Swans

The London Swans are an Australian rules football club based in London, England..

History
Sussex Swans were formed in the early 1990s, with the British Australian Rules Football League quite keen to expand with teams outside London. The Sydney Swans donated on the first set of footy jumpers that was to last three years. It was intended to replace the Sydney Opera House logo with a representation of the Brighton Pavilion when a new set of jumpers was needed.

The Swans' first game in the BARFL was on 21 April 1991 at King's Manor Upper School ground in Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex against the Bristol Bears. The Swans were defeated by a large margin. In the first year the Swans lost every game with the team largely being made up of British players and with only an average of four Australians. Their first victory finally came during the 1992 season.

In 1993 the Sussex Swans moved to Crawley Rugby Club, won the first game of the season against the Bristol Bears and then beat the East Midland Eagles in round two - the only time to date the Swans have led the BARFL ladder.

1998 saw the Swans reach the BARFL Premiership finals for the first time, losing to the Wimbledon Hawks in the semi-finals. 1999 saw the Swans reach the semi-final of the Pre Season Cup for the first time, though they were defeated by the more experienced Wandsworth Demons.

In 2001, ten members of the Swans' squad were selected for the British Bulldogs side for the Atlantic Alliance Cup held in London. And the Swans made it through to the semi-finals of the pre season cup narrowly missing out on a grand final spot after being defeated by North London. (future AFL player Michael Rix then on o/s travel played in these matches). The Sydney Swans at this time were again supportive and interested in the club. And donated a set of playing jumpers to the club. Sent directly after an AFL game in Adelaide. This gesture was warmly received. The Swans also gained media attention in the back pages of the Melbourne's 'Herald Sun' in 2001 after an audacious attempt to lure AFL bad boy Wayne Carey to play while he was in AFL limbo.

2002 and 2003 seasons turning point
In 2002 the club playing numbers and on-field performance continued to improve and many new players could no longer be guaranteed a game. In what was a bold plan it was decided at the end of this season that in 2003 the Swans would enter a second team into the then BARFL. This team would not be based in Sussex. It would be London based. It would be known to start with as the City Swans and play in the conference league while Sussex remained in the premiership division. The idea did have its doubters and met with initial resistance from some quarters. One league official was quoted as saying "we will never allow it". This view instead of closing the idea of a new London based Swans team actually inspired then Club President Sam Dixon, Coach Alex Hill and Captain Dave Sheehan to push ahead with the plan regardless. As they shared a collective vision for the Swans having a team in London which would enhance on field performance and player growth strategies.

2003 The first London based pre-season training session was promoted to take place in Regents Park. Over 60 new and existing players turned up validating the belief the London Swans could start a London team and training base. A new sponsor the Shaftesbury Walkabout came on board donating new jumpers, club shirts, VIP entry and player half price drink cards. As well providing the 'Red Room' in the West End Walkabout to conduct what became very, very popular social events.

On the field the new Swans London team debuted in the first match of the season. A a double header played against the two reigning premiers of premiership and conference divisions both from the North London Lions club. In what was a huge BARFL upset result at the time, both Swans teams recorded victories for the first time ever respectively against the BARFL powerhouse North London club. It was a highpoint for this era and the genesis of the London Swans as they are known today. One of the Swans players' wives, Aleisha Scanlon, was instrumental in entering the 'Swanettes' netball teams into a London netball league for the first time. The City Swans made it through to the BARFL finals in their first year. And Brian Clarke's Australian touring composite team 'The Convicts' chose to play an end of season non-league fixture against the Swans in what was a great match. The Swans continued in the BARFL Premiership competition and field a second team - the City Swans - in the BARFL London Conference. This Conference team finished fifth in the ladder in 2006, narrowly missing a place in the Finals.

In 2007 the Swans moved from their traditional Sussex home to a London base, with a presence remaining in Sussex through the new third team created to compete in a new regional league.

2007 and 2008 seasons
Throughout 2007 and 2008 the Swans established themselves as one of the leading clubs in the London AFL league. They are now the only club truly based in Central London, with training and home games held at Regent's Park.

The 2008 season was key to the club, with the EU base expanding, and a memorable win against the Wandsworth Demons in the last game of the season, held on 26 July 2008. The Swans kicked four goals in the last five minutes of the game, defeating the Demons by one goal. However, after mixed fortunes on the pitch during the year, they ended the season fifth in the ladder.

2010 ANZAC Cup victory
In 2010, the London Swans were victorious in the 16th Annual ANZAC Cup held at Osterley. The Swans went through the round-robin tournament undefeated, with victories over West London Wildcats and North London Lions in the preliminary stages, before defeating Putney Magpies in the semi-final. In the Grand Final, the Swans faced North London Lions and after a strong second half, ran away victors by 2 goals. Best on ground was awarded to new recruit Anthony Raso, who dominated across the forward line all day, taking several spectacular 'Warwick Capper-style' marks.

