text:
Talk:Matraca Berg

Birthyear
Was Matraca born in 1964 or 1965? Hotwine8 02:31, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

→1964.

title: Talk:Matraca Berg


text:
Lojban/Vocabulary 2

Word list

 * le
 * cu
 * ti
 * ta
 * tu
 * goi
 * ko'a
 * zo'o
 * zo'onai

 * broda
 * blanu
 * cusku
 * ciska
 * prenu
 * remna
 * nanmu
 * ninmu
 * gasnu
 * zukte
 * rinka

cmavo
le       LE       the described non-veridical descriptor: the one(s) described as ...

cu       CU       selbri separator elidable marker: separates selbri from preceding sumti, allows preceding terminator elision

ti       KOhA6    this here pro-sumti: this here; immediate demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near speaker

ta       KOhA6    that there pro-sumti: that there; nearby demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near listener

tu       KOhA6    that yonder pro-sumti: that yonder; distant demonstrative it; indicated thing far from speaker&listener

goi      GOI      pro-sumti assign sumti assignment; used to define/assign ko'a/fo'a                   series pro-sumti; Latin 'sive'

ko'a     KOhA4    it-1 pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #1 (specified by goi)

zo'o     UI5      humorously attitudinal modifier: humorously - dully - seriously

cf. xajmi, junri)

zo'onai  UI*5     seriously attitudinal modifier: humorously - dully - seriously

gismu
broda rod         predicate var 1 1st assignable variable predicate (context determines                   place structure)

(cf. cmavo list bu'a)

blanu    bla      blue x1 is blue [color adjective]

(cf. skari, blabi, xekri, zirpu, kandi, carmi, cicna)

cusku cus sku     express x1 (agent) expresses/says x2 (sedu'u/text/lu'e                   concept) for audience x3 via expressive medium x4

[also says]; (cf. bacru, tavla, casnu, spuda, cmavo                   list cu'u, bangu, dapma, jufra, pinka)

ciska        ci'a write                ' scribe ' x1 inscribes/writes x2 on display/storage medium x3 with writing implement x4; x1 is a scribe

[also x3 writing surface]; (cf. papri, penbi,                     pinsi, tcidu, xatra, pixra, prina, finti for                      'author' or specific authorial works, barna, pinka)

prenu    pre      person x1 is a person/people (noun) [not necessarily human]; x1 displays personality/a persona

(cf. nanmu, ninmu, remna, zukte, sevzi)

remna rem    re'a human x1 is a human/human being/man (non-specific                   gender-free sense); (adjective:) x1 is human

(cf. nanmu, ninmu, prenu)

nanmu        nau  man x1 is a man/men; x1 is a male humanoid person [not necessarily adult]

[word dispreferred in metaphor/example as sexist; (use remna or prenu)]; (cf. ninmu, remna, prenu,                   makcu, nanla, bersa)

ninmu nim    ni'u woman                ' women ' x1 is a woman/women; x1 is a female humanoid person [not necessarily adult]

[word dispreferred in metaphor/example as sexist; (use remna or prenu)]; (cf. nanmu, remna, prenu,                     makcu, nixli)

gasnu        gau  do                    x1 [person/agent] is an agentive cause of event x2; x1 does/brings about x2

(cf. cmavo list gau, gunka, zukte, rinka, fasnu for                   non-agentive events, jibri, kakne, pilno)

zukte zuk    zu'e act x1 is a volitional entity employing means/taking action x2 for purpose/goal x3/to end x3

[also acting at, undertaking, doing; agentive cause with volition/purpose; also x3 objective, end]; (cf. cmavo list zu'e, bapli, gunka, jalge, krinu,                   mukti, rinka, snuti, gasnu, fasnu, minji, prenu,                    ciksi, jibri, pilno, pluta, tadji, tutci)

rinka rik    ri'a cause x1 (event/state) effects/physically causes effect x2                   (event/state) under conditions x3

[x1 is a material condition for x2; x1 gives rise to                   x2]; (cf. gasnu, krinu, nibli, te zukte, se jalge,                    bapli, jitro, cmavo list ri'a, mukti, ciksi, xruti)

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lojban/Vocabulary 2


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/grainmagazine.ca

Links

 * grainmagazine.ca resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.

Additions

 * Displayed all 5 additions.


text:
John H. Howe

John H. Howe may refer to:

 * John H. Howe (architect) (1913–1997), American architect
 * John H. Howe (judge) (1822–1873), American jurist

title: John H. Howe


text:
Πάρις

Etymology
Probably from 🇨🇬, possibly from (foremost) +. Compare 🇨🇬. By folk etymology connected with.

Proper noun

 * 1)  Paris

title: Πάρις


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/J. Jesses Smith

The result was delete. ♠PMC♠ (talk) 14:34, 4 October 2017 (UTC)

J. Jesses Smith

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

No independent coverage to establish general notability or creative notability. Notability is not inherited from subjects or otherwise. Robert McClenon (talk) 16:09, 18 September 2017 (UTC)

 * Delete - Fails WP:BASIC and WP:ANYBIO. I located this, but still, notability is not established.  Magnolia677 (talk) 16:39, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Keep - After the AfD notice, I have added many references and included a comprehensive list of films directed by this famous director. Please check page before commenting on whether to keep this obviously notable artist's page on Wikipedia werldwayd (talk) 17:22, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Music-related deletion discussions. CAPTAIN RAJU (T) 19:04, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Actors and filmmakers-related deletion discussions. CAPTAIN RAJU (T) 19:05, 18 September 2017 (UTC)

 Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion and clearer consensus.
 * Delete: I've corrected the assertion in the article that Mr. Smith directed "most" of 50 Cent's videos – in fact the only videos he was involved with were co-directing with 50 Cent the ten videos made for each song on The Big 10 mixtape, none of which are particularly notable. The film I Do... I Did! which he also directed most certainly isn't notable at all... I can't find a single professional review of this film – good, bad, or whatever – and the article for it should probably be AfD'd as well. That just leaves us with passing mentions or primary interviews of his involvement with 50 Cent's videos and film, and the graphic novel he co-wrote – I don't see enough to pass WP:GNG or WP:DIRECTOR. Richard3120 (talk) 02:51, 21 September 2017 (UTC)

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks,  MBisanz  talk 02:18, 27 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Delete Non-notable per WP:NOTINHERITED. Sources therein either mention him only in passing or read like press releases. sixty nine   • speak up •  02:21, 27 September 2017 (UTC)


text:
118th Regiment

118th Regiment or 118th Infantry Regiment may refer to:

 * 118th Regiment of Foot (disambiguation), several units of the British Army
 * 29th Commando Regiment Royal Artillery
 * 118th Infantry Regiment (United States)

Union Army (American Civil War):
 * 118th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment
 * 118th New York Infantry Regiment
 * 118th Ohio Infantry
 * 118th Pennsylvania Infantry

title: 118th Regiment


text:
Latin/Lesson 6-Pronouns

Personal Pronouns in English
Pronouns are nouns which are used instead of another noun ('pro', in place of 'noun', noun.)

There are three categories of pronouns which are divided up into persons: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd. In addition, pronouns can be singular or plural. They are declined like all other nouns.

Table of Personal Pronouns in all of their cases: I, thou, we, ye
Note: ' is the archaic singular of the archaic plural ' - useful for distinguishing you (singular) from you (plural)

Nota Bene: the genitive is used in certain phrases like:
 * 1) memor nostrī, mindful of us
 * 2) paucī vestrum, a few of you.

For the possessive uses (my sister, your bicycle) sometimes uses the possessive adjectives:

3rd Person Pronouns
Technically, 3rd person pronouns do not exist in Latin as they do in English. However, they do have equivalents.

Adjectives modify nouns and take the gender of the noun which they modify. However, adjectives do not necessarily need a substantive present in the sentence to modify. The substantive can be presumed. In this way, '3rd person' pronouns are formed.

Example 1
Take the masculine form of the adjective 'ille'. Literally it means 'That (masculine) thing.' However one could take it for simply meaning 'he', depending on the context. Similarly, the pronoun 'iste' means 'that (masc.) thing'. Iste and ille are declined in exactly the same way, but there are a slight difference of meaning between them: 'ille' is often used with proper names for marking dignity or worth and 'iste' conveys a contemptuous sense.

Examples:

- Annibal, ille inclytus filius Amilcaris (Hannibal, that renowned Hamilcar's son).

- Iste servus improbus ante te (this bad slave in front of you).

If no substantive is provided assume words like these: 'man', 'woman', 'thing', 'idea', 'concept', 'reason' etc. Let context be your guide.

Declension of Ille (that)
Ille is often used as a kind of pronoun. In situations with multiple phrases or sentences, however, it is syntactically different from is, ea, id (see below).

For example: "Canis puero cibum dat. Is laborat in agro." means "The dog gives food to the boy. The dog works in the field".

However: "Canis puero cibum dat. Ille laborat in agro." means "The dog gives food to the boy. The boy works in the field".

Thus, ille, unlike the other pronouns makes a previous object into the subject (and vice versa).

Declension of Is, ea, id: (personal pronouns w/ translations)
Like ille, is can be used as a form of a pronoun.

Uses of the Relative Pronoun
The relative pronoun takes on the case depending on the function it serves in the relative clause. For example, in the sentence "He sees the man who has a slave," "who" is translated as nominative because it is the subject of the clause "who has a slave." The antecedent (noun to which the pronoun refers) is usually before the relative clause.

Examples of the Usage of the Relative Pronoun

 * 1) Virum videt (he/she sees) qui servum (servant) habet (he/she has).
 * He sees the man who has a slave
 * 1) Ille est vir cujus servus est malus.
 * That's the man whose slave is bad.
 * 1) Quis eum videt?
 * Who sees him?

Declension of hic, haec, hoc (meaning "this")
N.B. Hic as an adverb that means 'here'. N.B. Hic can also be used as a pronoun.

title: Latin/Lesson 6-Pronouns


text:
Vietnamese/Version history

This is a history of the changes that this textbook has gone through:

23 December 2003

 * Vietnamese Wikibook started.

