text:
Cookbook:Low-Calorie Diet

Recently, interest has been picking up in low-calorie diets, especially for their possible life-extending properties.

Studies with laboratory rats fed a nutritionally complete, yet calorie-restricted diet lived far longer than the control group which ate normal amounts. The lean rats also maintained youthful appearances and activity levels well into normal rat middle-age and had similar delays in age-related diseases.

A study of rhesus monkeys, genetically more similar to humans, is underway. Though not complete, so far the results support the findings of the earlier rat study. Many people aren't waiting for the final results, but are starting their own restricted regimens.

Kookboek/Caloriearm dieet

title: Cookbook:Low-Calorie Diet


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Spam/LinkReports/earmotion-library.de

Links

 * earmotion-library.de resolves to [//<IP_ADDRESS> <IP_ADDRESS>]
 * Link is not on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the domainredlist.
 * Link is not on the Monitorlist.
 * None of the mentioned users is on the blacklist.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.
 * Link is not on the whitelist.
 * Link is not on the monitor list.

Additions

 * Displayed all 4 additions.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Mikke Louhela

Mikke Louhela (born 29 May 1997) is a Finnish professional footballer who plays for SalPa, as a midfielder.

title: Mikke Louhela


text:
Hochstetter

Höchstetter (also as Hochstätter or Hochstetter) is a German surname. Notable persons with the surname include:

 * Astrid Hochstetter (born 1979), German figure skater
 * Christian Hochstätter (born 1963), German professional footballer
 * Ferdinand Hochstetter (1861–1954), Austrian anatomist
 * Ferdinand von Hochstetter (1829–1884), Austrian geologist

title: Hochstetter


text:
Thomas Noel (MP)

Thomas Noel (c. 1705–1788)  was a British politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1728 and 1788.

Early life
Noel was the son of Hon. John Noel and his wife Elizabeth Sherard, daughter of Bennet Sherard, 2nd Baron Sherard. He was a grandson of Baptist Noel, 3rd Viscount Campden. His father died in 1718 and his brother John on 6 January 1728 so he succeeded to the family estate at Walcot in Northamptonshire. In 1730 he established his pack of hounds, initially at Exton in Rutland and he became the first master of the Cottesmore Hunt, as they were named after he moved them to Cottesmore in 1740. As an authority on hound breeding, he published the first book on the subject in 1732.

Political career
The Noel family had represented Rutland since the middle of the sixteenth century. In 1728 Noel was elected Member of Parliament for Rutland in a by-election caused by the death of his brother who held the seat. He was re-elected unopposed at Rutland with his cousin James Noel in 1734. He did not stand at the 1741 general election.

Noel was again returned at Rutland in a by-election in 1753 after the death of James Noel. In 1754 he topped the poll in the contested election at Rutland. He married Elizabeth Chapman, daughter of William Chapman, gamekeeper at Exton and widow of his cousin Baptist Noel, 4th Earl of Gainsborough on 6 November 1756. At the 1761 election he topped the poll in the contest at Rutland again. After 1766 his attendance at parliament became irregular. He was returned unopposed at subsequent elections in 1768 and 1774. The Public Ledger wrote about him in 1779 “A very old Member of Parliament, and attends but very seldom. He is an independent man, and inclined to the minority.” He was returned at Rutland unopposed in 1780 and 1784.

Later years and legacy
Noel died on 18 June 1788, aged 83.

title: Thomas Noel (MP)


text:
Guitar/Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar

The terms lead guitar and rhythm guitar are mildly confusing, especially to the beginner. Of course, a guitar should almost always follow some sort of rhythm, whether loose or tight. Plus, many times, guitars are very prominent in a song, where it drives the music, but it's not quite lead. Plus, the lead guitarist doesn't even play a lead part, and that happens almost all the time! How can we untangle this mess?

The distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Many bands in contemporary music have two guitarists, where usually one would specialize in "lead" and the other in "rhythm". The Beatles, Dethklok, and Metallica are examples of bands who use this combination. Lead guitar means melody guitar, meaning that the lead guitarist must specialize in playing the melody of the song, so any guitar playing a solo is not a lead. Sure, a lead guitarist may get to solo, but someone cannot be called a lead guitarist simply because he/she plays a solo in a song. A lead part contributes entirely to melody (as lead guitar means melody guitar), instead of to the foundation, which is carried by the rhythm guitar. This means the rhythm guitarist is the driving source. Lead guitar uses few or no chords, although sometimes it can be following a chord structure, while rhythm guitar uses the chords to drive the music.