Future developments
The Swans are currently undergoing a period of extensive change, resulting in many areas of the club expanding. The club is being successful in recruiting many new EU players, and full-fledged Netball teams are now also part of the club's London operations.

The Swans are currently the only BARFL club in the country working towards their own youth academy.

title: London Swans


text:
Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Hoopydink

Hi all! I'm requesting custodianship on a temporary basis by means of the probationary period. I'm a sysop on the English Wikipedia and am well-versed in how to use the extra buttons. I haven't been very active at Wikiversity as of yet, but I love the concept and am eager to begin collaborating with other people in the pursuit of knowledge. Cheers Hoopydink 12:23, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

To the candidate: Please indicate who you will accept as your mentor
 * Custodians offering mentorship:
 * no mentorship offers yet

Discussion
❌ request is stale. --Goldenburg111 20:58, 1 April 2014 (UTC)
 * I support Hoopydink fully, as he's a great contributer on Wikipedia, already knows how to push the buttons, and I think he'd be a great asset here.-- digital  _  me   03:47, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Would like to see some contributions first and foremost. I feel Custodianship is jumping the gun a little bit. That being said, contributions to other wikiprojets is significant. There-fore I will remain neutral on this nomination. RichMac 03:24, 10 November 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Learning the Basics of French/Lesson:Introducing Yourself/3

I thought this one would be about age so that they could learn avoir?--<IP_ADDRESS> 17:47, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

I concur, this material can be used for a later lesson.--Elatanatari 00:06, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

Make it so?

 * Yes

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"
 * style="background-color: Cornsilk; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" |

Simple Conversation
Here is a sample conversation:

Marc and Jeanette have just met.

Marc: Bonjour. Je m'appelle Marc. Et toi?

Jeanette: Bonjour, Marc! Moi, je m'appelle Jeanette. Quel âge as-tu?

Marc: J'ai seize ans, et toi?

Jeanette: J'ai dix-sept ans.

Marc: Oh lala, J'ai un rendez-vous, à demain!

Jeanette: À demain.

G: The verb avoir
"Avoir" can be translated as "to have".

Expressing Age
Avoir is used to express age.
 * Tu as quel âge? - How old are you? [lit: You have what age?]
 * J'ai trente ans. - I'm thirty (years old). [lit: I have thirty years]

Expressing Age
Avoir is used to express age.
 * Tu as quel âge? - How old are you? [lit: You have what age?]
 * J'ai trente ans. - I'm thirty (years old). [lit: I have thirty years]


text:
Melrose Sevens

Melrose Sevens is an annual rugby sevens event held by Melrose Rugby Club, at The Greenyards in Melrose, Scotland. It is the oldest rugby sevens competition in the world, dating back to 1883 when the tournament was suggested by former Melrose players Ned Haig and Davie Sanderson. Shogun are the current men and women's holders having won the tournament in 2024.

History
Held every April, the tournament is part of the Kings of the Sevens competition, and has attracted teams from as far afield as Japan, Hong Kong, Uruguay and South Africa.

From 2018 the playing time in the final was cut from twenty minutes to fourteen minutes which is in line with the standard match time.

In September 2019 the organisers had set out plans for the Melrose Sevens to relaunch as a four-day festival of music and rugby. The 2020 event was however postponed and eventually cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic. There was no event held in 2021 due to the pandemic.

Media coverage
Domestically, the tournament is broadcast live on YouTube and locally, from the first tie right through to the final, on Borders Rugby Radio

Past winners
• 2024 Shogun (Mens and Womens)

• 2023 Monaco IMPI's

• 2023 🏴 Lionesses (Womens)