Version numbers will be in the form majorRelease#. minorRelease#. revision#, and drafts will be 0. x versions (sort of like beta versions).

title: Vietnamese/Version history


text:
Thomas Oldham

Thomas Oldham (4 May 1816, Dublin – 17 July 1878, Rugby) was an Anglo-Irish geologist.

He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin and studied civil engineering at the University of Edinburgh as well as geology under Robert Jameson.

In 1838 he joined the ordnance survey in Ireland as a chief assistant under Joseph Ellison Portlock who was studying the geology of Londonderry and neighbourhood. Portlock wrote of him whenever I have required his aid … I have found him possessed of the highest intelligence and the most unbounded zeal

He discovered radiating fans shaped impressions in the town of Bray in 1840. He showed this to the English palaeontologist Edward Forbes, who named it Oldhamia after him. Forbes declared them to be bryozoans, however later workers ascribed it to other plants and animals. For a while these were considered the oldest fossils in the world.

He became Curator to the Geological Society of Dublin, and in 1845 succeeded John Phillips, nephew of William Smith, in the Chair of Geology at Trinity College, Dublin. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1848.

He married Louisa Matilda Dixon of Liverpool in 1850. He resigned in November that year and took a position as the first Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India. He was to be the first of the Irish geologists to migrate to the Subcontinent. He was followed by his brother Charles, William King Jr., son of William King the Professor of Geology at Queen's College, Galway; Valentine Ball and more than 12 other Irish geologists.

In India he oversaw a mapping program that focussed on coal bearing strata. The team of geologists made major discoveries. Henry Benedict Medlicott coined the term "Gondwana Series" in 1872. Oldham's elder son Richard Dixon Oldham distinguished three types of pressure produced by earthquakes: now known as P (compressional), S (shear), and L (Love)-waves, based on his observations made after the Great Assam Earthquake of 1897. Richard showed in 1906 the arrival patterns of waves and suggested that the core of the earth was liquid. His younger son Henry became a reader in geography at King's College, Cambridge.

He also started the Paleontologia Indica, a series of memoirs on the fossils of India. For this work he recruited Ferdinand Stoliczka from Europe.

Oldham resigned from his position in India in 1876 on the grounds of poor health and retired to Rugby in England. In recognition of his lifetime's "long & important services in the science of geology", including Palaeontographica Indica, he was awarded the Royal Society's Royal Medal. He died in Rugby on 17 July 1878.

title: Thomas Oldham


text:
simo

Pronoun

 * 1)  yours

Determiner

 * 1)  yours

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1)  cement

Etymology
From, from.

Adjective

 * 1)  snub-nosed

Etymology
.

Adverb

 * 1)  hither, here, this way

Verb

 * 1) ; it is not inside there

Noun

 * 1) state, condition, status

title: simo


text:
US History/Civil War

Causes of the Civil War
There are several fundamental causes of the civil war, most of which were related to the south's use of slavery. These include the election of Abraham Lincoln without a single southern electoral college vote. The rise of the Republican party which was opposed to the westward expansion of slavery. The south wanted to protect the rights of their states to determine how they could treat slaves free of federal interference. The northern and southern economies were vastly different, mainly as a result of the south's use of slavery compared to the north's use of free labor which encouraged industrialization.

A geographical line has been drawn across the Union, and all the States north of that line have united in the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States, whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery.

He is to be entrusted with the administration of the common Government, because he has declared that that "Government cannot endure permanently half slave, half free" and that the public mind must rest in the belief that slavery is in the course of ultimate extinction.

Dixie's Constitution
By the end of March, 1861, the Confederacy had created a constitution and elected its first and only president, Jefferson Davis. The Constitution of the Confederate States of America was the supreme law of the Confederate States of America, as adopted on March 11, 1861 and in effect through the conclusion of the American Civil War. The Confederacy also operated under a Provisional Constitution from February 8, 1861 to March 11, 1861.

In regard to most articles of the Constitution, the document is a word-for-word duplicate of the United States Constitution. The original, hand-written document is currently located in the University of Georgia archives at Athens, Georgia. The major differences between the two constitutions was the Confederacy's greater emphasis on the rights of individual member states, and an explicit support of slavery.

Fort Sumter and the Beginning of the War
Several federal forts were seized and converted to Confederate strongholds. By the time of Lincoln's inauguration only two major forts had not been taken. On April 11, Confederate General P. G. T. Beauregard demanded that Union Major Robert Anderson surrender Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Sumter had a strategic position on an island defending Charleston's harbor. The supplies of the besieged forts would only last a few weeks. The Union sent ships to resupply the fort, but they were held off by Confederate ships. Beauregard's troops surrounded the fort and opened fire. A tremendous cannon firefight remarkably claimed no casualties. By April 14, Anderson was forced to surrender the fort. The first casualties of the War occurred after the surrender: while the fort flag was being lowered, a Union cannon misfired.

The next day, President Lincoln declared that the US faced a rebellion. Lincoln called up state militias and requested volunteers to enlist in the Army. In response to this call and to the surrender of Fort Sumter, four more states seceded; Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The Civil War had begun.

Each side determined its strategies. The Confederate leadership felt that its army only needed to defend itself to gain independence. By its tactical strengths and its material shortages, it created what Jefferson Davis named an "offensive defensive" strategy. It would strengthen its defense posture, when conditions were right, by occasional offensive strikes into the North. However, three people who had important roles in Confederate plans had different strategies. While President Davis argued for a solely defensive war, General Robert E. Lee asserted they had to fight the Union head on, and General Thomas Jackson claimed they needed to invade the Union's important cities first and defeat the enemy to reclaim the cities.

The strategy of aging Union General Winfield Scott became popularly known as the Anaconda Plan. Named for the South American snake that strangles its victims to death, the plan aimed to defeat the Confederacy by surrounding it on all sides with a blockade of Southern ports and the swift capture of the Mississippi River.

First Battle of Bull Run and the Early Stages of the War
Four slave states remained in the Union; Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. The four border states were all important, and Lincoln did not want them to join the Confederacy. Missouri controlled parts of the Mississippi River, Kentucky controlled the Ohio river, and Delaware was close to the important Pennsylvania city of Philadelphia. Perhaps the most important border state was Maryland. It was close to the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia, and the Union capital of Washington was located between pro-Confederate sections of Maryland and seceded Virginia. Lincoln knew he had to be cautious if he did not want these states to join the Confederacy. But after the Battle of Fort Sumter, all of these states except for Maryland joined the South.

Both sides had strengths and weaknesses. The North had a greater population, more factories, more supplies, and more money than the South. The South had more experienced military leadership, better-trained armies, and the advantage of fighting on familiar territory. Robert E. Lee is an example of the leadership the South relied upon. Before the Civil War, President Lincoln asked him to lead the Union army. Even though Lee was himself against slavery, he followed the people of his home state of Virginia into succession.

Support for secession and the war was not unanimous in the Confederacy, and all of the southern states provided substantial numbers of troops for the Union armies. Moreover, the presence of slavery acted as a drain of southern manpower, as adult males who might otherwise join the army were required to police the slaves.

On July 21, 1861, the armies of General Beauregard and Union General Irvin McDowell met at Manassas, Virginia in the Battle of Bull Run. Here the North originally had the upper hand, but Confederate General Thomas Jackson and his troops blocked Northern progress. Jackson's men began to retreat but Jackson stayed, standing "as a stone wall" (he was hereafter nicknamed "Stonewall Jackson"). As Confederate reinforcements arrived, McDowell's army retreated in confusion and was totally defeated. Before this, the North had nurtured a hope of quick victory over the Confederacy. The loss killed that hope. Though the Confederates achieved victory, General Beauregard did not chase stragglers of the defeated Union Army. Angered by this, Davis replaced him with General Robert E. Lee. Northern general McDowell's defeat by Confederates caused his replacement by George McClellan.

Early Southern victories raised the complete defeat of the Union. The Confederacy appointed two representatives to the United Kingdom and France. Both traveled to Europe on a British ship, the RMS Trent. A Union Captain, Charles Wilkes, seized the Trent and forced the Confederate representatives to board the Union ship. This seizure violated the neutrality of the United Kingdom. The British demanded apologies, and Lincoln eventually complied, even releasing the Confederate representatives. If he had failed to do so, the United Kingdom would have had an excuse to join with the Confederacy against the Union. Factories in the North of England depended upon Confederate cotton, and their neutrality was not assured.

Technology
The Civil War was affected by technological innovations that changed the nature of battle. The most lethal change was the introduction of rifling to muskets. In previous wars, the maximum effective range of a musket was between 70 to 110 meters. Muskets, which were smooth bore firearms, weren't accurate beyond that. Tactics involved moving masses of troops to musket range, firing a volley, and then charging the opposing force with the bayonet, which is a sword blade attached to a firearm. However, a bullet from an aimed rifled musket could hit a soldier more than 1300 meters away. This drastically improved any defense. Massed attacks were easier to stop from a longer distance. The standardization of the rifle during the revolutionary war was extended to these new armaments, and to other military supplies.

Some other key changes on land dealt with logistics -- the art of military supply -- and communications. By 1860, there were approximately 30,000 miles of railroad track, mostly in the Northern states. The railroads meant that supplies need not be obtained from local farms and cities, and that armies could operate for extended periods of time without fear of starvation. The advances in food preservation created during the Napoleonic Wars brought a wider variety of food to the soldier. In addition, armies could be moved across the country within days, without marching. Doctors could move to the wounded.

The telegraph is the third of the key technologies that changed the nature of the war. Washington City and Richmond, the capitals of the two opposing sides, could stay in touch with commanders in the field, passing on updated intelligence and orders. President Lincoln used the telegraph frequently, as did his chief general, Halleck, and field commanders such as Grant.

At sea, the greatest innovation was the introduction of ironclad warships. In 1862, the Confederate Navy built the CSS Virginia on the half-burned hull of the USS Merrimack. This ship, with iron armor, was impervious to cannon fire that would drive off or sink a wooden ship. The Virginia sank the U.S. frigate Cumberland. It might have broken the blockade of the Federal fleet if it had not been for the arrival of the ironclad USS Monitor, built by Swedish-American John Ericsson. The two met in May 1862 off Hampton Roads, Virginia. The battle was a draw, but this sufficed for the Union to continue its blockade of the Confederacy. The Virginia'had retreated into a bay where it could not be of much use, and the Confederacy later burned it to prevent Union capture.

