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English in Use/Punctuation

Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words; and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading.

The following are the principal points, or marks:

 * the Comma [,],
 * the Semicolon [;],
 * the Colon [:],
 * the Period, or Full stop [.],
 * the Dash [--],
 * the Note of Interrogation, Question Mark, or Eroteme [?],
 * the Note of Exclamation, Exclamation Mark, or Ecphoneme [!],
 * the Marks of Parenthesis, Brackets or Curves [],
 * the Apostrophe ['],
 * the Hyphen [-],
 * the Diaeresis [¨],
 * the Acute accent [´],
 * the Grave accent [`],
 * the Circumflex [ˆ],
 * the Breve [˘],
 * the Macron [¯],
 * the Ellipsis […],
 * the Caret [^],
 * the Tilde [~],
 * the Curly Brackets, or Brace [{}],
 * the Section [§],
 * the Paragraph [¶],
 * the Quotation Marks [""],
 * the Angle Quotes, or Guillements [«»],
 * the Brackets, or Crotchets [[]],
 * the Index [☞],
 * the Asterisk [*],
 * the Dagger, or Obelisk [†],
 * the Double Dagger, or Diesis [‡],
 * the Parallels [||],
 * the Asterism [⁂],
 * the Cedilla [¸].

The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, or full stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing.

Comma
The comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connection which admits no point.

Simple sentences
A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma: as,

 * "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 202.
 * "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."—Tract on Tone, p. 4.
 * "Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize on promised hopes of instantaneous ease."—Crabbe.

Nominative accompanied by adjuncts
When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used instead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb: as,

 * "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6.
 * "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."—Murray's Gram., p. 268.
 * "O that the tenor of my just complaint, were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"—Sandys.

Simple members
The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma: as,

 * "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."—Shak.
 * "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."—Id.
 * "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."—Id.
 * "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"—Id.
 * "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"—Pope.
 * "Go; while you may, avoid the dreadful fate."—Id.
 * "Grief aids disease, remembered folly stings, and his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."—Johnson.

Relative that follows its antecedent
When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it: as,

 * "For the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal."—2 Cor., iv, 18.
 * "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 3.

Closely connected simple members
When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted: as,

 * "Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 11.
 * "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd."—Taylor: Joh. Dict., w.
 * "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."—Campbell: Murray's Gram., p 359.

Simple immediately united members
When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125.
 * "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."—Ib., p. 126.
 * "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."—Ib., p. 359.
 * "The same good sense that makes a man excel, still makes him doubt he never has written well."—Young.

More than two words
When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also: as,

 * "Who, to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."—Beattie.
 * "Ah! what avails... all that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, if envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"—Id.
 * "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; you, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."—Shak.
 * "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."—Young.
 * "So eagerly the fiend over bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, with head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, and swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."—Milton.

Only two words
When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma: as,

 * "It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by arts and industry"—Spectator, No. 2.
 * "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul."—Goldsmith.

Two words with several adjuncts
When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."—Spectator, No. 10.
 * "Who is applied to persons, or things personified."—Bullions.
 * "With listless eyes the dotard views the store, he views, and wonders that they please no more."—Johnson.

Contrasted words or phrases
When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."—Kames.
 * "Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hand."—Beattie.
 * "It is certain he could write, and cipher too."—Goldsmith.

Alternative of names
When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted: as,

 * "We saw a large opening, or inlet."—W. Allen.
 * "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"—Cor., ix, 5.

Understood conjunction
When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as,

 * "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray, Gram., p. 269.
 * "To him the church, the realm, their powers consign."—Johnson.
 * "She thought the isle that gave her birth. The sweetest, wildest land on earth."—Hogg.

Words in pairs
When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma: as,

 * "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."—W. Allen.
 * "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 313.
 * "Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, overspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."—Dr. Johnson.

Words put absolute
Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded."
 * "This done, we parted."
 * "Zaccheus, make haste and come down."
 * "His proctorship in Sicily, what did it produce?"—Cicero.
 * "Winged with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, his steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh."—Pope, Iliad, xi, 440.

Appositions or appositives
Words in apposition, especially if they have adjuncts, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "He that now calls upon you, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe."—Johnson.
 * "Lowth, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787."—Biog. Dict.
 * "Home, Henry, lord Kames."—Ib.
 * "What next I bring shall please you, be assured, your likeness, your fit help, your other self, your wish exactly to your heart's desire."—Milton, P. L., viii, 450.
 * "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."—Byron.

A compound name
When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"
 * "Publius Gavius Cosanus."

United common and proper name
When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "The brook Kidron,"
 * "The river Don,"
 * "The empress Catharine,"
 * "Paul the Apostle."

A mere emphasis and distinction
When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "You men of Athens,"
 * "I myself,"
 * "You flaming minister,"
 * "You princes."

Name acquired by action or relation
When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "I made the ground my bed;"
 * "To make him king;"
 * "Whom they revered as God;"
 * "With modesty your guide."—Pope.

Adjectives
Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Among the roots of hazel, pendent over the plaintive stream, they frame the first foundation of their domes."—Thomson.
 * "Up springs the lark, shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn."—Id.

Adjective which follows its noun
When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "And on the coast averse from entrance or cherubic watch."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 68.

Finite verbs
Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required: as,

 * "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."—Murray.
 * "Else all my prose and verse were much the same; this, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."—Pope.

A pause for the omitted verb
As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses: as,

 * "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 132.

Infinitives
The infinitive, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma: as,

 * "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 151. [?]
 * "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."—Murray's Gram., p. 271.
 * "The Governor of all—has interposed, not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite the injurious trampler upon nature's law."—Cowper.

Participles
Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong."—Blackstone: Beattie's Moral Science, p. 346.
 * "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, lingering and listening wandered down the vale."—Beattie.
 * "United, we stand; divided, we fall."—Motto.
 * "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."

Participle which follows its noun
When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "A man renowned for repartee, will seldom scruple to make free with friendship's finest feeling."—Cowper.

Adverbs
Adverbs, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."
 * "Besides, the mind must be employed."—Gilpin.
 * "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this."—Lyttelton.
 * "But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already."
 * "When buttress and buttress, alternately, seem framed of ebon and ivory."—Scott's Lay, p. 33.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "But, by a timely call upon religion, the force of habit was eluded."—Johnson.
 * "They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, or, ah! how changed that fearless laugh would be."—Crabbe.

Prepositions
Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches."
 * "By reading, we add the experience of others to our own."
 * "In vain the sage, with retrospective eye, would from the apparent what conclude the why."—Pope.

Interjections
Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma: as,

 * "For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."—Jeremiah, i, 15.
 * "O, it was about something you would not understand."—Columbian Orator, p. 221.
 * "Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then!"—Aikin.
 * "Ha, ha, ha! A facetious gentleman, truly!"—Id.
 * "Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"—Pope.

Words emphatically repeated
A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Happy, happy, happy pair!"—Dryden.
 * "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."—Shak.
 * "Ah! no, no, no."—Dryden.
 * "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"—Woodworth.

Dependent quotations
A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma: as,

 * "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before you.'"—Hawkesworth.
 * "I say to all, watch."—Mark.
 * "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'He has grown to be a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'Such conduct befits him.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 116.
 * "While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!' 'See man for mine!' replies a pampered goose."—Pope.

Semicolon
The semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon.

Complex members
When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."—Carter.
 * "When the voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its elevation."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 107.
 * "The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me; but shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."—Addison.

Simple members
When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "Straws swim on the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."—Murray's Gram., p. 276.
 * "Everything grows old; everything passes away; everything disappears."—Hiley's Gram., p. 115.
 * "Alexander asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the most direct ways into Persia."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 175.
 * "A longer care man's helpless kind demands; that longer care contracts more lasting bands."—Pope.

Apposition
Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Murray's Gram., p. 51.
 * "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledgement."—Butler's Gram., p. 11.
 * "Do not the eyes discover humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness, resentment?"—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 159.
 * "This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to buyers."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 304.
 * "Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left; dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave and bereave have reft." —Ward's Gr., p. 66.