• 2022 🏴 British Army

• 2020-2021 Not held due to COVID-19 pandemic

• 2019 🏴 London Scottish

• 2018 Watsonians

• 2017 🏴 Harlequins

• 2016 Edinburgh

• 2015 Glasgow Warriors

• 2014 Glasgow Warriors

• 2013 🏴 Saracens

• 2012 🏴 Saracens

• 2011 Melrose

• 2010  Hamilton Sea Point

• 2009  University of Johannesburg

• 2008 Scottish Thistles

• 2007  University of the Free State

• 2006 🏴 Newcastle Falcons

• 2005  Stellenbosch University

• 2004  Stellenbosch University

• 2003 🏴 Sale Sharks

• 2002 Boroughmuir

• 2001  Barbarians

• 2000  Nawaka

• 1999 Gala

• 1998 Melrose

• 1997 Melrose

• 1996 Watsonians

• 1995 🇦🇺 Manly

• 1994 Gala

• 1993 Co-Optimists

• 1992 🇳🇿 Bay of Plenty

• 1991  Irish Wolfhounds

• 1990 🇦🇺 Randwick

• 1989 Kelso

• 1988 Kelso

• 1987 🏴 Harlequins

• 1986 Kelso

• 1985 Kelso

• 1984 Kelso

• 1983 🇫🇷 French Barbarians

• 1982 Heriot's FP

• 1981 Gala

• 1980 Kelso

• 1979 Stewart's Melville

• 1978 Kelso

• 1977 Gala

• 1976 Watsonians

• 1975 Melrose

• 1974 Jed-Forest

• 1973 Edinburgh Wanderers

• 1972 Gala

• 1971 Gala

• 1970 Gala

• 1969 🏴 Loughborough Colleges

• 1968 🏴 Loughborough Colleges

• 1967 Hawick

• 1966 Hawick

• 1965 🏴 London Scottish

• 1964 Gala

• 1963 Boroughmuir

• 1962 🏴 London Scottish

• 1961 Royal HSFP

• 1960 🏴 Cambridge University

• 1959 Gala

• 1958 Heriot's FP

• 1957 Heriot's FP

• 1956 Stewart's College FP

• 1955 Hawick

• 1954 Heriot's FP

• 1953 Hawick

• 1952 Melrose

• 1951 🏴 Rosslyn Park

• 1950 Melrose

• 1949 Edinburgh Accies

• 1948 Melrose

• 1947 Melrose

• 1946 Hawick

• 1945 Watsonians

• 1942-1944 Not held due to World War II

• 1941 Edinburgh City Police

• 1940 Heriot's FP

• 1939 Heriot's FP

• 1938 Heriot's FP

• 1937 Gala

• 1936 Watsonians

• 1935 Watsonians

• 1934 Royal HSFP

• 1933 Hawick

• 1932 Gala

• 1931 Melrose

• 1930 Edinburgh Accies

• 1929 Hawick

• 1928 Edinburgh Accies

• 1927 Hawick

• 1926 Watsonians

• 1925 Hawick

• 1924 Hawick

• 1923 Heriot's FP

• 1922 Hawick

• 1921 Royal HSFP

• 1920 Stewart's College FP

• 1919 Hawick

• 1916-1918 Not held due to World War I

• 1915 Lothian & Border Horse

• 1914 Watsonians

• 1913 Hawick

• 1912 Hawick

• 1911 Hawick

• 1910 Hawick

• 1909 Hawick

• 1908 Hawick

• 1907 Watsonians

• 1906 Watsonians

• 1905 Watsonians

• 1904 Jed-Forest

• 1903 Gala

• 1902 Jed-Forest

• 1901 Hawick

• 1900 Hawick

• 1899 Jed-Forest

• 1898 Hawick

• 1897 Hawick

• 1896 Hawick

• 1895 Hawick

• 1894 Hawick

• 1893 Hawick

• 1892 Hawick

• 1891 Gala

• 1890 Gala

• 1889 Melrose

• 1888 Hawick & Wilton

• 1887 Hawick

• 1886 🏴 Tynedale

• 1885 Melrose

• 1884 Gala

• 1883 Melrose

Number of wins

 * Hawick (28)
 * Gala (15)
 * Melrose (12)
 * Watsonians (10)
 * Kelso (7)
 * Heriot's FP (7)
 * Jed-Forest (4)
 * Boroughmuir (3)
 * Edinburgh Accies (3)
 * 🏴 London Scottish (3)
 * Royal HSFP (3)
 * Stewart's College FP (2)
 * Stellenbosch University (2)
 * 🏴 Loughborough Colleges (2)
 * 🏴 Harlequins (2)
 * 🏴 Saracens (2)
 * Glasgow Warriors (2)

title: Melrose Sevens


text:
Electronics/Prereq

Prerequisite Topics
Most important / Required knowledge

Moderately Important / Aids in comprehension

Slightly Important / Related or helpful

Mathematics

 * Algebra [[File:100 percent.svg]]

 * Calculus [[Image:50%.svg]]

 * Multivariable Calculus [[Image:50%.svg]]

 * Geometry [[Image:25%.svg]]

Physics

 * Physics in Electronics [[File:100 percent.svg]]

 * Electricity and Magnetism [[Image:50%.svg]]

Other Useful Topics

 * International System of Units

title: Electronics/Prereq


text:
Organza

Organza is a thin, plain weave, sheer fabric traditionally made from silk. Many modern organzas are woven with synthetic filament fibers such as polyester or nylon. Silk organza is woven by a number of mills along the Yangtze River and in the province of Zhejiang in China. A coarser silk organza is woven in the Bangalore area of India. Deluxe silk organzas are woven in France and Italy. Organza is distinguished by its crisp hand, stiffness relative to weight, and slippery surface texture.