The U.S. Civil War introduced the first American railroad artillery; a successful submarine; a "snorkel" breathing device; the periscope for trench warfare; field trenches, land-mine fields, and wire entanglements, as battles began to take place for days at a time; American use of flame throwers and naval torpedoes; aerial reconnaissance, using hot-air balloons and cameras, and antiaircraft fire; resultant camouflage and blackouts; repeating rifles; telescopic sights for rifles for the aid of snipers, fixed ammunition, and long-range rifles for general use; electronic exploding bombs and torpedoes; revolving gun turrets on boats; and a workable machine gun. As part of the organization of men and materiel, the Civil War introduced foreign social innovations such as incorporation of female and civilian support in the Northern Sanitation Fairs, an organized medical and nursing corps with bandages, opium, and other anesthetics, hospital ships, and an army ambulance corps. To supply newspapers and magazines, with their sophisticated new engraving devices, there arose a wide-range corps of press correspondents in war zones. New aids in communication included the bugle call, "Taps," and other new calls, and the wigwag signal code in battle. To enable the federal prosecution of the war, the North inaugurated American conscription, legal voting for servicemen, The U.S. Secret Service, the income, withholding, and tobacco (cigarette) taxes, and the Medal of Honor. The Southern forces created a Confederate Department of Justice. The North created the first U.S. Navy admiral. Both sides commissioned Army Chaplains. The North commissioned African-American fighters, and its first African-American U.S. Army Officer, Major M.R. Delany.

Shiloh and Ulysses Grant
While Union military efforts in the East were frustrated and even disastrous, the war west of the Appalachians developed differently, resulting in the first significant battlefield successes for the North.

On the border between the Union and Confederacy, Kentucky was divided in its sentiments toward the two sides and attempted political neutrality. By the autumn of 1861, the Kentucky state government decided to support the Union, despite its being a slave state. Its indecision and the divided loyalties of its population directed the course of military operations in the West; neither North or South wished to alienate Kentucky.

Below the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers where the Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri borders come together, Union Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant, under command of Major General Henry W. Halleck, conducted a series of operations that would bring him national recognition. It was just across the Mississippi from Kentucky in Columbus, Missouri that Grant fought his first major battle.

The western campaigns continued into 1862 under Halleck's overall direction with Grant continuing into Western Tennessee along the Mississippi. In February, Grant attacked and captured the Tennessean Fort Donelson, providing a significant victory for the North.

About two months after the victory at Fort Donelson, Grant fought an even more important battle at Shiloh. Confederate generals A. S. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard made a surprise attack on the Union army. Though the initial attack was successful, the Union made a counter-attack and the Confederates were defeated.

After the Union took Fort Donelson, Grant wanted to push onto into Charleston and Memphis, perhaps gaining control of the Eastern railroad and supply line. But General Helleck vetoed their proposal.

Grant's troops killed Confederate General Albert Johnston and defeated the Confederate troops, but at a steep price. Approximately thirteen thousand Union soldiers and eleven thousand Confederate soldiers died, and Grant lost a chance of capturing the West quickly.

Peninsular Campaign
General Stonewall Jackson was nearing Washington. To prevent Jackson from invading, Union General George McClellan left over fifty thousand men in Washington. Yet Jackson's threat was deceptive, as he did not even have five thousand men in his army. McClellan's unnecessary fear forced him to wait over half a year before continuing the war in Virginia, allowing enough time for the Confederates to strengthen their position and earning him the nickname "Tardy George. Jackson's deception had a further effect in the Peninsular Campaign, the Union attempt to take the Confederate capital Richmond without the aid of the force remaining in Washington. (The Union strategy for a quick end to the war was capturing Richmond, which was close to Washington.)

In early April 1862, McClellan's troops began the Campaign, traveling over sea to the peninsula formed by the mouths of the York and James Rivers. This spit of land included Yorktown and Williamsburg and led straight to Richmond. By late May, McClellan was a few miles from Richmond, when Robert E. Lee took control of one of the Confederate Armies. After several victorious battles, it seemed as if McClellan could march to Richmond. But he refused to attack without reinforcements, which he saw as necessary to defeat Jackson's illusory troops. The forces he wanted were instead defending Washington. During the last week of June, Confederate General Robert E. Lee started the Seven Days' Battles that forced McClellan to retreat. By July, McClellan had lost over fifteen thousand men: there was little consolation in the fact that Lee had lost even more.

Other important skirmishes occurred in the course of the Peninsular Campaign. Flag Officer David Farragut of the Union Navy easily took control of the Mississippi River when he captured the key port of New Orleans in April, providing a key advantage to the Union and depriving the Confederacy of the river. The North raised a blockade around the ports of the South, cutting off dry goods such as shoes and vastly increasing inflation. (Although the Confederates produced raw materials, they did not have the industrial wherewithal to finish them -- for example, the cotton mills in the North and abroad -- or the railroads to fully distribute them.)

Second Bull Run and Antietam

A new Union Army was organized at the same time under General John Pope. Pope attempted to join his army with McClellan's to combine their strengths. Stonewall Jackson headed this off by surrounding Pope's Army in Manassas, which the North called the Second Battle of Bull Run. Both sides fought on August 29, and the Confederates won against a much larger Union force.

Pope's battered Army did eventually combine with McClellan's. But the Second Battle of Bull Run had encouraged General Lee to invade Maryland. In Sharpsburg, Maryland, McClellan and Lee led their armies against each other. On September 17, 1862, the Battle of Antietam (named for a nearby creek) led to the deaths of over ten thousand soldiers from each side; no other one-day battle led to more deaths in one day. This day is called "Bloodiest day of American History". McClellan's scouts had found Lee's battle plans with a discarded packet of cigars, but he did not act on the intelligence immediately. The Union technically won the Pyrrhic victory; McClellan lost about one-sixth of his Army, but Lee lost around one-third of his. Even though they could march and end the war, McClellan didn't go forward because he thought he's already lost too many soldiers. This was the victory needed for Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, so that it did not appear as an act of desperation.

The Emancipation Proclamation
General McClellan seemed too defensive to Lincoln, who replaced McClellan with General Ambrose Burnside. Burnside decided to go on the offensive against Lee. In December 1862, at Fredricksburg, Virginia, Burnside's Army of the Potomac assaulted built-up Confederate positions and suffered terrible casualties to Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The Federal superiority in numbers was matched by Lee's use of terrain and modern firepower. "Burnside's Slaughter Pen" resulted in over ten thousand Union casualties, as the North used Napoleonic tactics against the South's carbines. Burnside then again attempted to capture Richmond, but was foiled by winter weather. The "Mud March" forced the Army of the Potomac to return to winter quarters.

President Lincoln liked men who did not campaign on the abolition of slavery. He only intended to prevent slavery in all new states and territories. On the 22nd of August, 1862, Lincoln was coming to the decision that abolishing slavery might help the Union, in a letter from that time he wrote "My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could do it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.". Doing so would especially disrupt the Confederate economy. In September, 1862, after the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln and his Cabinet agreed to emancipate, or free, southern slaves. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in rebel states "forever free."

The constitutional authority for the Emancipation Proclamation cannot be challenged. The Proclamation did not abolish slavery everywhere; it was restricted to states "still in rebellion" against the Union on the day it took effect. The Proclamation, technically, was part of a military strategy against states that had rebelled; this was to prevent internal conflict with the border states. Still, all the border states except Kentucky and Delaware had abolished slavery on their own. Naturally, the proclamation had no way of being enforced: the Executive in the form of military action was still trying to force the Confederacy to rejoin. Nonetheless, many slaves who had heard of the Proclamation escaped when Union forces approached.

The Proclamation had another profound effect on the war: it changed the objective from forcing the Confederacy to rejoin the Union to eliminating slavery throughout the United States. The South had been trying too woo Great Britain (which relied on the South's agricultural exports, especially cotton, for manufacturing) into an alliance; now all hopes for one were eliminated. Great Britain was firmly against the institution of slavery, and it had been illegal throughout the British Empire since 1833. In fact, some slaves freed via the Underground Railroad were taken to Britain, since it was safe from bounty hunters. (Canada was too close to the U.S. for some).

Although the Union did not at first accept black freedmen for combat, it hired them for other jobs. When troops became scarce, the Union began enlisting blacks. At the end of the war, the 180,000 enlisted blacks made up about 10% of the Union Army, and 29500 enlisted blacks to Navy. Until 1864, the South refused to recognize captured black soldiers as prisoners of war, and executed several of them at Fort Pillow as escaped slaves. Lincoln believed in the necessity of black soldiers: in August 1864, he said if the black soldiers of the Union army all joined the Confederacy, "we would be compelled to abandon the war in three weeks."

Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville

In 1863, Lincoln again changed leadership, replacing Burnside with General Joseph Hooker. Hooker had a reputation for aggressiveness; his nickname was "Fighting Joe". From May 1 to May 4, 1863, near Chancellorsville, Virginia, General Lee, again outnumbered, used audacious tactics — he divided his smaller force in two in the face of superior numbers, sending Stonewall Jackson to the Union's flank, and defeated Hooker. Again, the Confederacy won, but at a great cost. Shortly after the battle of Chancellorsville, Stonewall Jackson was accidentally shot by Confederate soldiers who didn't recognize him in the poor evening light, dying soon after.

Vicksburg

The North already held New Orleans. If it could control the entire Mississippi River, it could divide the Confederacy in two, making Confederate transportation of weapons and troops more difficult. Vicksburg and Fort Hudson were major Confederate ports. General Scott's "Anaconda Plan" was based on gaining control of the Mississippi.

The city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, was located on high bluffs on the eastern bank of the river. At the time, the Mississippi River went through a 180-degree U shaped bend by the city. (It has since shifted course westward and the bend no longer exists.) Guns batteries there prevented Federal steamboats from crossing. Vicksburg was also on one of the major railroads running east-west through the Confederacy. Vicksburg was therefore a key point under Confederate control.