Colon
The colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period.

Additional remarks
When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted: as,

 * "Avoid evil doers: in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."
 * "See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold your image!"—Art of Thinking, p. 94.
 * "Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."—Beanie's Moral Science, p. 112.
 * "Remember heaven has an avenging rod: to smite the poor, is treason against God."—Cowper.

Greater pauses
When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as,

 * "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."
 * "Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a christian must be the greatest monster in nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 80
 * "A decent competence we fully taste; it strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast: more we perceive by dint of thought alone; the rich must labour to possess their own."—Young.

Independent quotations
A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon: as,

 * "In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"
 * "At this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 367.
 * "The father addressed himself to them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"— Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. 85.

Period
The period, or full stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sentence, whether simple or compound.

Distinct sentences
When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period: as,

 * "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm."
 * "The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."—R. W. Emerson.
 * "By frequent trying, Troy was won. All things, by trying, may be done."—Lloyd, p. 184.

Allied sentences
The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connection, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as,

 * "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are confined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."—Blair.
 * "And whether we shall meet again, I know not. Therefore our everlasting farewell take."—Shak., J. C.

Abbreviations
The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them: as, A. D. for Anno Domini; Pro tem. for pro tempore; Ult. for ultimo; i.e. for id est, that is;

 * "Add., Spect, No. 285."
 * For "Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th."
 * "Consult the statute; 'Quart.' I think, it is, 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"—Pope, p. 399.

Dash
The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as,

 * "Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so—but—a—it was necessary—a—' Here lord E— stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other."—Churchill's Gram., p. 170.

Abrupt pauses
A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash: as,

 * "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'—'And if!' interrupted the farmer."
 * "Whom I—But first it is fit the billows to restrain."—Dryd. Virg. 3.
 * "Here lies the great—False marble! where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here."—Young.

Emphatic pauses
To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed: as,

 * "I pause for a reply.—None?—Then none have I offended.—I have done no more to Caesar, than you should do to Brutus."—Shakspeare: Enfields Speaker, p. 182.
 * "Tarry a little. There is something else.—This bond—doesn't give you here—no jot of blood." —ID.: Burgh's Sp., p. 167.
 * "It thunders;—but it thunders to preserve."—Young.
 * "Behold the picture!—Is it like?—Like whom?"—Cowper.

Faulty dashes
Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation: as,

 * "Here Greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity—She was none of the other nations—She was more polished than they."—Lennie's Gram., p. 78.
 * "Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She was none of the other nations: she was more polished than they."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114.

If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be better.

Note of interrogation
The eroteme, or note of interrogation, is used to designate a question.

Questions direct
Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation: as,

 * "Was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 81.
 * "In life, can love be bought with gold? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"—Johnson.

Questions united
When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only: as,

 * "When—under what administration—under what exigencies of war or peace—did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."—D. Webster, in Congress, 1846.
 * "Cannot you, and honoured with a christian name, buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame; trade in the blood of innocence, and plead expedience as a warrant for the deed?"—Cowper.
 * "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, and few understand."—Pope.

Questions indirect
When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation: as,

 * "The Cyprians asked me why I wept."—Murray.

Note of exclamation
The ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as,

 * "Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"—Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

Interjections
Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation: as,

 * "Hold! hold! Is the devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."—Molière: Burgh's Speaker, p. 250.
 * "And O! till earth, and seas, and heaven decay, never may that fair creation fade away!"—Dr. Lowth.

Invocations
After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point: as,

 * "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision."—Acts, xxvi, 19.
 * "Be witness you, immortal Lord of all! Whose thunder shakes the dark aerial hall."—Pope.

Exclamatory questions
Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation: as,

 * "How madly have I talked!"—Young.
 * "An Author! It is a venerable name! How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!"—Id., Br. Po., viii, 401.

Curves
The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong: as,

 * "Their enemies (and enemies they will always have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."—Walpole.
 * "To others do (the law is not severe) what to yourself you wish to be done."—Beattie.

The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater.

Parenthesis
A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a parenthesis: as,

 * "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwells no good thing."—Rom., vii, 18.
 * "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope.

Included points
The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form: as,

 * "Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as to my children,) be you also enlarged."—2 Cor., vi, 13.
 * "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: (for nature never gravitates to nought:) that thirst unquenched, declares it is not here."—Young.
 * "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:) our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"—Young.

Apostrophe
The apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as,

 * "The girl's regard to her parents' advice;"

'Gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'; for began, loved, even, through. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign: as,

 * "Two a's—three 6's."

Hyphen
The hyphen connects the parts of many compound words, especially such as have two accents: as, ever-living. It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables: as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line.

Diaeresis
The diaeresis, or dialysis, placed over either of two contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong: as, Danaee, aerial.

Acute accent
The acute accent marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation: as, e'qual, equal'ity. It is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel: as, Fancy; or to denote the rising inflection of the voice: as,

 * "Is it he?"

Grave accent
The grave accent is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish an open or long vowel: as, Favour; or to denote the falling inflection of the voice: as,

 * "Yes; it is he."

It is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation: as,

 * "Let me, though in humble speech, your refined maxims teach."—Amer. Review, May, 1848.

Circumflex
The circumflex generally denotes either the broad sound of a or an unusual sound given to some other vowel: as in all, heir, machine. Some use it to mark a peculiar wave of the voice, and when occasion requires, reverse it: as,

 * "If you said sô, then I said so."

Breve
The breve, or stenotone, is used to denote either the close, short, shut sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity: as, lĭve, to have life; răven, to devour; călămŭs, a reed.

Macron
The macron, or macrotone, is used to denote either the open, long, primal sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity: as, līve, having life; rāven, a bird; ēquīne, of a horse.

Ellipsis
The ellipsis, or suppression, denotes the omission of some letters or words: as, K…g, for King; c…d, for coward; d…d, for damned.

Caret
The caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted.

Tilde
The tilde, "ã", is a diacritic mark, and tilde over a letter is used to make abbreviations.

Brace
The brace serves to unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with something to which they are all related.

Section
The section marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references.

Paragraph
The paragraph denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may occasionally be used, in lieu of the word paragraph, to shorten references.

Quotation points
The guillements, or quotation points, distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are employed, are placed within the others: as,

 * "And again he said, 'Rejoice, you Gentiles, with his people.'"—Rom., xv, 10.

Brackets
The crotchets, or brackets, generally inclose some correction or explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained: as,

 * "He [Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."—Allen's Gram., p. 213.

Index
The index, or hand, points out something remarkable, or what the reader should particularly observe.

Asterisk
The asterisk, or star, the obelisk, or dagger, the diesis, or double dagger, the section, the parallels, and the paragraph, refer to marginal notes. Where many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same purpose.

Asterism
The asterism, or three stars, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, without giving it a particular reference.

Cedilla
The cedilla is borrowed from the French. It is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s, before a or o: as, Façade, Alençon. It is sometimes attached to other letters, to denote their soft sounds: Ģ as J; Ş as Z.

title: English in Use/Punctuation


text:
User:Akash more (ak)

Akash

City: Ulhasnagar

Country:India

Education:Degree college

Skill:Drawing

Interest:Indian Army

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Akash more (ak)


text:
Kalpi Ouattara

Kalpi Ouattara (born 29 December 1998) is an Ivorian professional footballer who plays as a left-back.

Career
On 20 August 2019, Ouattara joined Allsvenskan side Östersund on loan for the rest of the season from ASEC Mimosas. On 30 August 2019, he made his professional debut for Östersund, playing the full match in a 2–0 loss away to Helsingborgs. On 31 December 2019, the Swedish club confirmed, that they had fully signed Outtara from ASEC Mimosas. Ouattara extended his contract with Östersund on 2 January 2023.