The term may derive from French organsin, ultimately from the Central Asian city of Urgench, the midpoint of the Northern Silk Road.

title: Organza


text:
George Seward

George Seward may refer to:

 * George Seward (diplomat) (1840–1910), American diplomat to China
 * George Seward (baseball) (1851–1904), American baseball player

title: George Seward


text:
Talk:DeAndra' Cobb

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot (talk) 18:41, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 one external links on DeAndra' Cobb. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090714004157/http://www.cfl.ca:80/video/index/id/7133 to http://www.cfl.ca/video/index/id/7133
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090726234733/http://www.montrealgazette.com:80/sports/Injuries+spotlight+Cobb/1827239/story.html to http://www.montrealgazette.com/sports/Injuries+spotlight+Cobb/1827239/story.html

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:04, 8 December 2016 (UTC)

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Seminar in Information Warfare

Part of the Strategic Studies curriculum

What is a Seminar?
A seminar style of learning involves students studying facets of an issue and teaching the other students. This is not considered to be a definitive body of knowledge on a seminar subject. On the contrary, the job of the students in a seminar is to collect references, do their own independent study, and bring that knowledge back into the seminar. This page will therefore be in a constant state of flux and addition as new students come in with their own study interests and flesh out the page more and more. Students with interest in given topics but without the resources or background to study those topics should request assistance below. People who can contribute to the discussion in any way should. Debate is encouraged. Occasionally, projects may be put up on this page to encourage students to debate given issues. Current events are always welcome in a seminar.

Pages the Seminar Should Develop
Please place the topics in which you have interest here. You and others can then flesh out the references for the topics and we can deepen the knowledge base of all seminar participants.

Introduction to Information Warfare
"If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle."

Information warfare is the use of information to conduct offensive and defensive operations against an enemy. Information warfare consists of various techniques and technologies in order to intercept the enemy's tactical information while protecting your own information from the opponent. It is an essential component in the current warfare buzzword "C3I," which is a reference to the importance of Command, Control, Communications, and Information in modern military operations. Though these buzzwords come in many different flavours and sizes (from C&C to C5I), the message is the same: Information is an integral part of modern warfighting, and it cannot be disincluded from a discussion about warfare in general.

Information is the sum of knowledge, accurate and inaccurate, available to a commander or a fighting force. It can be gathered through any number of means, including but not limited to:

 * Espionage
 * Disinformation
 * Propaganda
 * Electronic Warfare
 * Cyber warfare

Information warfare is both offensive and defensive. It consists of the gathering of accurate information, the collation and dissemination of said information, and the denial of the same to the adversary. A key to information warfare is the reliability of information, thus quantity and quality are both axes upon which the utility of information can be judged. When intelligence operators, for example, report information gathered from or by their sources, it is important that they not only synthesize and corroborate their information, but judge the consistency and reliability of their source and report this to their superiors.

Information Warfare: Why ?
It's no secret for anyone that in the world of today, information is the key to success, not just in the military, but also in business and even for the individual who seeks to climb the social ladder.

Let's take, for example, the small shopkeeper or businessman that just started his company. How can he hope to compete with established companies with vast resources and a strong customer base? One must have something new that his competitors does not have. One must then study his competitors to find lacks and weaknesses in the services he offers. Once one has found those weaknesses, he then must develop the service without those weaknesses. For example, an entrepreneur wishes to open a small restaurant in an already crowded sector. He pretends to be a customer and then collects the menus of his competitors. He observed that many of his competitors do not offer healthy alternatives and also that none of the other restaurants offers ice cream during the summer. This entrepreneur knows that those services are currently popular with customers because he took the time to poll the citizens of the sector. By offerig those services to the customers, this entrepreneur has now two advantages over his competitors and can attract customers from his competitors.

In the example above, we can detect at least three instance where information was used to gain an advantage over the opponent. First by collecting the menus his competitor are offering to the customers. Second, he analyzed the menus he collected and found what was not offered. Third, by polling the citizens on what they would like to buy from a restaurant, he compared what the customers asked and what the competitors were offering.

With this example, I wanted to show a little example of how information plays a primordial role in gaining an advantage over an opponent. Of course, things are more complicated than that. One must also be able to protect his information from his opponents. Here is a very concrete and recent example of information warfare:

Recently, during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, the Hezbollah intercepted radio communications from Israeli ground troops. The information captured played an important role in the defense of Hezbollah troops, as they could adjust their defenses according to Israeli troops movements. This made the Israeli offensive much harder.

We will explore in the following chapter how information warfare was used through the ages, how it is used today and the various forms information warfare can take. We will finally discuss the future of information warfare.

Electronic Warfare
Electronic warfare (EW) is the use of the electromagnetic spectrum to deny its effective use by an adversary.

As the use of electronics became more prominant in warfare, so did the need to jam, disable, or destroy enemy devices while protecting friendly devices.