Major General Ulysses Grant marched on land from Memphis, Tennessee, while General William Tecumseh Sherman and his troops traveled by water. Both intended to converge on Vicksburg. Both failed, at least for the time being. In December, 1862, Grant's supply line was disrupted, and Sherman had to attack alone.

Since Vicksburg had not fallen to a frontal assault, the Union forces made several attempts to bypass Vicksburg by building canals to divert the Mississippi River, but these failed.

Grant decided to attack Vicksburg again in April. Instead of approaching from the north, as had been done before, his army approached Vicksburg from the south. Grant's Army of Tennessee crossed from the West bank to the East at Big Bluff on April 18, 1863. Then, in a series of battles, including Raymond and Champion's Hill, defeated Southern forces coming to the relief of Confederate general Pemberton. Sherman and Grant together besieged Vicksburg. Two major assaults were repelled by the defenders of Vicksburg, including one in which a giant Union land mine was set off under the Confederate fortifications.

From May to July, Vicksburg remained in Confederate hands, but on July 3, 1863, one day before Independence Day, General Pemberton finally capitulated. Thirty thousand Confederates were taken prisoner, but released after taking an oath to not participate in fighting the United States unless properly exchanged (a practice called parole).

This victory cut the Confederate States in two, accomplishing one of the Union total war goals. Confederate forces would not be able to draw on the food and horses previously supplied by Texas.

This victory was very important, giving the Union control of the whole Mississippi River and effectively splitting the Confederacy. Confederate forces were now deprived of food and supplies from Texas.

Background
At the same time as the opening of the Vicksburg Campaign, General Lee decided to march his troops into Pennsylvania. He had three reasons for doing this. He intended to win a major victory on Northern soil, increasing Southern morale, encouraging Northern peace activists sympathetic to the South (the "Copperheads"), and increasing the likelihood of political recognition by England and France. His hungry, poorly shod army could raid supplies from the North, reducing the burden on the Confederate economy. And he intended to encroach upon the Northern capital, forcing the recall of Federal troops from the Western Theater and easing some of the pressure on Vicksburg.

Keeping the Blue Ridge Mountains between him and the Federal army, Lee advanced up the Shenandoah Valley into West Virginia and Maryland before finally marching into South-Central Pennsylvania. Meanwhile, the Union forces moved north on roads to Lee's east, without the latter's knowledge. His cavalry commander and chief scout, Jeb Stuart, had launched a raid eastward to "ride around" the Union army. On July first, 1863, Confederate Division Leader Henry Heth's soldiers ran into John Buford's Federal cavalry unit west of the city of Gettysburg. Buford's two brigades held their ground for several hours, until the arrival of the Union 1st Corps, and then withdrew through the town. The Confederates occupied Gettysburg, but by then the Union forces had formed a strong defensive line on the hills south of the town.

The Battle

For the next three days, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia faced the Union Army of the Potomac, now under the command of General George G. Meade, a Pennsylvanian who replaced Hooker, who had resigned as commander. (Hooker was given a corps command in the Army of the Cumberland, then in eastern Tennessee, where he performed satisfactorily for the remainder of the war.)

South of Gettysburg are high hills shaped like an inverted letter "J". At the end of the first day, the Union held this important high ground, partially because the Confederate left wing had dawdled moving into position. One July 2, Lee planned to attack up Emmitsburg Road from the south and west, hoping to force the Union troops to abandon the important hills and ridges. The attack went awry, and some Confederate forces, including Law's Alabama Brigade, attempted to force a gap in the Federal line between the two Round Tops, dominant heights at the extreme southern end of the Union's fish hook-shaped defensive line. Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, commander of the 20th Maine Regiment, anchored this gap. He and the rest of his brigade, commanded by Colonel Strong Vincent, held the hill despite several hard-pressed attacks, including launching a bayonet charge when the regiment was low on ammunition.

Meanwhile, north of the Round Tops, a small ridge immediately to the west of the Federal line drew the attention of Union General Daniel Sickles, a former New York congressman, who commanded the Third Corps. He ordered his corps to advance to the peach-orchard crested ridge, which led to hard fighting around the "Devil's Den," Wheatfield, and Peach Orchard. Sickles lost a leg in the fight.

Pickett's Charge

On the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, Lee decided to try a direct attack on the Union and "virtually destroy their army." Putting Lieutenant General James Longstreet in charge of the three-division main assault, he wanted his men, including the division of Major General George Pickett, to march across a mile and a half up a gradual slope to the center of the Union line. Lee promised artillery support, but any trained soldier who looked across those fields knew that they would be an open target for the Union soldiers--much the reverse of the situation six months before in Fredericksburg. However, the choice was either to attack or withdraw, and Lee was a naturally aggressive soldier.

By the end of the attack, half of Longstreet's force was dead, wounded or captured and the position was not taken. George Pickett never forgave Lee for "slaughtering" his men. Pickett's Charge, called the "High Water Mark of the Confederacy," was practically the last hope of the Southern cause at Gettysburg.

Aftermath & The Gettysburg Address
Lee withdrew across the Potomac River. Meade did not pursue quickly, and Lee was able to reestablish himself in Virginia. He offered to Confederate President Jefferson Davis to resign as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, saying, "Everything, therefore, points to the advantages to be derived from a new commander, and I the more anxiously urge the matter upon Your Excellency from my belief that a younger and abler man than myself can readily be attained." Davis did not relieve Lee; neither did Lincoln relieve Meade, though he wrote a letter of censure, saying "Again, my dear general, I do not believe you appreciate the magnitude of the misfortune involved in Lee's escape. He was within your easy grasp, and to have closed upon him would, in connection with our other late successes, have ended the war. As it is, the war will be prolonged indefinitely."

The battle of Gettysburg lasted three days. Both sides lost nearly twenty-five thousand men each. After Gettysburg, the South remained on the defensive.

On November 19, 1863 Lincoln delivered his most famous speech in the wake of this battle. The Gettysburg Address is often cited for its brevity (it followed a two-hour speech by Edward Everett) and its masterful rhetoric. As with other early Republican documents, it placed its justification in the Founding Fathers. Unlike them, it did not place the justification of emancipation in the Constitution, but in the Declaration of Independence: "All men are created equal."

Black Americans and the Civil War
The view of the Union towards blacks had changed during the previous two years. At the beginning of hostilities, the war was seen as an effort to save the Union, not free slaves. Several black slaves who reached Federal lines were returned to their owners. This stopped when Major General Benjamin F. Butler, a New Jersey lawyer and prominent member of the Democratic party, announced that slaves, being the property of persons in rebellion against the United States, would be seized as "contraband of war" and the Fugitive Slave Act could not apply. "Contrabands" were, if not always welcome by white soldiers, not turned away.

However, as the struggle grew more intense, abolition became a more popular option. Frederick Douglas, a former slave, urged that the war aim of the Union include the emancipation of slaves and the enlistment of black soldiers in the Union Army. This was done on a nationwide basis in 1863, though the state of Massachusetts had raised two regiments (the 54th and 55th Massachusetts) before this.

The 54th Massachusetts Regiment was the first black regiment recruited in the North. Col. Robert Gould Shaw, the 25 year old son of very wealthy abolitionist parents, was chosen to command. On May 28, the well equipped and drilled 54th paraded through the streets of Boston and then boarded ships bound for the coast of South Carolina. Their first conflict with Confederate soldiers came on July 16, when the regiment repelled an attack on James Island. But on July 18 came the supreme test of the courage and valor of the black soldiers; they were chosen to lead the assault on Battery Wagner, a Confederate fort on Morris Island at Charleston. In addressing his soldiers before leading them in charge across the beach, Colonel Shaw said, "I want you to prove yourselves. The eyes of thousands will look on what you do tonight."

While some blacks choose to join the military fight others fought by other means. An American teacher named Mary S. Peake worked to educate the freedmen and "contraband". She spent her days under a large oak tree teaching others near Fort Monroe in Virginia. (This giant tree is now over 140 years old and called Emancipation Oak). Since Fort Monroe remained under Union control this area was some what of a safe location for refugees and runaways to come to. Soon Mary began teaching in the Brown Cottage. This endeavor, sponsored by the American Missionary Association, became the basis from which Hampton University would spawn. Mary's school would house around 50 children during the day and 20 adults at night. This remarkable American died from tuberculosis on Washington's birthday in 1862.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis reacted to the raising of black regiments by passing General Order No. 111, which stated that captured black Federal soldiers would be returned into slavery (whether born free or not) and that white officers who led black soldiers would be tried for abetting servile rebellion. The Confederate Congress codified this into law on May 1, 1863. President Lincoln's order of July 30, 1863 responded: It is therefore ordered that for every soldier of the United States killed in violation of the laws of war, a rebel soldier shall be executed; and for every one enslaved by the enemy or sold into slavery, a rebel soldier shall be placed at hard labor on the public works and continued at such labor until the other shall be released and receive the treatment due to a prisoner of war.

Eventually the Federal forces had several divisions' worth of black soldiers. Their treatment was not equal to white soldiers: at first, for example, black privates were paid $10 a month, the same as laborers, while white privates earned $13 a month. In addition, blacks could not be commissioned officers. The pay difference was settled retroactively in 1864.

The issue of black prisoners of war was a continual contention between the two sides. In the early stages of the war, prisoners of war would be exchanged rank for rank. However, the Confederates refused to exchange any black prisoner. The Union response was to stop exchanging any prisoner of war. The Confederate position changed to allowing blacks who were born free to be exchanged, and finally to exchange all soldiers, regardless of race. By then, the Federal leadership understood that the scarcity of white Confederates capable of serving as soldiers was an advantage, and there were no mass exchanges of prisoners, black or white, until the Confederate collapse.

Chickamauga and Chattanooga
In September 1863, Union Major General William Rosecrans decided to attempt the takeover of Chattanooga, a Confederate rail center in the eastern part of Tennessee. Controlling Chattanooga would provide a base to attack Georgia. The Confederates originally gave up Chattanooga, thinking that they could launch a devastating attack as the Union Army attempted to take control of it. Rosecrans did not, in the end, fall into such a trap. However, on November 23, 1863, the Union and Confederate Armies met at Chickamauga Creek, south of Chattanooga, upon which a rail line passed into Georgia.