International career
Ouattara debuted for the Ivory Coast national team in a 2–1 2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification win over Madagascar on 12 November 2020.

title: Kalpi Ouattara


text:
Incheh Shahbaz

Incheh Shahbaz (, also Romanized as Īncheh Shāhbāz) is a village in Dowlatkhaneh Rural District, Bajgiran District, Quchan County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 110, in 28 families.

title: Incheh Shahbaz


text:
Wikiversity:License tags

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Each file page should have a template indicating how it is licensed. This is required by Wikimedia Foundation policy, and is simply good practice. Re-users of Wikiversity content expect it will be freely-reusable. Some media, however, has certain restrictions in the licensing (for example the share-alike clause of some licenses), which the re-user must be able to easily determine. License templates categorize media so it can easily be determined what is reusable and under what conditions.

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title: Wikiversity:License tags


text:
The Bachelor (franchise)

The Bachelor is an American romance and relationship multimedia franchise which began with the reality television series The Bachelor in 2002 and now includes multiple spin-off television series, a podcast network, a website, live tour, and more.

The franchise has been financially successful, bringing in $86 million in advertising revenue alone in 2017.

The Bachelor (2002–present)
The Bachelor revolves around a single bachelor who begins with a pool of romantic interests from whom he is expected to select a wife. During the course of the season, the bachelor goes on group and one-on-one dates to get to know the candidates, and eliminates some of them each week, eventually culminating in a marriage proposal to his final selection.

The Bachelorette (2003–present)
Following the success of The Bachelor creator Mike Fleiss produced The Bachelorette, in which the format is gender-reversed. The bachelorettes are often eliminated contestants from The Bachelor. Season 11 of The Bachelorette had two bachelorettes (but only for the first episode). Season 16 had two bachelorettes (one for the first half of the season, the other the rest of the season). Season 19 had two bachelorettes for the whole season.

Bachelor Pad (2010–2012)
Bachelor Pad premiered in August 2010, giving previous contestants of both The Bachelor and The Bachelorette an opportunity to compete in dating-themed eliminations for $250,000. This summer series lasted three seasons.

Bachelor in Paradise (2014–present)
Bachelor in Paradise premiered on August 4, 2014, giving previous contestants of both The Bachelor and The Bachelorette the opportunity to compete for another chance in love in dating-themed eliminations.

Bachelor in Paradise: After Paradise (2015–2016)
Bachelor in Paradise: After Paradise premiered on August 3, 2015 and was a live, weekly talk show that features cast of the series and celebrity fans discussing the most recent episodes of Bachelor in Paradise. The series also featured questions from the audience, deleted scenes, outtakes and exclusive extra content. The talk show was hosted by Michelle Collins and co-hosted by Sean Lowe.

Bachelor Live (2016)
Bachelor Live premiered on January 4, 2016, and was a one-hour talk show hosted by Chris Harrison which aired directly after The Bachelor.

Ben and Lauren: Happily Ever After? (2016)
First airing in October 2016 on Freeform, Ben and Lauren: Happily Ever After? showcased the relationship of Ben Higgins and Lauren Bushnell following season 20 of The Bachelor on their plans for marriage and Bushnell's new life in Denver. The couple eventually parted ways in May 15, 2017.

The Twins: Happily Ever After (2017)
On March 20, 2017, The Twins: Happily Ever After premiered on Freeform. The series stars Haley and Emily Ferguson from season 20 of The Bachelor and showcases them "saying goodbye to the comfort and luxuries of living under their mom's roof and beginning the hilarious journey of figuring out life on their own while searching for independence and a new career."

The Bachelor: Winter Games (2018)
The Bachelor Winter Games premiered on February 13, 2018. The show follows a similar premise to that of Bachelor in Paradise with a few twists. One stand out twist is that the cast is made up of international contestants from The Bachelor franchise. All contestants participate in various winter sports in order to win a date card. Ashley Iaconetti (American) and Kevin Wendt (Canadian) were the winning couple of the first season, after competing in an ice skating dance routine against three other couples.

The Bachelor Presents: Listen to Your Heart (2020)
The Bachelor Presents: Listen to Your Heart premiered on April 13, 2020. follows single men and women, who are musicians or work in the music industry, hoping to find love through music. The contestants will sing well-known songs, both individually and as couples, and explore their relationships while living together and going on Bachelor-style dates that focus on music.

The Bachelor: The Greatest Seasons – Ever! (2020)
On April 29, 2020, a 10-episode documentary series titled The Bachelor: The Greatest Seasons – Ever! was announced. It premiered on June 8, 2020. It was originally titled The Bachelor: The Most Unforgettable—Ever! before its name was changed on May 11, 2020. The series contains recaps of previous seasons of The Bachelor and The Bachelorette and features interviews with former cast members. It is hosted by Chris Harrison.

The Golden Bachelor (2023)
In January 2020, a casting call was issued for men and women aged 65 and older, for an edition of The Bachelor starring senior citizens. On May 16, 2023, after a 3-year-delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic, ABC commissioned the first season of The Golden Bachelor, to premiere in Fall 2023.

Wedding Specials
The weddings of Trista Rehn (the 1st Bachelorette), Jason Mesnick (13th Bachelor), Ashley Hebert (the 7th Bachelorette), and Sean Lowe (the 17th Bachelor) were broadcast as television specials. Rehn's vow-renewal ceremony upon her 10-year anniversary was also broadcast. Bachelor in Paradise season 2 couple Jade Roper and Tanner Tolbert's wedding was also broadcast as a television special in February 2016. In addition, the inaugural couple from Golden Bachelor, Gerry Turner and Theresa Nist, aired their wedding as a live special, The Golden Wedding, in January 2024.

Upcoming Spin-offs
In 2020, ABC announced plans to produce a summer counterpart of The Bachelor Winter Games, which would have presumably aired against the 2020 Summer Olympics (just as Winter Games aired against the Winter Olympics). On March 30, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic (which itself caused the 2020 Olympics to be postponed to 2021), it was reported that production of the spin-off had been cancelled.

Live show
The Bachelor Live On Stage was announced on January 23, 2019 during the Men Tell All episode. A local Bachelor would go through group date challenges and coveted one-on-ones with local ladies in the audience. Audience members and hosts would assist the Bachelor. Ben Higgins and Becca Kufrin are slated to host the 63 stop tour starting in Mesa, Arizona on February 13, 2020 with the final stop in Austin, Texas, was scheduled on May 17, 2020. However due to the COVID-19 pandemic, half of the shows have been postponed and they were rescheduled to January 24, 2021 in Cleveland, Ohio.

Podcast
Bachelor Happy Hour is a podcast series hosted by Joe Amabile and Serena Pitt. It was originally hosted by Rachel Lindsay and Ali Fedotowsky. It premiered on July 19, 2020 and features weekly guests from various Bachelor Nation shows.

Digital series
The franchise has launched numerous digital series featuring cast members from the various television shows.

Meet and Greet
One-on-one interviews with cast members not shown in the television shows.

Bachelor Happy Hour: Open Bar
Expanded video version of the podcast Bachelor Happy Hour.

Bachelor Nation Encore
Deleted and extended scenes not seen in the television show.

Will You Accept This Ride?
Interview series where YouTube creator Lisa Schwartz interviews various cast members in the back of a limo.

Bad Chiller
Comedic recap show featuring Nick Viall.

Video game
The Bachelor: The Videogame was released in 2014 for Nintendo Wii and Nintendo DS. It gives players the opportunity to compete in a series of dates inspired by the television show.

Critical reaction to the game was negative.

International versions

 * An upcoming season
 * No longer airing

The Bachelor
Note:
 * Reruns of the original American version are also broadcast in Australia on Nine Network.
 * Originally, the Indonesian show, The Bachelor Indonesia was set to air on NET. based on The Bachelor, Warner Bros. Television deals with the format of the show in collaboration with distribution and production in Indonesia through PT Dunia Visitama Produksi, known under the name Fremantle for the Indonesian version. However, this show was canceled for an unknown reason. Finally, the show was confirmed to be aired on HBO Asia.