EW is a necessary part of any modern military operation, and it has become a type of arms race that is parallel to the development of actual, physical weapons.

Electronic warefare is also the use of electronics to gain information about adversaries so that physical weapons can be put to more effective use.

Cyber Warfare
Cyber warfare is the use of the Internet and the Web to conduct offensive and defensive operations against servers and/or websites to disrupt the enemy's presence on the Internet. This type of electronic warfare is commonly used to spread propaganda on the Internet and to attack symbols of power.

Web vandalism is a common way to achieve such goals by small organizations as it requires little knowledge and material. Web vandalism consists in replacing webpages of an enemy's by one's own and/or shutting down the opponent's servers by using massive Denial of Service attacks on the enemy's systems. Web vandalism is usually of little consequences and rarely results in informations theft and is mainly use for propaganda.

No wide use of cyber warfare has been used as of today. Some attacks have been reported recently as the U.S Commerce Department claimed to have been attacked by Chinese hackers We should expect cyber warfare to be more and more common as many nations are rapidly extending their technological expertise.

title: Seminar in Information Warfare


text:
User:Harobedyak

Biography
Deborah K Bates was born in Adelaide, South Australia. From a young age she knew she wanted to be a writer ... or at the very least a creator of something. She would wile away her childhood hours creating images and characters in her head,imagining tale upon tale. In her 4th grade she submitted a story to her English teacher which would alter her perception about her ability to create for many years to come. The story came back with red scribble across the pages where the teacher had accused her of plagerism. At eight years of age, Deborah wasn't even aware of the word plagerism much less the concept. What she was awre of however, was a feeling that her ability to create, or write was crushed.

It was many years later that Deborah found confidence in what she considered to be a dream and a silent hunger .... to write - and write well. It was during a creative writing course at a local college as a mature age student that Deborah found her confidence again. Under the encouraging guidance of a professor of literature she grew as a writer and finally recieved the accolades she deserved. Highly praised for her poetry, she decided to embark upon other genres - fiction, lyrics and non-fiction.

She went on to submit short stories and poetry and subsequently won numerous competitions and used her non-fiction prowess in tandem with workshops on personal development.

Work
Deborah is a diverse professional and has contributed at many levels to the lives of individuals, the community and families.

Counsellor/Mentor
Deborah Bates is a composite professional with over 10 years’ experience as a Life Coach, professional Counsellor (clinical), motivational speaker, alternative health practitioner and author. Testimonials burgeon with comments reflecting heart-felt praise, acknowledgement & commendations such as enlightening, unique, inspirational, thought-provoking, life-changing, compassionate & exceptional.

Deborah has been featured numerous times over the years for her work in the community as Coordinator of Community projects and Youth Worker. The Daily News, Tweed Bulletin, Gold Coast Bulletin, Tweed Weekly, ABC Radio, Today Tonite and 92.5 Gold FM have showcased her achievements, community projects and dedicated commitment to both the community and people.

Achievements
Distinguished awards: But it is not just her work and contribution to projects in the community, she has received distinguished awards such as: Women’s Day Mother of the Year and been praised by such distinguished luminaries as Hazel Hawke, Paul Mecurio and Maggie Tabberer, and been nominated for a Bravery Award for which she received an Honoury Citizen of the Year Award. She has been invited to Canberra Parliament House as special guest at a national awards night where she was nominated twice for community projects and a special ‘Write to Heal’ program she wrote to assist individuals rehabilitate, heal and overcome multiple barriers. This program is still used today in organisations.

Author
As an author, her passion and diversity is evident in poetry, lyrics, articles and book reviews for National Magazines, non-fiction and fiction, community booklets, wedding and acceptance speeches, technical material such as resumes and selection criteria’s. Client and reader testimonials burgeon with comments reflecting heart-felt praise, acknowledgement & commendations such as enlightening, unique, inspirational, thought-provoking, life-changing, compassionate & exceptional.

It is her latest work that is becoming the talk of the town. Your Personal Tuning Fork published through O-Books UK and is the talk of the health industry/community. It is an enlightening unique approach to the root causes of some of our most common health issues. It is easy to read and a daily reference for everyday solutions to everyday issues which interfere with daily life.

Your Personal Tuning Fork, the endocrine system (a way to sustainable health) is available internationally throughout book stores as well as on Amazon.

Deborah has had reviews from two internationally known authors: Jules Watson author of ‘The Raven Queen’ wrote, “Truly fascinating and empowering!”

Readers Reviews
Other Reviews attest to Your Personal Tuning Fork's readability and ability to help with change their lives from the inside out towards sustainable health.