The battle of Chickamauga was a Confederate victory. The Army of the Cumberland was forced to withdraw to Chattanooga, but Union General George Thomas, "the Rock of Chickamauga," and his troops prevented total defeat by standing their ground.

After Rosecrans withdrew to Chattanooga, the Confederates under General Braxton Bragg decided to besiege the city. Rosecrans was relieved of command; Lincoln's comment was that he appeared "stunned and confused, like a duck hit on the head." Meanwhile, by great effort, the Federal forces kept a "cracker line" open to supply Chattanooga with food and forage. Ulysses Grant replaced Rosecrans.

Grant's forces began to attack on November 23, 1863. On November 24 came the Battle of Lookout Mountain, an improbable victory in which Union soldiers, without the initiative of higher command, advanced up this mountain, which overlooks Chattanooga, and captured it. One of the authors of this text had an ancestor in the Confederate forces there; his comment was when the battle started, he was on top of the hill throwing rocks at the Yankees, and when it was over, the Yankees were throwing rocks at him.

By the end of November, Grant and his troops had pushed the Confederates out of East Tennessee and begun operations in Georgia.

Ulysses Grant As General-in-Chief
Lincoln recognized the great victories won by Ulysses Grant. In March, 1864, the President made Grant the general-in-chief of Union Forces, with the rank of Lieutenant General (a rank only previously held by George Washington). Grant decided on a campaign of continual pressure on all fronts, which would prevent Confederate forces from reinforcing each other.

He went east and made his headquarters with General Meade's Army of the Potomac (although Grant never took direct command of this Army). The Army of the Potomac's chief mission would be to whittle down the manpower of the Army of Northern Virginia, Lee's army. In May 1864, the two sides met in Virginia near site of the previous year's Battle of Chancellorsville. The terrain was heavily wooded and movement to attack or reinforce was particularly difficult.

During the Battle of the Wilderness, the Union lost eighteen thousand soldiers, while the Confederates lost eleven thousand. Nevertheless, the Union pushed on. The two Armies fought each other again at Spotsylvania Court House and at Cold Harbor. In each case, the Union again lost large numbers of soldiers. Grant then hatched a plan to go around rather than through the Confederate Army in order to capture Richmond. At the last second, due to a hesitation by Major General "Baldy" Smith, the Army of Northern Virginia blocked the Union troops at Petersburg. Grant then decided to siege the city (and Lee's forces) and force it to surrender; if Lee could not move, he could not help other Confederate armies.

The siege took almost one year.

Battles for Atlanta
This victory had a significant effect on the election of 1864. Without it, there might have been more support for his Copperhead opponent General McClellan.

The March to the Sea
The ultimate Union strategy emerged with six parts: blockade the Confederate coastlines, preventing trade; free the slaves, destroying the domestic economy; disconnect the Upper South from the Deep South by controlling the Mississippi River; further split the Confederacy by attacking the Southeast coast (Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina), denying access to foreign supply; capture the capital of Richmond, which would severely incapacitate the Confederacy; and engage the enemy everywhere, weakening the army through attrition.

If Richmond had indeed been captured quickly and the war had ended within a few months, the Plantation system and slavery would probably not have changed significantly. Because the South was fighting predominately in its own territory, primarily rural farmland, its soldiers could take or force food and support from the people around them. After the unsuccessful Union attacks in Virginia, Lincoln began to think about the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Union changed its strategy from a quick capture of Richmond to the destruction of the South through total war. In total war, an invading army destroys both military and non-combatant resources important to war. It can involve attacks on civilians or the destruction of civilian property. General William Sherman used total war in his March to the Sea in November and December in 1864.

Once Atlanta was taken, General Sherman and four army corps disconnected themselves from any railroad or telegraphic communications with the Union and headed through the state of Georgia. Their objective was Savannah, Georgia, a major seaport. Sherman's strategy was to inflict as much damage on the civilian population of Georgia as possible, short of killing people. To accomplish this, he issued orders to "forage liberally on the country." Many of his soldiers saw this as a license to loot any food or valuable property they could. Sherman officially disapproved of this.

Sherman's army carved a path of destruction 300 miles long and over 60 miles wide from Atlanta to the coastal city of Savannah. It destroyed public buildings and railroad tracks wherever it went. Troops heated railroad rails to white heat and twisted them around the trees, creating "Sherman's neckties." Sherman's strategy separated his forces from the main body of the Union army, yet maintained the men with food and weapons. It not only aided his regiments without supply lines -- Southern destruction of supply lines had previously halted Northern advances -- but destroyed supply caches for Confederate forces in the area as well. But this destruction combined with Southern army raids to throw non-combatants into starvation.

On his way to Savannah, Sherman did not burn down every town he passed through, choosing to spare some such as [Madison, Georgia for political reasons.

The Confederate forces were unable to take on Sherman's forces, and evacuated, leaving behind large amounts of supplies in the city of Savannah. Undefended, the historic city of Savannah surrendered to Sherman, and it was spared. He reached the city of Savannah on December 24, 1864, and telegraphed President Lincoln "I present to you the city of Savannah as a Christmas present."

Moving through the Carolinas
Sherman's forces then moved north into South Carolina, while faking an approach on Augusta, Georgia; the general's eventual goal was to coordinate his forces with those of General Grant in Virginia and entrap and destroy Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The pattern of destruction by the Union soldiers continued, often with a more personal feeling of vengeance. A Federal soldier said to his comrades, "Here is where treason began and, by God, here is where it will end!"

On February 17, 1865, Sherman's forces reached Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. After a brief bombardment, the city surrendered. However, a large stock of whiskey was left behind as the Confederates retreated. Drunken soldiers broke discipline; convicts were let loose from the city jail, and somehow fires broke out, destroying much of the city.

Spring Hill
The battle of Spring Hill was fought on November 29, 1864, at Spring Hill, Tennessee. The Confederates attacked the Union as it retreated from Columbia. The Confederates were not able to inflict significant damage to the retreating Union force. So the Union Army was still able to make it safely north to Franklin during the night. The following day the Confederates decided to follow the Union and attack a much more fortified group at the Battle of Franklin. This did not prove to be a wise decision, as the Confederates suffered many casualties.

Franklin
The Battle of Franklin was fought on November 30, 1864 at Franklin, Tennessee. This battle was a devastating loss for the Confederate Army. It detrimentally shut down their leadership. Fourteen Confederate Generals were extinguished with 6 killed, 7 wounded and 1 captured. 55 Regimental Commanders were casualties as well. After this battle the Confederate Army in this area was effectively handicapped.

Nashville
In one of the decisive battles of the war, two brigades of black troops helped crush one of the Confederacy's finest armies at the Battle of Nashville on December 15-16, 1864. Black troops opened the battle on the first day and successfully engaged the right of the rebel line. On the second day Col. Charles R. Thompson's black brigade made a brilliant charge up Overton Hill. The 13th US Colored Troops sustained more casualties than any other regiment involved in the battle.

Fort Pillow
The Battle of Fort Pillow was fought on was fought on April 12, 1864, at Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River at Henning, Tennessee. The battle ended with a massacre of surrendered Union African-American troops under the direction of Confederate Brigadier General Nathan Bedford Forrest.

The Siege of Petersburg
The Siege of Petersburg, also known as The Richmond Petersburg Campaign, began on June 15, 1864 with the intent by the Union Army to take control of Petersburg which was Virginia's second largest city and the supply center for the Confederate capital at Richmond. The campaign lasted 292 days and concluded with the occupation of Union forces on April 3, 1865. Thirty-two black infantry and cavalry regiments took part in the siege.

First Battle of Deep Bottom
The First Battle of Deep Bottom is also known as Darbytown, Strawberry Plains, New Market Road, and Gravel Hill. It was part of The Siege of Petersburg, and was fought July 27-29, 1864, at Deep Bottom in Henrico County, Virginia.

The Crater
The Battle of the Crater was part of the Siege of Petersburg and took place on July 30, 1864. The battle took place between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and the Union Army of Potomac. The battle was an unusual attempt by the Union to penetrate the Confederate defenses south of Petersburg, VA. The battle showed to be a Union disaster. The Union Army went into battle with 16,500 troops, under the direct command of Ulysses S. Grant; the Confederate Army was commanded by Robert E. Lee and entered battle with 9,500 troops. Pennsylvania miners in the Union general Ambrose E. Burnside's Ninth Corps, worked for several weeks digging a long tunnel, and packing it with explosives. The explosives were then detonated at 3:15 on the morning of July 30, 1864. Burnside originally wanted to send a fresh division of black troops against the breach, but his superiors, Ulysses S. Grant, ruled against it. The job, chosen by short straw, went to James H. Ledlie. Ledlie watched from behind the lines as his white soldiers, rather than go around, pile into the deep crater, which was 170 feet long, 60 feet across, and 30 feet deep. They were not able to escape making the Union soldiers easy targets for the Confederates. The battle was marked by the cruel treatment of black soldiers who took part in the fight, most of them were captured and murdered. The battle ended with a confederate victory. The Confederacy took out 3,798 Union soldiers, while the Union were only able to defeat 1,491 Confederate soldiers. The United States Colored Troops suffered the most with their casualties being 1,327 which would include 450 men being captured.

Second Deep Bottom
The Second Battle of Deep Bottom was fought August 14-20, 1864, at Deep Bottom in Henrico County, Virginia; it was part of the Siege of Petersburg. The battle is also known as Fussell's Mill, Kingsland Creek, White's Tavern, Bailey's Creeks, and Charles City Road. General Winfield Scott Hancock came across the James River at Deep Bottom where he would threaten Richmond, Virginia. This would also cause the Confederates to leave Peterburgs, Virginia and the trenches and Shenandoah Valley.

Appomattox
Sherman did not stop in Georgia. As he marched North, he burnt several towns in South Carolina, including Columbia, the capital. (Sherman's troops felt more anger towards South Carolina, the first state to secede and in their eyes responsible for the war.) In March 1865, Lincoln, Sherman, and Grant all met outside Petersburg. Lincoln called for a quick end to the Civil War. Union General Sheridan said to Lincoln, "If the thing be pressed I think Lee will surrender." Lincoln responded, "Let the thing be pressed."