Cultural impact
Cast members featured on the show often gain a large social media following, which in turn creates various sponsorship and employment opportunities once they leave the show. In recent seasons some cast members have been accused of going on the show specifically for this reason, leading to accusations of "being here for the wrong reasons."

The various television series shoot on location in cities around the world, and promotion from these visits has been coined "The Bachelor Effect." Exposure on the shows has led to increased tourism and economic activity in the locations featured.

The franchise inspired the fictional show UnReal, which stars Shiri Appleby as a young reality television producer pushed by her unscrupulous boss (Constance Zimmer) to swallow her integrity and do anything it takes to drum up salacious show content.

title: The Bachelor (franchise)


text:
User:Lizabinante

Liz Abinante is a student at UC Davis in the Women and Gender Studies and Psychology departments.

She likes cuddly bears, sunflower seeds, and night time.

title: User:Lizabinante


text:
Kenneth D Harris

Kenneth D. Harris is a neuroscientist at University College London. He is most known for his contributions to the understanding of the neural code used by vast populations of neurons. Among his discoveries is the finding that populations in sensory areas of the brain also code for body movements. Harris has contributed to the development of silicon probes and most recently of Neuropixels probes. With these probes, he and his team discovered that engagement in a task activates neurons throughout the brain.

Harris obtained his PhD from UCL in the laboratory of Michael Recce, and did his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University in the laboratory of Gyorgy Buzsaki. He is a Professor of Quantitative Neuroscience at the UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, where he co-directs the Cortical Processing Laboratory with Matteo Carandini. Harris is a founding member of the International Brain Laboratory.

title: Kenneth D Harris


text:
File:Grand Theft Auto Advance.jpg

Summary
}}
 * Owner = Rockstar Games
 * Source = https://www.rockstargames.com/games/info/grandtheftauto-gba

title: File:Grand Theft Auto Advance.jpg


text:
puikulaperuna

Noun

 * 1) An almond potato; a small, almond-shaped variety of potato with a firm texture and pleasant taste grown in northern Scandinavia. It has been granted the Protected Designation of Origin (PD|O) status by the European Union.

title: puikulaperuna


text:
History of Elven Writing Systems/Age of Starlight

= Sarati = Rúmil of Tirion was a Noldorin scholar and the composer of Ainulindale. Before that he was the inventor of the first elvish writing system in the Valian Year 1179. It has been suggested that his system was based on an even more ancient, unrecorded writing system of the Noldor, but this is hardly probable. The Sarati (“significant marks”), as he called his letters, were ideal for writing both on stone and on paper, but we have only seen what seems to be their “calligraphic” versions.

Several different writing-directions were used with the script. Rúmilian texts were written in rows or in columns like Japanese, LTR like the western scripts, RTL like eastern scripts or boustrophedon (RTL–LTR–RTL etc.) like some ancient Greek inscriptions.

Rúmil decided that the vowels should be written with diacritics and not with independent letters, since, according to the linguistic perceptions of the Valinorean loremasters, vowels were considered as “colours” of the consonants.

Todate various interinconsistent modes of Sarati have been published, from various stages of Tolkien's youth and development. They are mostly used for English or early Qenya words and phrases. Unfortunately there is no definite, compatible to Lord of the Rings-Quenya mode of Sarati known.

= Early Tengwar = Fëanáro Curufinwë (better known as Fëanor) invented the tengwar (“signs representing audible phonemes”), strongly influenced by the Sarati, in the Valian Year 1250. From that time on, the term Sarati, from the general notions of “letter”, only refers to the Rúmilian writing system.

Rumilian Influence
With the first sight one might observe the stylistic influence of the Sarati. Especially two of the sarati (namely P p and B b ) are visually similar to the shape of a tengwa, since their morphology is consisted of a “line” and “curves”. The organization of the tengwar follows the aforementioned concept, where the form of the letter reflexes its sound. Fëanor decided that the doubling of a “curve” should add voice to the “basic” sound, and generally the way the “curves” are doubled is similar to the “p” and “b” sarati, so these two sarati must be his main inspiration.

Fëanor therefore, by reducing the number of variable elements, produced a simpler and more consistent set of characters. The two basic elements of the tengwar were a “stem” (telco) and a “bow” (lúva), which could be combined and modified in a number of different ways. Fëanor decided that the tengwar whose telcor and lúvar were organized in a particular way, represented a certain group of related sounds: The telcor determined how the sound was articulated, and the lúvar where in the mouth it was made.

The greatest difference between the systems was that the tengwar were written from left to right.

Table
It is more probable that the Tengwar system was not especially based on the needs of Quenya, Feanor's mother tongue; this is obvious when we compare the Quenya mode table with other, later modes, where the phonemes fit to the Tengwar table more consistently. It is therefore possible that the Tengwar started initially more like a generic phonological 'template', on which all later derived modes and spellings could be based. The dialects of Aman as well as ancient reconstructed words could then be written with an adaptation of that generic system.

The following table is based on a theory by Jim Allan, published in An Introduction to Elvish. It shows a reconstruction of the original theoretical 'template' of the Tengwar, perhaps never used in any language.

The only mode known closest to the theoretical values would be the General Use mode, of which we first hear millennia later.

Note that the second-to-last series represents voiceless consonants.

=Quanta Sarme= Unlike Rúmil, Fëanor considered vowels as independent sounds and not just “colours” of the consonants, so he devised the “full writing” (Quanta Sarmë).

Quanta Sarme had distinct letters for vowels (ómëar or óma-tengwi), and was used by the Loremasters for special purposes only. No texts of this system are known to us, and its usage and characters are unknown, but Tolkien says that it was used in Middle-earth for other languages, like Sindarin, where the tehta-mode was inconvenient.

This system is not heard much thereafter and it seems that its usage hasn't endured into the following Ages. However by the above information, we can easily assume that it was the predecessor of the Mode of Beleriand, and the letter Osse ] is maybe the only remnant of that (otherwise extinct) system.

=Original Quenya mode= Despite Fëanor is said to prefer the Quanta Sarme, he also used a more 'conservative' system which (judging by the majority of the subsequent samples) seem to have been proved far more popular. Fëanor held the idea of syllabic analysis of the words by the Sarati, and made also use of signs (tehtar) for vowels (instead of the full letters), placed over the preceding tengwar/consonants, indicating their “colour”. A consonant followed by a vowel was considered as a “full letter” (ñávëa or ñáva-tengwë). The sarat ‘ was imported from the previous system, and when a vowel had no preceding consonant, it was used as a carrier for convenience in writing. This system however was used by Fëanor mainly for tradition and brevity, favouring the Quanta Sarme instead.

Apart of the standard consistent characters, there were also additional tengwar which don't fit in the structure. These are usually modifications of the standard tengwar. Hyarmen is a modification of Charma, Úre is of Wilya, and Anna derived from an earlier sarat.

Table
According to Appendix E (mixed with other recently published sources) and our knowledge on Quenya phonology evolution, we can reconstruct a Tengwar table, hopefully as close to the original Feanor's concept as possible:

Examples
Like the Sarati, the Amanya system of the tengwar is also unknown at this point. According to the theories mentioned above, they will be tentatively reconstructed, showing some tengwar transcriptions of various Quenya words as pronounced in Fëanor’s time. For better understanding the words and the connection between spelling and etymology, alongside are given the etymological roots or the better attested later Quenya forms:
 * dE6U, *cheru < KHER
 * 1E.6R, taurë
 * 1`C.D6R, *tawarë > tavar
 * `C.D,Fj, *awazel > aurel
 * hEm#, ''*3alda > alda
 * 1Ulj$, tuilë < TUY

Possible examples of Quanta Sarme
We know absolutely nothing about the Quanta Sarme orthography and the following are purely conjectural, based solely on what we know about 'classical' tengwar.
 * ],Ö], azya
 * l]y]55], Yavanna
 * ½]5., hanu < HAN

= An alternative mode = For variant spellings, the general hypothetical 'template' above could have been implemented. For example, we have no clue on how the Vanyar and Teleri used the known Tengwar, since their dialect possessed sounds not found in Noldorin, like independent d and b. The Vanyarin poem’s name, Aldudénie, is known from the Silmarillion, and the word ulban, “blue”, is also adapted from Valarin by the Vanyar. They could probably write these words by modifying this flexible system according to their language (like the Noldor and the alien speakers did later in Middle-earth), but some sources state that the Vanyar kept the Sarati. Tolkien notes that the system of Fëanor provided the means of expressions for more sounds than those occuring in Quenya and Telerin, but he doesn’t mention them or the reasons.