It is important to realize that lead guitar and rhythm guitar fit into two different parts of a band, but it just happens that they are played on the same instrument. Lead guitar provides a solo voice, and is grouped with the lead vocals, lead piano, etc. Rhythm guitar is part of the underlying rhythm section, along with instruments like bass, drums, sometimes piano, background vocals, etc. Generally speaking, the rhythm provides the groove of the song, while lead provides the melody.

However, these distinctions get fuzzy, especially when the so-called lead guitarists play chords and double-stops in their riffs. In some cases, a single guitar part provides both the melody and accompaniment (especially power chord riffs, commonly found in rock and metal, and finger picking, found in folk guitar).

Some bands (often three piece bands) feature a single guitarist who can act as either, by either assuming one role at a time or, in a recording studio, recording a lead track over their own rhythm track. For example, the band Dire Straits has been in both situations: in the early days, David Knopfler played rhythm while Mark Knopfler played lead. When David left, Mark usually played both parts on studio albums, and hired another guitarist to play rhythm for live shows. Some guitarists reached such technical proficiency that they were able to play both parts "simultaneously". A famous example of this technique is Dimebag Darrell, particularly on songs such like Walk or Breathing New Life (using an harmonizing effect pedal). The bass plays a big part like in songs such as Seven Nation Army by The White Stripes (even though there is no bass guitar in the song, it's an electric acoustic) to set the speed and tone for the song and that the lead guitarist (otherwise known as melody guitarist) in the chorus follows the bass and drums not, the bass follow the chorus player.

Playing Lead Guitar
Very often, a lead guitar part is played on an electric guitar, using moderate to heavy distortion (also known as drive or gain). For this reason, many amplifier manufacturers refer to their distortion channel as a lead channel. Distortion provides a more powerful sustain than a clean channel, and this is often best represented in extreme techniques like shredding and tapping, which some guitarists feel can only properly be done with distortion. Of course, lead guitar can be played on an acoustic guitar, but some techniques may not be as pronounced as on an electric.

The most common techniques for creating lead parts are bending, vibrato and slides. These provide the basic means of emphasizing notes, and allow for greater expression in the melody. Often the lead guitarists may employ arpeggios or sweep picking to add depth, and the progression of the solo often mirrors the underlying rhythm guitar part.

Playing Rhythm Guitar
Rhythm guitar is characterized mostly by playing chords in patterns. Some players criticize rhythm guitar as sounding "chordy", or not being as interesting as the lead part. Although rhythm guitar does not "express" as much as the lead guitar, there is so much to be learned about chords, chord progressions and rhythm patterns, and a player is limited only by their imagination.

Rhythm guitar is just as easily played on electric or acoustic, clean or distorted. The technique is less about expressing individual notes, and more about choosing chords or chord voicings that enrich the overall sound, which may add its own expressive tone to the music.

title: Guitar/Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar


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Rural Municipality of Dundurn No. 314

The Rural Municipality of Dundurn No. 314 (2016 population: ) is a rural municipality (RM) in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan within Census Division No. 11 and SARM Division No. 5. It is located in the north-central portion of the province along the South Saskatchewan River and surrounds the Town of Dundurn.

History
The RM of Dundurn No. 314 incorporated as a rural municipality on December 13, 1909.

Geography
Notable geographical features in the RM include Brightwater Lake, Blackstrap Lake, Indi Lake, Mount Blackstrap, Brightwater Creek, and Allan Hills.

Communities and localities
The following urban municipalities are surrounded by the RM.

 * Towns
 * Dundurn

 * Resort villages
 * Shields
 * Thode

The following unincorporated communities are within the RM.

 * Organized hamlets
 * Beaver Creek

The RM is also home to the Hillcrest Hutterite Colony and the Canadian Forces Ammunition Depot Dundurn Canadian Forces Base.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the RM of Dundurn No. 314 had a population of $2,101$ living in $626$ of its $657$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $2,404$. With a land area of 799.97 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

In the 2016 Census of Population, the RM of Dundurn No. 314 recorded a population of living in  of its  total private dwellings, a NaN% change from its 2011 population of. With a land area of 807.94 km2, it had a population density of in 2016.