I found this very helpful; I wish I had done it 10 years ago… K. Dietrich

Many books have not done as much as what Deborah has done…. L. Hallowes

''Exceptional! Information was great…'' B. Ward

Truly fabulous, thankyou Deborah you are an inspiration… '''M. Pinkerton ' Learnt a lot and will be putting it into daily practice…'' S. Claydon

I realised so much about myself… W. McCosh

''I can't put this book down. I started reading and before I knew it I was into my first hour…'' Sandy

''I bought a copy of Your Personal Tuning Fork at Deborah's launch on Saturday. I've read a few pages and can see the book is going to be great! I've always been interested in the human body and am looking forward to reading more…'' Sarah C.

''I found Deborah’s book, Your Personal Tuning Fork - The Endocrine System easy to read and full of solutions to everyday symptoms. I recommend it as ready reference and daily tuning guide towards greater well-being. As a professional, I use and share techniques from this book with clients towards becoming their own health-master.'' Jennifer Kallas(RZT, BRT, EFT, TFH) | Alternative Health Therapist

''Your Personal Tuning Fork: The Endocrine System is an enlightening, unique approach to the root causes of some of our most common health issues. Endocrine problems are often treated purely on a physical and medical level, but many people like myself find that it is not the magic solution they hoped for. In a clear, practical style, Bates shows us how to regain the power to nurture our own bodies by connecting the physical with the vast potential of the emotional and energetic realms. Truly fascinating and empowering!'' Jules Watson author of ‘The Raven Queen’

''I can already sense an improvement to my health! I thoroughly enjoyed reading Your Personal Tuning Fork: The Endocrine System. This book was both interesting and informative. I am keen to begin using the many methods suggested throughout the book. Even though I am relatively healthy I could relate to the information and will find using the exercises most beneficial to sustainable health. I can already sense an improvement to my health! Thank you Deborah for writing such an informative and useful book and I am sure it will bring much health and happiness to many.'' Joylina Goodings Author of Your Angel Journey

title: User:Harobedyak


text:
General Astronomy/Coordinate Systems

Suppose you are an astronomer in America. You observe an exciting event (say, a supernova) in the sky and would like to tell your colleagues in Europe about it. Suppose the supernova appeared at your zenith. You can't tell astronomers in Europe to look at their zenith because their zenith points in a different direction. You might tell them which constellation to look in. This might not work, though, because it might be too hard to find the supernova by searching an entire constellation. The best solution would be to give them an exact position by using a coordinate system.

On Earth, you can specify a location using latitude and longitude. This system works by measuring the angles separating the location from two great circles on Earth (namely, the equator and the prime meridian). Coordinate systems in the sky work in the same way.

The equatorial coordinate system is the most commonly used. The equatorial system defines two coordinates: right ascension and declination, based on the axis of the Earth's rotation. The declination is the angle of an object north or south of the celestial equator. Declination on the celestial sphere corresponds to latitude on the Earth. The right ascension of an object is defined by the position of a point on the celestial sphere called the vernal equinox. The further an object is east of the vernal equinox, the greater its right ascension.

A coordinate system is a system designed to establish positions with respect to given reference points. The coordinate system consists of one or more reference points, the styles of measurement (linear measurement or angular measurement) from those reference points, and the directions (or axes) in which those measurements will be taken. In astronomy, various coordinate systems are used to precisely define the locations of astronomical objects.

Latitude and longitude are used to locate a certain position on the Earth's surface. The lines of latitude (horizontal) and the lines of longitude (vertical) make up an invisible grid over the earth. Lines of latitude are called parallels. Lines of longitude aren't completely straight (they run from the exact point of the north pole to the exact point of the south pole) so they are called meridians. 0 degrees latitude is the Earth's middle, called the equator. 0 degrees longitude was tricky because there really is no middle of the earth vertically. It was finally agreed that the observatory in Greenwich, U.K. would be 0 degrees longitude due to its significant role in scientific discoveries and creating latitude and longitude. 0 degrees longitude is called the prime meridian.

Latitude and longitude are measured in degrees. One degree is about 69 miles. There are 60 minutes (') in a degree and 60 seconds (") in a minute. These tiny units make GPS's (Global Positioning Systems) much more exact.

There are a few main lines of latitude:the Arctic Circle, the Antarctic Circle, the Tropic of Cancer, and the Tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle is 66.5 degrees south of the equator and it marks the temperate zone from the Antarctic zone. The Arctic Circle is an exact mirror in the north. The Tropic of Cancer separates the tropics from the temperate zone. It is 23.5 degrees north of the equator. It is mirrored in the south by the Tropic of Capricorn.

Horizontal coordinate system
One of the simplest ways of placing a star on the night sky is the coordinate system based on altitude and azimuth, thus called the Alt-Az or horizontal coordinate system. The reference circles for this system are the horizon and the celestial meridian, both of which may be most easily graphed for a given location using the celestial sphere.