In Addenda et corrigenda to the Etymologies, an old version of the tengwar by Tolkien appears. Some tengwar have different names and values. It is not known if this mode coexisted with the one presented above, or if one evolved after the other.

Table
= Certhas = During that time, the Sindar of Beleriand began developing an alphabet for their language. Its letters were entirely made for carving on wood, stone or metal, hence their angular forms and straight lines. These letters were named cirth (sing. certh).

The assignment of values was unsystematic. The form of a certh was consisted of a stem and a branch. The branch was found usually on the right side of the stem, and sometimes on the left, but with no phonetic significance. Therefore 3 would just be an alternative form of 1.

The following cirth were given by Tolkien as the most ancient of the later Angerthas. They had possibly different values at that time than the ones given below. Since we lack any other evidence though, we will use the known standard values of the letters to have a framework of discussion and make our comparisons; this is not so far-fetched as it seems: it's possible that at some later stage, some sound values were 'stuck' to some of the cirth, setting some stable basis for Daeron to make his final standardization.

If we are to accept the known values to these old Cirth, we will observe that they don’t cover all the sounds of Sindarin, since we are missing rh, lh, mh, v, y, œ. The most possible explanation is that those early Cirth were used for the “Old Sindarin” tongue, and many of the above mentioned sounds indeed didn’t exist in that language. However this doesn't explain the absence of sounds w and a. This indicates that some ancient, unknown cirth could have existed, but didn’t make it to the later systems and therefore aren't given by Tolkien; a fuller table therefore can't be reconstructed.

As for the vowel usage, perhaps the certh for u possibly was used for w (like in early latin orthography). The certh for a can’t be guessed, so maybe this sound was “meant” (like in some Quenya Tengwar Modes). More possibly it was one of the two cirth whose value can’t be determined, or it was one of some other cirth that did not survive till the later Angerthas.

Long vowels were evidently indicated by doubling (cf. the known certh for long o, n, is a simplified form of bb ).

 * Note: The term “Old Sindarin” is used hypothetically to facilitate understanding of Sindarin etymology, although we don’t know if it actually existed, and when. The term “Old Sindarin” is not a term used by Tolkien, but the term, as well as the language, are based on “Old Noldorin” as known by him.

Examples
As mentioned, it is probable that this primitive Certhas were used “Old Sindarin”, and we can try to see how some words could be written. The spelling exemplified here assumes that like in Latin, a single certh was used for w and u, and similarly for k, t and p for kh, th and ph. Since we can’t guess the form of a, we will consider that it was actually ommited.
 * g82Rb@, STBRON (*sthabron), “carpenter”
 * Sbbl, WÔI (*wôia), “envelope”
 * bReaa, ORKLL (*orkhalla), “superior”
 * ua52z, ÑLMBE (*ñalambe), “barbarous speech”
 * lSRl@z, IURINE (*yurine), “I run”
 * Sz9, UED (*weda), “bond”

Certhas Daeron
In the Valian Year 1350, Dairon (better known as Daeron), the Minstrel and Loremaster of Doriath, reorganised the cirth and added new ones, making the extension of the cirth known as Angerthas Daeron (“Long Runerow of Daeron”), used for inscribing names in Menegroth. The Dwarves working for Thingol liked them and adopted them, making them known also in the East, beyond the Mountains.

The nature and the timeframe of the standardization however are obscure; some point the similarities between q et 1 with 1 and 8 as signs that Daeron was influenced by the Tengwar, therefore this mustn't had occurred before the return of the Noldor, which means during the First Age. Unlike the previous system, the reversal of the certh had a phonemic significance: reversed cirth were softer versions of their originals. This also gives us another information: perhaps lenited consonants must have started to occur in Sindarin around that time.

Tolkien mentions that at that time (or maybe later) a sound of mh was needed. The most appropriate solution was to revert the certh for m to indicate its softening, but 5 (we assume it was this certh) couldn’t be reverted, so m was given to 6 (which until then had a value unknown to us), and 5 got the value of hw. The same process took place with r, l etc., and maybe at that time the distinct cirth for semivowels and umlauts, like w, y and œ, were employed.

Examples
There are no Angerthas Daeron texts by Tolkien either, so we cannot know how the text forms can look like. By some English specimina we see at least that words are separated by dots, phrases by colons and longer periods by 3 or 4 dots. We don’t know if Angerthas Daeron, like Tengwar, used other diacritics for modificators or combinations like nd, mb, dw, gw or diphthongs. It seems, however, quite straightforward, and for now we use them in close correspodence to the latin letters. The following examples attempt to show words as would be in the Age of the Starlight (Daeron’s time), so the first and last examples should be Gelydh and Elvellon in the 3rd Age.
 * c@@b@IluIumaG!, Annon-iñ-ñGœlydh, “Gate of the Noldor”
 * lItlR0I#l@, I-chirth hin, “these runes”
 * rSRz@I2x@Iz@@l, Guren bêd enni, “my heart tells me”
 * za7zaab@, Elmhellon, “Elf-friend”

Go to:

 * ../Foreword/
 * ../First Age/


text:
Talk:Bowes Railway

Comment
I am planning to improve this article, though it may take me a while. However I have little knowledge of the railway so I'm going to have to do some research ... if anyone can help, feel free! MSGJ (talk) 23:12, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 2 one external links on Bowes Railway. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 18:54, 6 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bowes Railway


text:
Acrolepia marmaropis

Acrolepia marmaropis is a moth of the family Acrolepiidae. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1919. It is found in South America.

title: Acrolepia marmaropis


text:
Ohioan

Noun

 * 1) A native or resident of the state of Ohio in the United States of America.

Adjective

 * 1)  Pertaining to or from.

title: Ohioan


text:
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General Astronomy/Mercury

Visibility
Next Greatest Elongation, WEST: 2006 November 25

Next Greatest Elongation, EAST: 2006 October 17

Next transit of Mercury will begin at 19h:12m Universal Time on 8 November 2006.

Followed by that of 9 May 2016.

In Roman and Greek mythology, the planet Mercury played an important role in the religious life of many ancient civilizations. In Roman religion, Mercury was god of commerce and messenger of the gods, identified with the Greek Hermes. He was honoured at the Mercuralia, a festival held in May and attended primarily by traders and merchants.

Mercury is the closest planet to our sun lying at a mean distance of 57.909 million km and has an equatorial radius of 2,439 km, so that not only is Mercury slightly more than 1,367.6 km larger than the moon, it also looks very similar because the planet is covered with impact craters. The other unique attribute of Mercury is that the planet is almost entirely spherical since the planet’s polar diameter is the about the same as its equatorial diameter.

The planet is inclined on its axis at a mere 0.01º which is the lowest of all the planets in our solar system. Mercury is upright in its orbital path around the sun which takes only 87.968 days (115.88 Synodic days) to complete, as the planet rushes through space at 47.87 km/s.

The orbital inclination of Mercury is 7º. If it were possible to visit Mercury, the pole star would be the tenth magnitude star TYCHO 4215-996-1 in the northern constellation of Draco, the dragon.