Attractions

 * Indi Lake
 * Blackstrap Lake
 * Blackstrap Provincial Park
 * Lakeside Golf Resort
 * Otopasso MX Par
 * Circle H Ranch
 * Haultain Trinity Lutheran Church

Government
The RM of Dundurn No. 314 is governed by an elected municipal council and an appointed administrator that meets on the third Tuesday of every month. The reeve of the RM is Vacant while its Chief Administrative Officer is G. Craig Baird. The RM's office is located in the Town of Dundurn.

Moose Jaw-Lake Centre-Lanigan is the federal electoral district for the RM, which is represented by an elected member of parliament. The member of the legislative assembly represents the Arm River-Watrous provincial constituency.

title: Rural Municipality of Dundurn No. 314


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Korea

| East Asian cuisines

Introduction
The Cuisine of Korea refers to the food traditions and practices of the people of Korean Peninsula. Korean cuisine is notable for its many small side dishes, especially kimchi. Typical meals are built around the staple grain of rice and usually include at least one kimchi amongst the side dishes. Ingredients include sesame oil, doenjang (fermented bean paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, gochugaru (pepper flakes), gochujang (fermented red chili paste) and napa cabbage. Korean cuisine can be further divided into national and regional cuisines in addition to that of the Korean diaspora.

Dishes
Bulgogi (불고기) - beef (and sometimes pork) marinated in soy sauce, sesame oil, garlic and chilli pepper, cooked on a grill at the table. It is a main course, and is therefore served with rice and side dishes. Bulgogi literally means "fire beef" and is often called "Korean BBQ."

Bibimbap (비빔밥) - (literally meaning mixed rice or mixed meal) - rice topped with vegetables, beef and egg, and served with a dollop of chilli pepper paste. A variation of this dish, dolsot bibimbap, is served in a heated stone bowl, in which a raw egg is cooked against the sides of the bowl.

Euneo-Juk (은어죽) - sweetfish porridge.

Kimchi (김치) - vegetables (usually cabbage or white radish) Commonly fermented in a brine of anchovies, ginger, garlic, green onion and chilli pepper. There are infinite varieties (at least as many as there are households), which are served as side dishes.

Galbi (갈비) - ribs, either pork or beef, cooked on a portable gas burner in the centre of the table, and accompanied by rice and various side dishes.

Gimbap (김밥) - (literally seaweed rice) - rice and strips of vegetables, egg, ham and pollock, rolled in laver (seaweed) and sliced. This is a popular snack or child's lunch, similar to Japanese sushi rolls.

Naengmyeon (냉면) - (literally cold noodles) - this summer dish consists of several varieties of thin, hand-made buckwheat noodles, and is served in a large bowl with a tangy iced broth, raw julienned vegetables, and often a boiled egg and/or cold beef.

Gochujang (고추장) - (hot chilli pepper paste) is an indispensable condiment.

Songpyeon (송편) - rice cake served at Chuseok (Mid-Autumn Festival) decorated with sesames, soy beans, and chestnuts.

Pajeon (파전) - a seafood pancake (or egg roll) made with oysters, squid, shrimp, and green onions, often served with chili paste.

Dalgona Coffee (달고나 커피) - is a refreshing, cold drink which originated from South Korea.

料理本/朝鮮料理

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Korea


text:
User:Sjsharksrs/Tem

This is an "opinionised" page peppered by too much opinions. Please pardon me.

I have two favourite cities in U.S. --- San Jose, California (I am of Chinese descent, with its large Chinese population, I am naturally curious to explore this Chinese-American and high-tech "hotspot")... and Detroit, Michigan as well, for its rich history and culture.

The two articles have critisms. For San Jose, it's all about urban sprawl. For Detroit, it's about crime.

All these claims are true to a certain sense --- read the respective articles on both cities.

I think we should also say the efforts of the cities to solve their problems. I think, for the San Jose article, it is more balanced as there is a great effort behind the article that is put into the article. For now, I am more worried about the Detroit article. I would like to research more on the efforts and results on Detroit's attempt to renew growth.

That's all I would like to comment on some articles in wikipedia... I hope you would appreciate my little effort.

title: User:Sjsharksrs/Tem


text:
Prolog/Recursive Rules

This section is about using rules recursively. That is, letting a rule refer to itself. This is one of the most important mechanisms in Prolog, but it can be difficult to work with at first.

Recursive rules
Consider the following program. It shows a male line in a family tree, and defines with a rule when someone is someone's grandparent (if he's a parent of that person's parent).