In simplest terms, the altitude is the angle made from the position of the celestial object (e.g. star) to the point nearest it on the horizon. The azimuth is the angle from the northernmost point of the horizon (which is also its intersection with the celestial meridian) to the point on the horizon nearest the celestial object. Usually azimuth is measured eastwards from due north. So east has az=90°, south has az=180°, west has az=270° and north has az=360° (or 0°). An object's altitude and azimuth change as the earth rotates.

Equatorial coordinate system
The equatorial coordinate system is another system that uses two angles to place an object on the sky: right ascension and declination.

Ecliptic coordinate system
The ecliptic coordinate system is based on the ecliptic plane, i.e., the plane which contains our Sun and Earth's average orbit around it, which is tilted at 23°26' from the plane of Earth's equator. The great circle at which this plane intersects the celestial sphere is the ecliptic, and one of the coordinates used in the ecliptic coordinate system, the ecliptic latitude, describes how far an object is to ecliptic north or to ecliptic south of this circle. On this circle lies the point of the vernal equinox (also called the first point of Aries); ecliptic longitude is measured as the angle of an object relative to this point to ecliptic east. Ecliptic latitude is generally indicated by $$\phi$$, whereas ecliptic longitude is usually indicated by $$\lambda$$.

Galactic coordinate system
As a member of the Milky Way Galaxy, we have a clear view of the Milky Way from Earth. Since we are inside the Milky Way, we don't see the galaxy's spiral arms, central bulge and so forth directly as we do for other galaxies. Instead, the Milky Way completely encircles us. We see the Milky Way as a band of faint starlight forming a ring around us on the celestial sphere. The disk of the galaxy forms this ring, and the bulge forms a bright patch in the ring. You can easily see the Milky Way's faint band from a dark, rural location.

Our galaxy defines another useful coordinate system — the galactic coordinate system. This system works just like the others we've discussed. It also uses two coordinates to specify the position of an object on the celestial sphere. The galactic coordinate system first defines a galactic latitude, the angle an object makes with the galactic equator. The galactic equator has been selected to run through the center of the Milky Way's band. The second coordinate is galactic longitude, which is the angular separation of the object from the galaxy's "prime meridian," the great circle that passes through the Galactic center and the galactic poles. The galactic coordinate system is useful for describing an object's position with respect to the galaxy's center. For example, if an object has high galactic latitude, you might expect it to be less obstructed by interstellar dust.

Transformations between coordinate systems
One can use the principles of spherical trigonometry as applied to triangles on the celestial sphere to derive formulas for transforming coordinates in one system to those in another. These formulas generally rely on the spherical law of cosines, known also as the cosine rule for sides. By substituting various angles on the celestial sphere for the angles in the law of cosines and by thereafter applying basic trigonometric identities, most of the formulas necessary for coordinate transformations can be found. The law of cosines is stated thus:
 * $$\cos(c)=\cos(a)\cos(b)+\sin(a)\sin(b)\cos(C)$$

To transform from horizontal to equatorial coordinates, the relevant formulas are as follows:
 * $$Dec=\arcsin\Big(\sin(Alt)\sin(Lat)+\cos(Alt)\cos(Lat)\cos(Az)\Big)$$
 * $$RA=LST-\arccos\left(\frac{\sin(Alt)-\sin(Dec)\sin(Lat)}{\cos(Dec)\cos(Lat)}\right)$$

where $$RA$$ is the right ascension, $$Dec$$ is the declination, $$LST$$ is the local sidereal time, $$Alt$$ is the altitude, $$Az$$ is the azimuth, and $$Lat$$ is the observer's latitude. Using the same symbols and formulas, one can also derive formulas to transform from equatorial to horizontal coordinates:
 * $$Alt=\arcsin\Big(\sin(Dec)\sin(Lat)+\cos(Dec)\cos(Lat)\cos(LST-RA)\Big)$$
 * $$Az=\arccos\left(\frac{\sin(Dec)-\sin(Alt)\sin(Lat)}{\cos(Alt)\cos(Lat)}\right)$$

Transformation from equatorial to ecliptic coordinate systems can similarly be accomplished using the following formulae:
 * $$\phi=\arcsin\Big(\sin(Dec)\cos(\epsilon)-\cos(Dec)\sin(\epsilon)\sin(RA)\Big)$$
 * $$\lambda=\arcsin\left(\frac{\sin(Dec)-\sin(\phi)\cos(\epsilon)}{\cos(\phi)\sin(\epsilon)}\right)=\arctan\left(\frac{\sin(RA)\cos(\epsilon)+\tan(Dec)\sin(\epsilon)}{\cos(RA)}\right)$$