The first attempts by amateur astronomers to measure the length of the planet’s solar day by observing and mapping surface markings, were quite wide of the mark; furthermore, only true measurements made by earthbound radar and spacecraft visiting Mercury, found the true figure to be 4,222.6 hours. Therefore, Mercury’s solar day is almost 176 earth days in length, and about twice as long as the planet’s year. Mercury rotates on its axis three times while it circles the Sun twice in synchronous rotation. The planet's sidereal day - the time it takes to rotate on its axis - is 1,407.6 hours, or 58.785 earth days, in length.

Prehistoric man probably saw Mercury; the first recorded observation was by Timocharis in 265 BC. The early Greeks believed that the east and west elongations of Mercury represented two separate objects which they called Hermes (evening star) and Apollo (morning star). When later the Greeks recognized that Mercury was one object, they designated it Hermes, the messenger of the gods, and god of twilight and dawn who announced the rising of Zeus. The ancient Egyptians however, first discovered that Mercury (called by them Sabkou) orbited the Sun.

To the Teutonic people Mercury was known as Woden, and our anglicized version of the midweek day Wednesday is derived from the original Woden's Day. The present name Mercury is derived directly from the Latin name Mercurius, which is the Roman designation for the Greek name Hermes.

Because Mercury and its neighbour the planet Venus are inferior planets - that is, they lie inside earth’s orbit - they are both able to display phases like our Moon, as they travel around the sun. The Italian astronomer Zupus first observed the phases of Mercury in 1639. Hevelius later observed them independently in 1644.

Another phenomenon associated with Mercury and Venus is a planetary transit, which takes place when Mercury (or Venus) passes between the Earth and the Sun. On such rare occasions, the inferior planet may be seen as a small black disk passing slowly across the Sun’s brilliant surface in transit. The transit of Mercury was first predicted by Kepler in 1630 and was observed by Gassendi.

The first recorded observations of the surface markings were by Schroter and Harding in 1800. In the same year, Schroter incorrectly measured a rotation period of 24 hours with a rotation axis inclined 70° to the orbital plane. Another incorrect rotation period of 88 days determined by Schiaparelli 80 years later was not corrected until the advent of recent radar observations, which in turn were confirmed by measurements made by the first Mercury space craft visitor Mariner 10.

It had been thought that the planet Mercury had no atmosphere whatsoever because of its low escape velocity of 4.3 km/s and its close proximity to the Sun, since the rapid movement of any atmospheric atoms would be greater than its escape velocity. However, visiting spacecraft, in particular Mariner 10, did detect a tenuous atmosphere - or "exosphere" - with a total mass of less than 1,000 kilograms. It has a measured composition of: 42% oxygen (O2), 29% sodium (Na), 22% hydrogen (H2), 6% helium (He) and 0.5% potassium (K). There were also very low traces of water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, despite the average surface temperature of Mercury being 169 degrees Celsius. However, the atmosphere is still essentially a vacuum in every sense of the word.

Although Mercury is remarkably similar to the Moon, it is different from it in many respects. This was unexpected, based on observations from Earth prior the Mariner 10 mission. On the one hand it was known that Mercury reflects sunlight and radar waves in the same manner, as does the Moon.

This similarity combined with the probable absence of any appreciable atmosphere suggested a cratered surface and a lunar-like regolith of pulverized rock mantling the surface of the planet as the result of meteoritic bombardment. On the other hand, the bulk density of the planet was known to be almost the same as that of Earth and about 60 percent greater than that of the Moon, implying that Mercury was a body greatly enriched in the heavy elements and, like Earth, perhaps having an iron-rich core.

The surface of Mercury, like that of the Moon, was found to be pockmarked with impact craters. However, not expected was the discovery that Mercury, unlike the Moon, has a weak but nevertheless Earth-like magnetic field whose origin is undoubtedly related to a large iron-rich core. Paradoxically, Mercury has a Moon-like exterior and an Earth-like interior.

Craters and basins dominate the illuminated surface observed by Mariner 10 as it first approached Mercury. This region of Mercury shows a heavily cratered surface that at first glance could be mistaken for the lunar highlands. In marked contrast to this view of Mercury, the surface photographed after the flyby, as the spacecraft receded from Mercury, exhibited features totally different from those shown on the incoming views, including large basins and extensive relatively smooth areas with few craters.

The smooth surfaces are clearly younger than the heavily cratered ground seen in the incoming views of Mercury. The most striking feature in this region of the planet is a huge circular basin, 1300 km in diameter that was undoubtedly produced from a tremendous impact comparable to the event that formed the Imbrium basin on the Moon. This prominent Mercurial feature, named Caloris Planitia - or Caloris Basin - is filled with material forming a smooth surface or plain that appears similar in many respects to the lunar Maria.

Mercury, much like the Moon, can thus present two totally different faces; one is a heavily cratered surface like the highlands on the backside of the Moon, and the second shows a region of large basins filled with smooth plains similar to the front side of the Moon.

Both the heavily cratered regions of Mercury and the craters themselves, however, differ from their lunar counterparts.

Mercury's heavily cratered surfaces exhibit relatively smooth areas or plains between the craters and basins, whereas the lunar highlands display closely packed and overlapping craters. In many cases, these "intercrater" plains appear to predate that time when most of the large Mercurial craters were formed.

The lunar and Mercurial heavily cratered surfaces are probably different because the force of gravity on Mercury is twice that on the Moon. The ballistic range of material ejected from a primary crater on Mercury is less than that on the Moon and, consequently, covers, depending on the ejection velocity, an area from a fifth to a twentieth smaller for craters of the same size.

As a result, ejecta deposits and secondary craters on Mercury are confined more closely around the primary crater than on the Moon; thus, the early cratering record stored in the surface features of Mercury may be better preserved than on the Moon. Ejecta-forming secondary craters from the most recent large basin events on the Moon have been superposed on the earlier record of primary craters, increasing the density of craters and obliterating the earlier activity.

The difference in the gravity fields is also probably responsible for the variation in the geometry of craters of the same size on the two bodies. In both cases, the smallest craters are bowl-shaped and with increasing size exhibit central peaks and develop terraces on their inner walls.

At the larger sizes, the central peaks become complex structures and undergo a transition into an inner mountain ring that is concentric with the crater rim.

Although this progressive change in crater geometry is the same on both the Moon and Mercury, the change from one type to another occurs with smaller diameters on Mercury and apparently reflects gravitationally induced modifications to the original excavation crater.

An additional important difference between the heavily cratered surfaces of Mercury and the Moon are the lobate scarps or cliffs that are several kilometres high and extend for hundreds of kilometres across the Mercurial surface.

The scarp named Discovery is one of the best examples of this feature. Its shape and transection relationships suggest that scarps are thrust faults resulting from compressive stresses, perhaps due to cooling and shrinkage of the iron-rich core, and causing crustal shortening on a global scale.

Regardless of the mechanism for forming these escarpments, their presence in the large, well preserved craters establishes an approximate relative time scale for their age and eliminates the possibility that planet-wide melting or Earth-like movement of crustal plates has taken place since the heavily cratered ground was created.

The extensive areas of smooth surfaces or plains on Mercury have been classified into three types. The most widespread type forms a level to gently rolling ground between and around large craters and basins.

These "intercrater" plains are characterized by an extremely high density of superimposed small (5 to 10 km) craters, which are frequently elongate, shallow, and suggestive of being of secondary origin. A second type, "hummocky" plains, occurs within a broad ring that is 600 to 800 km wide and circumscribes the Caloris Planitia. These plains consist of low, closely spaced to scattered hills, and have been interpreted to be material ejected during the cratering event that produced the Caloris basin. "Smooth" plains are the third type and form relatively level tracts with a very low population of craters, both within and external to Caloris Planitia as well as in some of the smaller basins (e.g., Borealis Planitia in the Borealis quadrangle).

The smooth plains are similar to the lunar maria and, if analogous, result from extensive lava flows that would reflect an extended period of volcanism on Mercury after the Caloris event. In addition to the cratered surfaces and plains regions, several other distinctive topographic features occur.