On April 2, 1865, the Confederate lines of Petersburg, Richmond's defense, which had been extended steadily to the west for 9 months, broke. General Lee informed President Davis he could no longer hold the lines; the Confederate government then evacuated Richmond. Lee pulled his forces out of the lines and moved west; Federal forces chased Lee's forces, annihilated a Confederate rear guard defense, and finally trapped the Army of Northern Virginia. General Lee requested terms. The two senior Army officers met each other near Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia on April 9th,1865. The men met at the home of Wilmer McLean. The gathering lasted about two and half hours. Grant offered extremely generous terms, requiring only that Lee's troops surrender and swear not to bear arms till the end of the War. This meeting helped to nearly end the bloodiest war in American history.

General Sherman met with Confederate General Robert E. Lee to discuss the surrender of Confederate troops in the South. Sherman initially allowed even more generous terms than Grant. However, the Secretary of War refused to accept the terms because of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln by the Confederate John Wilkes Booth. By killing Lincoln at Ford's Theater, Booth made things worse for the Confederacy. Sherman was forced to offer harsher terms of surrender than he originally proposed, and General Johnston surrendered on April 26 under the Appomattox terms. All Confederate armies had surrendered by the end of May, ending the Civil War.

Notable Raids
The Great Locomotive Chase resulted in the first Medal of Honor being issued.

Morgan's Raid was a Confederate raid that went deep into Union territory.

Besides the Fighting
Not all the important events of the Civil War took place on the battlefield.

Petroleum Nasby
Operating under the pseudonym "Petroleum V. Nasby", journalist David Ross Locke gained a large amount of popularity by Union residents during the war, including by President Abraham Lincoln. "Petroleum V Nasby" was a mockery of Pro South Democrats, with his published letters being filled with misspellings, drunkenness, vitriol, bigotry, and a general desire to slack and grift his way to a comfy position as a postmaster.

Domestic Affairs
On April 22, 1864, the U.S. Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1864 which mandates that the inscription "In God We Trust" be placed on all coins minted as United States currency.

Dr. Rebecca Lee Crumpler becomes the first black woman to receive a medical degree in 1864.

As far back as the 1850s Whig interests had introduced three bills to Congress: a homestead act, a Pacific railroad act, and grants to establish agricultural and technical colleges. These measures were seen as remedies for the depression of 1857. Southern interests had vetoed all of them. Now Republicans took advantage of a legislature free of slave interests.

On May 20, 1862, the United States Congress passed the Homestead Act. Now any adult American citizen, or a person intending to become an American citizen, who was the head of a household, could qualify for a grant of 160 acres (67 hectares) of land by paying a small fee and living on the land continuously for five years. If a person was willing to pay $1.25 an acre, the time of occupation dwindled to six months.

The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 enabled the United States Government to make a direct grant of land to railway companies for a transcontinental railroad, as well as a payment of $48,000 for every mile of track completed and lower-than-prime rate loans for any railway company who would build such a railway. The Central Pacific and the Union Pacific began to construct lines. The two railways finally met four years after the war, in Promontory Point, Utah, in 1869.

The third major bill of these three, which established a land-grant university, is discussed below.

The Draft
The federal government started a draft lottery in July 1863. Men could avoid the draft by paying $300, or hiring another man to take their place. This caused resentment among the lower classes as they could not afford to dodge the draft. On Monday, July 13, 1863, between 6 and 7 A.M., the Civil War Draft Riots began in New York City. Rioters attacked the draft offices, the Bull's Head Hotel on 44th Street, and more upscale residences near 5th Avenue. They lynched black men, burned down the Colored Orphan Asylum on 5th Avenue between 43rd and 44th Streets, and forced hundreds of blacks out of the city. Members of the 7th New York Infantry and 71st New York Infantry subdued the riot.

Military Intelligence
Both the Union and the Confederacy operated intelligence gathering efforts during the Civil War.

A number of Women conducted Espionage during the war. Harriot Tubman was one such spy for the Union.

The Confederate Secret Service and the Confederate Signal Corps both conducted espionage for the Confederacy.

The Union intercepted a number of Confederate cipher messages during the war.

Indigenous People
While Lincoln proved to be instrumental in the emancipation of blacks, the Native Americans were not so lucky. Lincoln was responsible for the largest mass hanging in United States history. Thirty-eight Native Americans from the Santee Sioux tribe were hung on December 26, 1862. The US government failed to honor its treaties with the Indian Nations. They were supposed to supply the Indians with money and food for signing a treaty to turn over more than one million acres of land. Instead the agents kept the money and sold the food that was supposed to go the Indians to the white settlers. The food that was given to the Indians was spoiled and unfit for human consumption. Subsequently, the Indians went off the reservation in hunting parties to try to find suitable food. One of the Indian hunting groups took some eggs from a white settler's land and that caused this extreme government action. Authorities in Minnesota asked President Lincoln to order the execution of all 303 Indian males. However, Lincoln was afraid of how Europe would react so he tried to compromise. They would only execute those who were in the group. Lincoln also agreed to kill or remove every Indian from the state and provide Minnesota with 2 million dollars in federal funds. Ironically, he owed the Sioux only 1.4 million dollars for the land.

Land Grant Universities
In the Morrill Act of 1862, the government granted land to Union states to sell for funding educational institutions. This excluded the states which had seceded from the Union. The schools would teach military tactics, agriculture, and engineering. This answered the Republican campaign promise of 1860. These "Land Grant Universities" were proposed to spread small farm prosperity, as opposed to the large, inherited plantations, and to increase industrial innovations across a wider area.

1860's schoolhouses
In the 1860s, most schools were small, multiple grades were taught in one classroom at one time. Paper was expensive, and the more prosperous schools had students write their problems on individual student slates. Memorization was a common means of learning, and student knowledge was measured by oral recitation. Teachers often punished "bad children" with the dunce cap, a rap on a palm with a ruler, hitting or spanking, or even striking a child with a rod or a whip. Corporal punishment was seen as simply one way of enforcing obedience. Teacher and parent both generally agreed that obedience was the trait of good children.

Literacy
Farming was still a major form of employment in America. It had been so since the first semester, the time when students were allowed to be in school because the crops had been sown. Students worked in the fields during harvest time, and most left school for good to work on a farm. Abraham Lincoln himself, as a youth on the frontier, had had little schooling. Yet despite these brief periods of education, the reading levels were actually quite high. By the fifth grade students were sometimes reading books that we would consider college level, and Latin was still a part of many curricula.

Academies
Academies during this time provided education for children between the ages of thirteen and twenty. These academies offered an array of classes. Most of the academies kept the boys and girls separate. There were also seminaries, or private schools, which might cater to boys or girls. Girl's schools varied widely. Emily Dickinson's school, Amherst Academy, taught Mental Philosophy, Geology, Latin, and Botany. Some schools left girls idle, with not even what we would call physical education. Others taught non-intellectual, "feminine" skills such as deportment, needle craft, and perhaps arts and crafts. The Home Economics movement, inaugurated by Catherine Beecher, advocated teaching homemaking skills in school. It also promoted female physical education. In contrast, feminists such as Susan B. Anthony and Emma Willard, and reformers such as Jane Addams and Mary McLeod Bethune, wanted to expand women's education into the plane of men. These women helped establish the higher education institutions where women were able to take classes not otherwise offered to them. The first co-educational college was Oberlin College, established in 1833. The first all-women's college was Vassar College in 1861.

Questions For Review
1. What are the four principal causes of the Civil War?

2. Why did Sherman feel compelled to adopt the total war strategy in his March to the Sea? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this strategy?

3. The Morrill Act of 1862, the Homestead Act of 1862, and the Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862 and 1864: why did slave-holding Southern interests oppose their predecessors? What effect did they have?

title: US History/Civil War


text:
Hazimism

Hazimism, also referred to as the Hazimi movement or known as the hazimiyyah or Hazimi current, was an extremist current within the Ideology of Islamic State. The movement was based on the doctrines of the Saudi-born Muslim scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi, which was adopted by many Tunisian recruits in IS. Hazimis believe that those who do not unconditionally excommunicate (takfir) unbelievers are themselves unbelievers, which opponents argue leads to an unending chain of takfir." Its spread within ISIS triggered prolonged ideological conflict within the group, pitting its followers against the moderate faction led by Turki al-Binali. The movement was eventually branded as extremist by ISIS, who initiated a crackdown on its followers.

Beliefs
Contemporary Salafi-Jihadi movements base their beliefs on the teachings of theologians such as Ibn Taymiyyah and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. However, al-Hazimi asserted that the doctrines put forward by contemporary Salafi-Jihadi thinkers were not to be blindly followed; challenging the consensual authority of Ibn Taymiyyah. This outlook would completely shake the ideological foundations of the Salafi-Jihadi movement. Hazimi's doctrines were also highly influenced by the doctrines of the Egyptian militant Islamist ideologue Sayyid Qutb.

Central to Hazimism is the doctrine of takfir al-‘adhir ("excommunication of the excuser"). Wahhabi movement regards the Takfir (religious excommunication) of polytheists as a duty. As per the third "nullifier" in his treatise Nullifiers of Islam, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab writes that those who do not takfir polytheists are themselves, unbelievers, whether that is because they doubt their disbelief or otherwise. The crux of the dispute between Hazimis and Salafis, Wahhabis, Jihadis, ISIS, etc. was over the concept known as al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl (i.e, “excusing on the basis of ignorance") a belief which the Jihadis consider as a restraint on excessive takfir. To justify their claims, various Hazimi ideologues assert that Ibn Taymiyyah was against the principle of al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl in affairs of shirk (polytheism). Al-Hazimi categorically rejects al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl for matters he considers to be of "greater polytheism" (al-shirk al-akbar) and "greater disbelief" (al-kufr al-akbar), such as voting in elections, supplicating to the dead, etc. In these scenarios, al-Hazimi states that those who refuse to pronounce takfir by citing al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl are unbelievers as per the third nullifier. Although not affiliated to jihadists himself, al-Hazimi's views influenced a number of jihadists who went on to join the Daesh. These fringe elements within ISIS who adopted Hazimi's doctrines came to be known as “the Hazimis” (al-Hazimiyya, al-Hazimiyyun).