where $$RA$$ is the right ascension, $$Dec$$ is the declination, $$\phi$$ is the ecliptic latitude, $$\lambda$$ is the ecliptic longitude, and $$\epsilon$$ is the tilt of Earth's axis relative to the ecliptic plane. Again, using the same formulas and symbols, new formulas for transforming ecliptic to equatorial coordinate systems can be found:
 * $$Dec=\arcsin\Big(\sin(\phi)\cos(\epsilon)+\cos(\phi)\sin(\epsilon)\sin(\lambda)\Big)$$
 * $$RA=\arcsin\left(\frac{\sin(Dec)\cos(\epsilon)-\sin(\phi)}{\cos(Dec)\sin(\epsilon)}\right)$$

title: General Astronomy/Coordinate Systems


text:
Kusztyk

A kusztyk (alternative spellings: kuszyk or kulawka) is a glass goblet without a base. Its design is such that it cannot be placed upright, thereby requiring its contents to be entirely drunk before the vessel can safely be set down again. This vessel type reached a height in popularity in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Poland. Though the origin of its unusual shape remains unclear, it is supposed that the kusztyk would have contained alcohol (likely champagne, or a sparkling wine) or water that was chilled in ice buckets prior to serving. The kusztyk remains a facet of Polish banqueting custom today as a vessel raised during toasts.

It has been acknowledged that the kusztyk shares a visual similarity with the ancient Greek rhyton, however, it is unlikely that these vessels were employed during equivalent ritualistic occasions. It is more certain that the kusztyk has a shared history with the so-called, Hodgett’s decanter, which was popular in eighteenth-century England.

title: Kusztyk


text:
English in Use

Welcome
Welcome to English in Use, a book about the actual use of the English language. It features sections about types of grammar, punctuation and formality. This wikibook is intended for use by native speakers of English or advanced learners of English as a second/foreign language.

If you wish to learn English, then you should use one of the English books for students learning English as a second/foreign language. For new learners of English, try English for beginners book. If you have some experience of English but need to refresh your knowledge, try the English for B2 Students Wikibook. If you're preparing for the Cambridge FCE exam (Cambridge English: First), then head to the Cambridge English: First module. Those interested in English for business contexts should try the Business English Wikibook.

Contents

 * 1) /About/
 * 2) /Introduction/

 * 1) Words:
 * 2) /Articles/
 * 3) /Nouns/
 * 4) /Pronouns/
 * 5) /Verbs/
 * 6) /Adjectives/
 * 7) /Adverbs/
 * 8) /Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections/
 * 9) /Verbals/

 * 1) Sentences:
 * 2) /Sentences Overview/
 * 3) /Basic Components/
 * 4) /Phrases/
 * 5) /Clauses/
 * 6) /Fragments and Run-on Sentences/

 * 1) Usage:
 * 2) /Adjective and Adverb Usage/
 * 3) /Pronoun Usage/
 * 4) /Subject-verb Agreement/
 * 5) /Verb Usage/

 * 1) Punctuation:
 * 2) /Punctuation/ - to be merged
 * 3) /End Marks/
 * 4) /Commas/
 * 5) /Apostrophes/
 * 6) /Quotations/
 * 7) /Other Common Punctuation Marks/
 * 8) /Less Common Typographical Marks/

 * 1) Other key topics:
 * 2) /Time and Date/
 * 3) /Capitalization/
 * 4) /Spelling/
 * 5) /Figures of Syntax/
 * 6) /Syntax/
 * 7) /Orthography/ - to be merged

 * 1) Appendices:
 * 2) /Conversation Pieces/
 * 3) /Glossary/
 * 4) /Q&A/
 * 5) /Hard C and soft C guide/
 * 6) /External Resources/

Related books

 * Rhetoric and Composition/Grammar and Mechanics
 * English Grammar
 * English as an Additional Language
 * English for B2 Students

Related content

 * History
 * Dictionary
 * Thesaurus

Englisch Inglés Enseignement de l'anglais Corso di inglese אנגלית למתחילים 英語 Angielski/Okładka Inglês Englannin kieli Engelska ภาษาอังกฤษ Pratik İngilizce Tiếng Anh 英语

title: English in Use


text:
Template:Strategic studies/Class

part of Strategic Studies =Summary= Short (100 word or less) brief on the object and utility of the class.

=Introduction= This will introduce you to the issue and the questions to be posed in the class.

=Readings= This will delineate the readings that should be done prior to undertaking the exercises in this class.

=Lecture= This is the text that will fill you in on how the readings relate to the topic, and is the main text of the class dealing with the subject matter. It may be handled like an article.

=Project= Briefly introduce the project(s) and how they fit with the learning material. Give any tips on the projects that need to be stated prior to opening the project (especially if the contents are supposed to be a bit of a surprise)

Policy by Other Means Project

=Denouement= This will detail what has been learned and encourage you to add feedback to this page from your own experiences from the project.

title: Template:Strategic studies/Class


text:
Talk:Dieudonné Londo

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title: Talk:Dieudonné Londo