A system of linear hills and valleys that extends up to 300 kilometres cuts through, or modifies, some parts of the heavily cratered areas in the Discovery quadrangle. These valleys are scalloped and range up to 10 km wide.

The best example of this type of feature extends more than 1000 km to the northeast from the mountainous rim, Caloris Montes, in the Shakespeare quadrangle. Both examples are similar to the so-called lunar Imbrium sculpture.

It is generally believed that this type of lineated surface feature resulted from excavations by secondary projectiles when the large basins were formed and, possibly, fracturing and faulting of the planet's crust during the basin formation. The basin associated with the lineations in the Discovery quadrangle is unknown, but it may be found in the darkened hemisphere that was hidden from Mariner 10's cameras.

Some of the most peculiar and interesting landforms seen on Mercury are in another region in the Discovery quadrangle that has been termed "hilly and lineated." The hills are 5 to 10 km wide and vary from a few hundred meters up to almost 2 km in height. This region included many old degraded craters whose rims have been broken up into hills and valleys. Similar surfaces are known at two sites on the Moon. In all three cases, the regions are antipodal to the youngest large basins (Imbrium and Orientale on the Moon and Caloris on Mercury).

For this reason, there could be a genetic relationship between the formation of the basins and the hilly and lineated terrain.

It has been suggested that seismic waves generated by the basin impacts are focused in the antipodal region and are the cause of the peculiar surfaces.

Well-defined bright streaks or ray systems radiating away from craters constitute another distinctive feature of the Mercurial surface, again in remarkable similarity to the Moon. The rays cut across and are superposed on all other surface features, indicating that the source craters are the youngest topographic features on the surface of Mercury.

Despite some differences, the striking duplication of surface features between Mercury and the Moon suggests that although an absolute time scale for the development of the Mercurial surface must remain uncertain, the relative sequence of events for the two bodies must have been very similar, if not contemporary. The greatest uncertainty in the Mercurial absolute time scale is: When did the heavy bombardment forming the heavily cratered surfaces (lunar highlands) and the large basins (lunar Imbrium and Orientale) come to an end'?

Within these uncertainties, Mercury's evolution can be divided into five stages or epochs. The first epoch includes the interval of time at the earliest stage of the solar system, condensation of the solar nebula into solids, and the accumulation of the solid material into the main mass of Mercury.

It is not known whether the planet accumulated heterogeneously or homogeneously; i.e., whether it formed directly as an iron core with a silicate crust, or whether the proto-Mercury was initially a mixture of iron and silicates which subsequently melted and separated into the core and crust configuration. Regardless of how the planet accumulated, all crustal melting must have been completed well before the craters in the heavily cratered surfaces were formed to have preserved their shapes and geometries to the present time.

Moreover, if Mercury ever had been enveloped in an atmosphere either during or immediately after accumulation, aeolian degradation of craters would have occurred, similar to that seen on Mars.

Because such degradation has not been recognized, any atmosphere must have disappeared before the oldest cratered surfaces were formed.

The second epoch following accumulation and chemical separation was a period of heavy bombardment by large objects from an unknown source that produced the heavily cratered surfaces and the large basins; this epoch was terminated by the time of the Caloris event. It is not certain whether this last period of heavy bombardment was the terminal phase of the accumulation of Mercury, or if it was the second episode of bombardment unrelated to the accretionary phase. The "intercrater" plains probably represent an older surface that predates this second epoch, or they may have been emplaced during the period of heavy bombardment. Because the lobate scarps are prevalent in the intercrater areas and sometimes pass through and deform some of the older craters, core shrinkage and crustal shortening may have occurred during the end of the first epoch and extended into at least the early part of the second.

The Caloris basin was a massive event marking the onset of the third epoch. It produced the mountainous ring Caloris Montes and the basin Caloris Planitia, as well as the ejecta deposits and sculpturing of the older heavily cratered surface that can be traced more than 1000 km from the ring of mountains. If the Caloris basin were contemporary with our Moon's two youngest basins, Imbrium and Orientale, an absolute time for the Caloris event would be about 4 billion years ago.

The start of the fourth epoch followed an indeterminate but probably short, period after the Caloris event. During this time broad plains were formed, most probably as a result of widespread volcanism grossly similar to that which produced the lunar maria. It has been suggested, however, that the smooth plains surrounding the Caloris Planitia (i.e., the Suisei, Odin, and Tir Planitia) are ejecta from Caloris that were melted by the impact. If the smooth plains are analogous to lunar maria, this fourth epoch may represent the period from four to 3 billion years ago. If the plains are impact melt, they must be contemporary with the Caloris event, about 4 billion years in age.

The fifth and final epoch in what can be recognized in Mercurial history probably extends from about 3 billion years ago to the present. Little has happened on Mercury during this period except for a light "dusting" of meteoritic debris that has produced many of the prominent rayed craters. The crater population on the smooth plains is very similar to that on the lunar Maria.

The apparent similarity in the sequence of events for the Moon and Mercury is especially significant for interpreting and understanding evolutionary processes of the terrestrial planets.

It is now clear that Mercury, in common not only with the Moon, but also with Mars, was subjected to an early, intense crater-producing bombardment (including basin events) that was followed by volcanism and, in turn, by a greatly reduced impact flux.

Ice on Mercury
Mercury would seem to be one of the least likely places in the solar system to find ice. The closest planet to the Sun has temperatures, which can reach over 700 °C. The local day on the surface of Mercury is 176 earth-days, so the surface is slowly rotating under a relentless assault from the Sun. Nonetheless, Earth-based radar imaging of Mercury has revealed areas of high radar reflectivity near the north and south poles, which could be indicative of the presence of ice in these regions. There appear to be dozens of these areas with generally circular shapes. Presumably, the ice is located within permanently shadowed craters near the poles, where it may be cold enough for ice to exist over long periods of time. The discovery of ice on the Earth's moon, and on Mars, can only serve to strengthen the arguments for ice on Mercury.

Ice is highly radar reflective and the radar reflections off ice tend to be highly depolarized, unlike typical silicate rock that comprises the bulk of Mercury's surface. While not as highly reflective as other icy solar system objects, such as on Jupiter’s moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, these areas are still significantly more reflective than silicate material. Moreover, the depolarized nature of the reflections is also an indicator of water ice. The Arecibo results show that the radar reflective areas are concentrated in crater-sized spots. At the South Pole, the location of the largest area appears coincident with the large crater Chao Meng-Fu and the smaller areas with other identified craters. At the North Pole much of the area containing the radar bright spots was not imaged, and cannot be correlated with any known craters.

However, for the imaged areas at both poles most of the areas have been loosely correlated with known craters. Craters near the poles could provide the permanent, or near permanent, shading required for ice to exist on Mercury.

The radar results indicate the reflective areas are probably relatively uncontaminated ice. However, the lower reflectivity compared to pure ice features indicates the ice may be covered by a thin layer of dust or soil or else does not completely cover the crater floor. Note that no direct unequivocal detection of ice has been made.

The coincidence of the radar bright areas with large, possibly permanently shadowed, polar craters is strong circumstantial evidence for ice.

However, the radar reflections could be explained by an enhancement of some other radar reflective material, such as metal sulphides or other metallic condensates, or precipitated sodium ions

Investigations of Mercury were done from Earth using the Arecibo radio telescope, the Goldstone antenna, and the Very Large Array (VLA). The Goldstone/VLA study used the NASA Deep Space Network 70-m Goldstone dish antenna to transmit 8.51 GHz, 460 kW, right circularly polarized radar waves towards Mercury. The National Radio Astronomy Observatories 26 VLA antennas received the reflections. Calibration and processing of the radar returns showed radar-bright (high radar reflectivity) with depolarized signatures at the North Pole. The Arecibo observations were made by transmitting an S-band (2.4 GHz), 420 kW, circularly polarized coded radar wave at Mercury. The wave reflects off Mercury back to Earth. The wave is both transmitted and received by the Arecibo radio telescope.