Al-Hazimi in Tunisia
Between December 2011 and May 2012, Al-Hazimi delivered four lectures in Tunisia. He was supported by the Islamic Good Society and Hay al-Khadra’ Mosques Committee. While the members of the former were arrested for financing terrorism, the latter had maintained links to Ansar al-Sharia in Tunisia (AST). With the aid of the committee, al-Hazimi founded the Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani Institute for Sharia Sciences, which promoted his teachings. His views were also amplified through AST's Facebook page.

Hazimism in ISIS
In the following years, several Tunisians who adopted al-Hazimi's views joined ISIS. During the group's infighting with the Al-Nusra Front, the Tunisians remained loyal and were rewarded with senior administrative and religious posts. With increasing influence, however, their belief in takfir al-‘adhir (excommunication of the excuser) became a source of concern for Daesh leadership. Bahraini scholar Turki al-Binali, who led the group's Office of Research and Studies, prepared a series of lectures and pamphlets against the doctrine. He argued that while al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl was invalid in instances of greater polytheism and disbelief, this does not necessarily mean that those who make excuses are disbelievers. In a tweet, he also described the belief as bidʻah (religious innovation). The Binalis, as they were later termed, also claimed the Hazimi view led to an "infinite regress of takfir" (al-takfir bi’l-tasalsul).

In March 2014, audio leaked of several high-level Hazimi officials; including the wāli of Hasakah, pronouncing takfir on the Taliban and Osama bin Laden. A separate leak showed takfir being made on Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. In late 2014, 50 Hazimis fled to Turkey while 70 were imprisoned and executed by ISIS after they made takfir on elements of its leadership which did not consider Ayman al-Zawahiri to be a disbeliever. Following their arrest, a pro-Hazimi statement surfaced describing ISIS as a "kafir jahmiyyah state". Several Hazimi cells were formed afterwards; the breakup of one in Raqqa being featured in Dabiq where they were branded as kharijites. Despite the crackdown, several groups of Hazimis remained, including one led by a certain Abu Ayyub al-Tunisi and supported by the wāli (governor) of Aleppo. In 2016, Hazimis clashed with ISIS in the vicinity of Al-Bab and Jarabulus. In an account of the incident, senior Hazimi Abu Muath al-Jazairi called ISIS the "Idols' State" and Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi the "taghut" of Syria.

In a statement published in Al-Naba in April 2017, ISIS' Central Office for Overseeing the Sharia Departments banned the discussion of al-‘udhr bi’l-jahl and takfir al-‘adhir, but warned that hesitation in takfir was inexcusable. On 17 May 2017, ISIS' Delegated Committee issued a memorandum which condemned al-takfir bi’l-tasalsul but stated that takfir was from the "foundations of the religion", rebuking those who hesitate in making it and branding them as murji'ah. Shortly afterwards, al-Binali published a response to the memorandum and claimed its intent was to placate the Hazimis. On May 31, al-Binali was killed in a coalition airstrike, followed by two other scholars who supported him. The timing was seen as suspicious by the Binalis, who accused the Delegated Committee of leaking their locations. In September 2017, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi reportedly dismissed and detained several Hazimis, reshuffling the Delegated Committee.

In 2019, Hazimi foreign fighters, including a large contingent of Tunisians, failed a two-day coup attempt against al-Baghdadi. ISIS alleged they were led by Abu Muath al-Jazairi and placed a bounty on him.

Post-ISIS
In June 2020, it was estimated there were over 100 Hazimis in the Netherlands.

title: Hazimism


text:
Talk:Walton Cardiff

I think we should delete the whole reference to the stabbing as it didn't happen in the village of Walton Cardiff which this article is about but on the Wheatpieces estate which is also (confusingly) called Walton Cardiff in its postal address. --Jjasi (talk) 13:21, 8 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I've gone ahead and moved the section to the Wheatpieces page. --Jjasi (talk) 10:42, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Walton Cardiff


text:
User:Srizuismine

Ms. Srijana Aryal born on april 30 1994, kawasoti nepal. Studied at Oxford college of engineering and management (OCEAM) BCA and secured distinction marks on her graduation. In an open relationship with Mr Ashish Acharya since 2011.

title: User:Srizuismine


text:
Ariel Armony

Dr. Ariel Armony is an Argentinian academic and the current Vice Chancellor for Global Affairs at the University of Pittsburgh. Armony is the author of numerous books on political science and Latin American studies. Armony has led University of Pittsburgh's international programs since he was named the senior director of international programs and director of the University Center for International Studies in 2014.

Early life
Armony was born and raised in Buenos Aires. He attended the University of Buenos Aires in the 1980s, working as a journalist and as a director and actor for a theatre company. He traveled to the United States to study for his master's degree in international affairs at Ohio University, and stayed in the U.S. to earn his PhD in political science from the University of Pittsburgh.

Career
Armony began to trace the role of the Argentine military in their support of counter-revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, which led to his book Argentina, the United States, and the Anti-Communist Crusade in Latin America (Ohio, 1997). The book was translated into Spanish and published by the Universidad de Quilmes in Argentina.

After serving first as professor and then as director of Latin American Studies at Colby College, Dr. Armony accepted a Fulbright scholarship to teach at Nankai University. Much of his subsequent work has focused on the role of China in Latin America. He also wrote The Dubious Link: Civic Engagement and Democratization (Stanford, 2004), which made the University Press Bestsellers List. His work has been published in a number of academic journals in the United States, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, and China.

Prior to moving to Pittsburgh, Dr. Armony was director of the University of Miami's Center for Latin American Studies, a position he held for four years. His research has been supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, Mellon Foundation, Kellogg Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the Inter-American Foundation, and the International Labour Organization, among others. In addition to his academic appointments, Dr. Armony has served as a consultant for the US State Department, Argentina's Foreign Affairs Ministry, and Honduras’ National Commissioner for Human Rights.

Selected works

 * The Global Edge: Miami in the Twenty-First Century, University of California Press, 2018, ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>111
 * The Dubious Link, Stanford University Press, 2004, ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>988
 * Argentina, the United States, and the Anti-Communist Crusade in Central America, 1977-1984, Ohio University Press, 1997, ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>967

title: Ariel Armony


text:
User:Zhon127/sandbox

= Sandbox mode. = This user has a dog. His dog is a German Shepherd.

This is the first heading
It contains some information about computers.

This is the second heading
It's much larger and has subheadings.

Such as this one
Which is the first.

And this one
Which is the second. This heading contains a list:

 * 1) Apple
 * 2) Blueberry
 * 3) Tomato
 * 4) Depending on who you ask.
 * 5) Cherry

Notably also this one
Quite notable

And this one
Incredibly notable, with a special link.

title: User:Zhon127/sandbox


text:
United States Government/Colonial Government in America

Under the Kingdom of Great Britain, the American colonies experienced five situations which would guide them in creating a constitution. The British Parliament believed that it had the right to impose taxes on the colonists; it had virtual representation over the entire empire, while the colonists believed Parliament had no such right, as they had no direct representation in Parliament. By the 1720s all but two of the colonies had a locally elected legislature and a British appointed governor. Often, these two branches of government would clash, with the legislatures imposing their "power of the purse" to control the British governor. Thus, Americans viewed their legislative branch as a guardian of their liberty, while the executive branches was deemed tyrannical.

There were several examples of royal actions that upset the Americans. For example, taxes on the importation of lead, paint, tea, paper, spirits, rum, wine, molasses, sugar, and other products were imposed at various times. Also, the Parliament provided for a duty to be paid on court documents, certificates, licenses, deeds, other legal documents, playing cards, pamphlets, books, calendars, newspapers, and other papers, as well as dice. The variety of taxes imposed, as well as other causes, led to the Americans' disdain for the British system of government.

After the Boston Tea Party, the Parliament of Great Britain and the King passed Acts that outlawed the Massachusetts legislature. The Parliament also provided for special courts in which British judges, rather than American juries, would try colonists. The Quartering Act and the Intolerable Acts required Americans to provide room and board for British soldiers. Americans especially feared British actions in Canada, where civil law was once suspended in favor of British military rule.

American distaste for the system of British government would lead to revolution. Americans had formed their own local institutions which were not British at all, but American. The political ideas of the Americans actually had their root in the British radicals of the early 18th century. England had passed beyond those ideas by 1776 and the resulting conflict resulted in the first American attempts at a national government.


text:
Wikiversity translations

Wikiversity translations is a community service project to support Wikiversity Beta and to promote Multilingualism and Interlingual discourse

Summary
The Wikiversity Beta website coordinates all of the Wikiversity projects for speakers of different languages. This coordination is guided by the Wikiversity mission that was approved by the Wikimedia Foundation.

The Wikiversity Beta website is a central location for discussion of general guidelines for all Wikiversities. The prime example:
 * The Board of Trustees has requested that the Wikiversity community develops a policy for original research during the first six months of the project. This pesents the dreaded (conceptualization) of the deadline. So where on the Wikiversity Roadmap is this presumed "dead line"? Who gives a *** ??? fig

Wikiversity Beta is an incubator for new Wikiversities in several languages. Wikiversity Beta needs help translating documents into the many different languages spoken and written by Wikiversity participants (Wikiversitans).

Likewise many documents in many languages need to be written and translated into English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Chinese, Hawaiian, Cherokee and Klingon... for this Wikiversity.

A Wikiversity Beta support network called the Interlingual Beta Club (IBC) has been framed (from the grass roots, in the spirit of your Beta Club back on Earth. (...but out here your As and Bs come from within you.)

Goals
This learning project offers learnings activities that give participants experience in performing translations. Experienced translators are providing comparitive texts, descriptions of the tools of the trade, (machine translation, computer-assisted translation, etc. ) and are there to "show you the ropes" of the Art / Science of Translation.

Right now (24 October 2006) There is a draft version of a Translator's Handbook being worked on collaboratively by the IBC and the Translation Taskforce. The new Translation learning group is starting up a three-language program to translate documents between English, German and Spanish.