Filtering and processing the return signal gives a radar reflectivity map of Mercury's surface with a resolution of approximately 15 km. About 20 anomalously reflective and highly depolarized features were observed at the north and south poles.

As mentioned above, all provinces on Mercury are exposed to the Sun for almost 90 earth-days at a time, and can reach temperatures over 700 °C. Additionally, Mercury has no ambient atmosphere and has very low gravity.

Water ice on the surface of Mercury is exposed directly to vacuum, and will rapidly sublime and escape into space unless it is kept cold at all times. This implies that the ice can never be exposed to direct sunlight.

The only locations on the surface of Mercury where this is possible would seem to be near the poles (Mercury’s South Pole is shown here), where the floors of some craters might be deep enough to afford permanent shading. Whether such permanently shadowed craters exist on Mercury is still problematic. The only close-up images we have of Mercury were taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft on three close passes in 1974 and 1975.

The same hemisphere of Mercury was sunlit on each of these passes, so nearly half the planet has never been imaged, and no determination can be made of what polar areas, if any, are permanently shadowed. However, theoretical studies assuming typical crater dimensions show that craters near the poles should have areas that never rise above about 102 °C and that even flat surfaces at the poles would not exceed about 167 °C. Other studies also indicate that water ice in polar craters on Mercury could be stable over the age of the solar system.

There are only two significant sources for ice on Mercury: meteorite bombardment and planetary out gassing. Meteorites, especially in the past, potentially carried large amounts of water to Mercury's surface. Out gassing of water from the planet's interior could also provide a non-negligible flux of water to the surface, although this is speculative.

The permanently shadowed regions near Mercury's poles should act as "cold-traps" so that any water, which found its way to these regions, would freeze on the surface and remain. (The possibility that the ice is relatively uncontaminated may indicate that each deposit was laid down in one or a small number of rapid events, such as a large comet impact.) Meteorites, which impacted near the poles and water, which out gassed in that region, could have been easily trapped.

Solar Wind
The planet Mercury is the closest planet to the sun, our nearby star, which gives off a huge amount of light and heat. The Sun also has significant super hot plasma burst from its surface known as prominences, and upper atmosphere called coronal mass ejections.

The charged atomic particles then move at great speed through the solar system. Mercury therefore is the planet that is regularly in the line of fire, so that its surface is constantly bathed by the solar wind. While the planet’s atmosphere is too thin and rarefied to erode Mercurian surface features, the solar wind does appear to have an effect, albeit slowly, over eons of time.

Mercury's Physical Characteristics
Mass 				0.3302 kg Volume				6,083 kg³ Equatorial Radius		2,439.7 km Polar Radius			2,439.7 km Ellipticity (Flattening)	0.0000 Mean Density			5.427 g/cm³ Surface Gravity			6 km/s Escape Velocity		 	4.3 km/s Visual Magnitude		-0.42 (seen from Earth). Number of Moons			None Planetary Ring system		None Mean Orbital Velocity		47.87 km/s Orbital Inclination		7º Orbital Eccentricity		0.2056 Sidereal Axis rotation		1,407.6 hours Length of day			4,222.6 hours

Mercurian Magnetic Field

Dipole field strength		 0.0033 gauss-Rh^3 Dipoles tilt to rotation axis	169º Longitude of tilt		285º (From Mercury-1 flyby) 115º (From Mercury-III flyby).

Transit of Mercury Phenomena
A transit is the passage of a planet across the Sun's bright disk. At this time, the planet can be seen as a small black disk slowly moving in front of the Sun.

The orbits of Mercury and Venus lie inside Earth's orbit, so they are the only planets that can pass between Earth and Sun to produce a transit. Transits are very rare astronomical events. In the case of Mercury, there are on average thirteen transits each century. A transit of Mercury occurs only if the planet is in inferior conjunction with the Sun (between Earth and Sun) and is also crossing through Earth's orbital plane (the Ecliptic). During the present period in Earth's history, Mercury's orbit crosses Earth's orbital plane in early May and early November each year. If Mercury is passing between the Earth and Sun at that time, a transit will be seen.

During the seven-century period 1601 to 2065, Earth experiences 94 transits of Mercury across the Sun. These events can be organized into two groups: All Transits = 94 = 100.0%. May (Descending Node) = 31 = 33.0%. November (Ascending Node) = 63 = 67.0%

Mercury's orbit is highly eccentric (e = 0.2056). This causes the planet's distance from the Sun to vary from 46 to 70 million kilometres. At perihelion, Mercury's orbital velocity (59.0 km/s) is over 50% faster than it is at aphelion (38.9 km/s).

Furthermore, the planet's orbit is tipped 7 degrees to Earth's around the Sun. Such a wildly varying and inclined orbit has important consequences on the characteristics and frequency of Mercury's transits.

During May transits, the apparent diameters of the Sun and Mercury are 1902 and 12 arc-seconds, respectively. Thus, Mercury appears to be 1/158 the size of the Sun. In contrast, the apparent diameters of the Sun and Mercury during November transits are 1937 and 10 arcseconds, respectively. So then Mercury appears to be 1/194 the size of the Sun. Consecutive transits of Mercury appear to be separated by 3.5, 7, 9.5, 10, or 13 years.

The pattern is rather complex because of Mercury's elliptical orbit. The shorter periods are a consequence of several longer harmonics between the orbital periods of Mercury and Earth. The 13-year period is of particular note because it corresponds to nearly 54 orbits of Mercury around the Sun (it falls short of a perfect fit by just 2.01 days). A longer period of 33 years (10 + 10 + 13) produces an even better fit, which corresponds to 137 orbits of Mercury minus 1.67 days. If one combines the 13 year and 33 year periods together, the 46-year total equals 191 orbits of Mercury plus only 0.34 days.

A useful way to organize Mercury's transits is by grouping them into series where each member is separated by 16,802 days or 46 years (= sum of 13 and 33 years). Thus, the transits of 1957, 2003 and 2049 belong to one series, while the transits of 1960, 2006 and 2052 belong to another series. May transits occur about a month after Mercury's aphelion passage so the planet is travelling at close to its minimum velocity?

The planet's relative position with respect to the Sun shifts by approximately 200 arcseconds with each transit. This rapidly evolving geometry means that transit series, which occur in May only, last about 10 cycles or 414 years. In comparison, November transits occur just a few days before Mercury reaches perihelion so the planet is travelling at nearly its maximum orbital velocity. Mercury's relative position with respect to the Sun shifts by only about 100 arcseconds with each transit, so November series last about twice as long as a May series. For example, Series 8 (November at Ascending Node) began in 1776 and will run through 2604 for a total of 19 transits spanning 828 years. For comparison, Series 9 (May at Descending Node) began just recently in 1957 and will run through 2371 for a total of 10 transits spanning 414 years. At any one time, there can be about six transit series running concurrently. But since the November series last twice as long as the May series, there are twice as many transits in November as there are in May. Mercury's transit series are quite analogous to the Saros series for solar and lunar eclipses although they are shorter and tend not have as many events in each series.

Ephemeris Data
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mercury

title: General Astronomy/Mercury


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Sasadu Festival

Sasadu Festival is an annual festival celebrated by the chiefs and people of the Sasadu communities Alavanyo, Akrofu, Saviefe and Sovie. It is located in the Hohoe Municipality in the Volta Region of Ghana. It is usually celebrated in the month of October on rotational basis. SASADU is an acronym for Sovie, Alavanyo, Saviefe, Akrofu Development Union which marks the symbol of unity and peace among the four communities.

Celebrations
During the festival, there is a grand durbar of chiefs as it is a festival of pomp and pageantry.

Significance
It is celebrated to rekindle the fraternal relationship existing between the four communities who claim to be of the same stock who migrated from Notsie in Togoland.

title: Sasadu Festival


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Mount Veve

Mount Veve is an extinct volcano on the island of Kolombangara, in the Solomon Islands. With an elevation of 1768 m, it is the island's highest point.

title: Mount Veve