Learning materials

 * Wikiversity translations/Recruiting translators
 * Wikiversity translations/Training translators

 * Topic:German Language • German deu
 * Topic:Hebrew • Hebrew he
 * Topic:English Language • English eng
 * Topic:Spanish • Spanish spa
 * add the other 6492 languages here

Activities

 * English to German, translate: Scope of research, Research, Original research, Secondary research, Project reports.

Translation requests

 * High priority German to English (source)

Ich stimme Purodha zu und möchte für eine generelle Freigabe der original research / empirischen Forschung anführen, das deren Regeln entscheidend sind: jede empirische Forschung sollte nicht nur vom Ergebnis, sondern auch von der Beschreibung der Durchführung bzw. der Herkunft der Ergebnisse so präzise dokumentiert sein, das sie eindeutig reproduziert werden kann. Umgekehrt: Ein Versuch, der aufgrund ungenauer Beschreibung nicht reproduziert werden kann, falsifiziert das Ergebnis des ersten Versuches ebenso wie ein abweichendes Ergebnis bei präziser Wiederholung. Dietrich 18:09, 12. Nov 2006 (CEST)

 * Machine translation (needs human attention!):

 * I agree Purodha and would like for a general release of the original research / research of empirical cite, that are its rules decisively: each empirical research should be documented not only by the result, but rather also by the description of the execution and/or the origin of the results so precise, unambiguously reproduced will can that it. Reversed:  An attempt, that cannot be reproduced based on inexact description, falsifiziert the result of the first attempt just as as a deviating result in precise repetition.

 * I agree with Purodha and would like to state, in general, crucially, that: each piece empirical research should contain not only the result, but also the precise documentation of execution and/or the origin of the research, so as to allow others to reproduce the results. Turned around: An attempt, which cannot be reproduced due to inaccurate description, falsifises the result, in the same way as result deviations under a more precise attempt. (translation by Hillgentleman)

 * on-going: Scope of research and related pages at Wikiversity Beta.
 * completed translations Wikiversity translations/De to En archive (please check/improve)

Interlingual collaboration
The Wikiversity Beta incubator site is coming along, but could use a lot more participation. Multilingual Studies at this version of Wikiversity is working on communicating directly with the German and Spanish Wikiversities and the main Beta incubator. We hope to establish communication lines directly with versions (those with subdomains and working interwiki links):
 * de.wikiversity.org - de:Hauptseite
 * en.wikiversity.org - Main Page
 * es.wikiversity.org - es:Portada
 * fr.wikiversity.org - fr:Accuel
 * ..next..

Other language wikiversities may exist as betas. See the nav bar at the top of Beta Wikiversity for versions under development.

 * Technical note: - For some odd reason, beta.wikiversity is not mapped into the local Interwiki map. This may be a job for the MediaWiki Project.

Parallel texts
We are developing two methods for dealing with parallel texts:
 * 1) bilingual comparative texts - A simple method by which two versions of a block of text are presented on a single page. (learning projects such as German to English, Japanese to English...)
 * 2) Topic:Multilingual Studies - A socio-technical approach to Multilingual collaboration and translation (Challenging but rewarding! See the Challenges section below)

 * We are in the process of organizing Language departments, building on the massive efforts at Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Wikibooks, Meta and many other projects inside and outside of Wikimedia. The Translation process is a strange and wonderful study for those with enough patience to pursue it. The Interlingual Beta Club and the Wikiversity Embassy are looking at the social and academic prospects for evaluating and rewarding such effort. (Again, see the Challenges section below)

Corpus linguistics
Computational linguistics combines Computer Science and Linguistics to develop a model of a natural language. As an institution, Wikiversity Proper (all versions present and future) is developing its own universal context: Keywords like these must be translated immediately for the application to function effectively across languages. The table below is concentrated on English, German, Spanish and French language articles that can be synchronized on the four established Wikiversity versions. The selected articles are about translation itself and were chosen to expedite the establishment of Multilingual Studies Divisions with native language and translation departments for fast-track translation:
 * 1) Technical context: MediaWiki-specific terminology inherited from the application — Help: Category: User: Template: Special: etc.
 * 2) Academic context: Schools, Departments, Divisions, Topics, Courses, etc.

 * Note: The Translator's Handbook has no "master" copy. Each local copy residing in the Wikiversity project space on the three established Wikiversities are "draft" versions. Once the native speakers of English, German and Spanish are satisified with their version, it goes to the Wikiversity project space at Beta for review and editing by French, Chinese, Dutch, Portuguese, Russian, Korean, Italian and many other native language users. It is a living document. Join the Interlingual Beta Club if you dare. (It's not for the faint-of-heart.)

See the Wikiversity Divisions and Departments subsection below

Taskforce objectives
To reiterate: the Local Translation Taskforce (English Language Wikiversity) is focused on a German/English/Spanish/French translation matrix. If you have translation interests and abilities beyond those four languages, please do not add language versions to translators until their subdomain resolves. (see Template_talk:Translators for more information) Please participate at Translation taskforce at Beta or Multilingualism at Meta instead.

 * Social Note: Keep in mind that it is OK to be anglocentric here at the English Language Wikiversity. Please get rid of that when you go to Wikiversity Beta.

Translation Projects
Spanish to English
 * Sugar in the times of cholera - translating an historical document from Spanish

English to French
 * Telemedicine in French-speaking Africa - help translate public health information into French.

Multilingual Studies:
 * Wikiversity the Movie/multi-lingual - create publicity materials for Wikiversity, including sound and video production.

Language orientation
English, German, Spanish and now French are primary departments, simply because those are the initial language implementations of Wikiversity. We can't stop there. These pages and the secondary ones Chinese, Dutch, Portugese and the other hundreds of languages will have an English disambiguation and Native redirects (examples: Deutsch -> German, Español -> Spanish, 中文 -> Chinese) to their proper local learning/teaching group here. English speakers who "reside" here will also follow Wikiversity fellows to other language Wikiversities where they should find an English-friendly area for Orientation. A good entry point for those who are on this learning path may be translation, which is the core module of the beta version of the Corpus mentioned above.

 * Special Note: Repeating... It is natural, acceptable and predicatable to be anglocentric here at the English Language Wikiversity. This is perceived to be the host with the most. As you learn and grow, you might consider a more circular conceptualization of the role and character of your particular language and culture.

Naming conventions
Naming conventions need to be consulted to homogonize the disambiguation pages, redirects, and language departments which point to things like German, English as a second language, Category:Spanish Language Division, German to English, Zh:中文, or Learning to speak Cherokee. This will make it easier for Non-English visitors and newcomers to find what they're looking for. See the Multilingual worksheet for more insight. discuss

Repeting...The technical context of MediaWiki requires an absolute treatment of namespaces and linkage all the way down to the case and character level. The technical aspects of interlinking contexts (not simply content) is staggering when your aim is to be inclusive. Wikiversity is, by definition non-exclusive in terms of who can participate and at what level. This culture of "liberty" (libre) is technically challenging and can be politically disturbing. Most would agree that Wikiversity is "standing upon the shoulders of giants".

 * Terms from the application — Help: Category: User: Template: Special: etc.
 * Terms from the institution — Schools, Departments, Divisions, Topics, Projects, Courses, etc.

''American Challenge: Now, translate those across Eastern and Western character sets and propogate Wikiversity to all languages and cultures without starting WWIII. Let's learn to balence convention against innovation when dealing with Naming conventions. What works "here" may not work "there" at all.''

Wikiversity Divisions and Departments
A myriad of work needs to be done:
 * 1) Translations for Wikiversity departments.
 * 2) Portal pages in every language at Wikiversity Beta.

If there is a Wikimedia project in language:X, there should be a page written in that language at Wikiversity Beta explaining what Wikiversity is and how to use Wikiversity Beta as an incubator for efforts leading to the creation of a Wikiversity domain specific protocol for language:X.

Readings
Each activity has a suggested associated background reading selection. You have the collective resources of the whole Wikimedia Foundation at your disposal. Use them!
 * Multilingualism system at Wikiversity Beta.
 * Consider your self a resident in training at The Wikiversity School of Medicine. You're on the verge of discovering a cure for Leukemia.

title: Wikiversity translations


text:
どうぞ

Etymology
From.

Adverb

 * 1)  no matter how; by all means; seriously
 * 2)  please (go ahead); help yourself; certainly you may; here you are
 * 1)  please (go ahead); help yourself; certainly you may; here you are
 * 1)  please (go ahead); help yourself; certainly you may; here you are

Interjection

 * 1)  over

title: どうぞ


text:
Blender

'''This course isn't complete, it needs some students to enroll to make sure the material written is effective, and in proper order. Please add yourself to the enrolled students section if you are interested.'''

About this Course

This course will guide you through learning how to use Blender to create your own models, animations, games, and more. It will eventually be composed of 15 weeks worth of learning material that will help you develop your skills. It is strongly reliant on the documentation found in Blender 3D: Noob to Pro as it is already a valuable resource that has been proven to help quickly advance skills in Blender.

Learning Challenges Objectives:

To first learn the basics of using the complex blender user interface and basics of 3D computer graphics using learning materials already available. Then to make available a series of challenges - gradually increasing in complexity - that allow the reader to learn how blender can be used creatively to produce astonishing graphics.

Syllabus
/Week 1/ - Learn about 3D modelling in general and become familiar with the Blender interface.

/Week 2/ - Adventure further into the blender interface. Learn how to model a house and a simple person.

/Week 3/ - Use modifiers to create a hat for your simple person. Learn about materials, textures, and halos.

/Week 4/ - Become familiar with how Blender organizes data. Model multiple objects to learn about modifiers and other tools.

/Week 5/ - Randomize size, color and position to make a virtual world look realistic

Related resources

 * Get Blender here
 * Blender for Game Graphics and Animation
 * Blender 3D at Wikibooks An extensive learning trail was established there while waiting for Wikiversity to get authorization to proceed.  It is still pretty active.
 * 3D Modelling

/External resources/ - This is a large list of Helpful tutorials, models, textures, and much more. It has been moved to its own page so that it will all fit. Please don't overlook this for information!

title: Blender