What if we wanted to define when someone is an ancestor of someone else? That is, a parent, grandparent, great grandparent and so on. If we would write rules for all these situations we could define ancestor(A,B) for this particular bloodline: Clearly this is not the way to go. It's not elegant, a lot of work and most importantly, it still doesn't define ancestor properly. This may work for a bloodline with four generations, but if we were to add a fifth parent to the program, we'd need a new line for ancestor as well. What we need is a definition for ancestor that works for any line of parents, no matter how long.

To achieve this we need to think about the definition of an ancestor. In the first place, person P is person C's ancestor, if P is C's parent. Furthermore, we can say that person A is person C's ancestor if person A is a parent of an ancestor of C. This doesn't sound very useful, since we use the word ancestor in its own definition, but used together with the first statement, it becomes a complete definition.

For instance, if we were to ask ourselves if Steve is an ancestor of John, we would look at the definitions. Steve is certainly no parent of John, so that doesn't apply. Is Steve the parent of an ancestor of John? Steve is a parent of Jim, so the question becomes, is Jim an ancestor of John? Jim is a parent of David, so is David an ancestor of John? Here we can use the first definition, because David is a parent of John.

In prolog, the definition looks like this: The second rule is recursive; it uses ancestor to define ancestor. The first rule is called the stop predicate as it stops the predicate calling itself.

When faced with the query ?- ancestor(steve,john). prolog will first try line one of the definition, but won't be able to unify parent(steve, john) with any line in the database. It will then try the second line and come up with the sub-goals parent(steve, X) and ancestor(X, B). It can unify parent(steve, X) with parent(steve, jim), so prolog is left with the sub-goal ancestor(jim, john). It will continue this until it's left with the subgoal ancestor(david, john) which, using the first line of the definition, is true, because parent(david, john) is true.

Prolog is very comfortable with using recursive rules. It can very easily find all ancestors of John: Or all people that Nathan is an ancestor of:

Using recursive rules
Using recursive rules is not without its dangers, it can lead to all kinds of loops, which will usually cause stack overflows, meaning prolog has run out of memory. The following guidelines should always be kept in mind when writing recursive rules.

 * Start with your stop predicate.
 * Always put the non-recursive predicate before the recursive predicate. If you start with the recursive predicate prolog will try to search 'deeper' before seeing if it can stop recursing. In the example above, it wouldn't actually make a difference, but your program won't always be so clean and straight-forward.

 * Avoid recursion on the left
 * When writing a recursive rule, if at all possible, put the recursive rule on the right. For instance, use:

a :- b, a.

 * instead of

a :- a, b.

 * This is the same principle as the previous guideline, let prolog evaluate non recursive goals first. If you recurse before you've evaluated the other sub-goals, prolog could either get stuck in infinite recursions, or do a lot of unnecessary work. Sometimes it's necessary to put the recursive element on the left, but don't do it unless you know why you're doing it.

Examples

 * A classic example of a recursive function is the factorial function. You can see how this is implemented in the section Math, Functions and Equality. In most programming languages, you might learn recursion by writing a function fact, which took a positive integer as input, and returned a positive integer. In Prolog, since we usually use predicates instead of functions, we will instead define a predicate fact(X,Y) which is equivalent to the statement, "The factorial of X is Y." Then, to find the factorial of 7, for instance, we would use the query ?- fact(7,X). Prolog will then tell us: X=5040.

 * One thing that can easily be defined recursively is a list. In this context we'll consider a list a collection of things (elements) that are placed in some order. To define this recursively, we'll state that a list is a single element, that is followed by a list. To end the recursion we need a second statement, which says that a list is something that consists of an element. Together, these two definitions exactly define anything that is a list.
 * Lists are actually a very common structure in prolog programs, and they're used in a recursive way. The following chapter explains how.
 * Lists are actually a very common structure in prolog programs, and they're used in a recursive way. The following chapter explains how.

Exercises
prev: Rules next: Variables

Prolog/Regras recursivas

title: Prolog/Recursive Rules


text:
Algebra/Theory

The Natural Numbers
Mathematics requires, in order to avoid confusion or absurdity, an unambiguous definition of vocabulary. While this is true of any science, in mathematics this is achieved absolutely through the abstraction of concepts.

However, the full description of math as above requires time, and is nowhere elementary. Also, in order to have a true axiomization, a math built up from the roots, we will have to use the strongest, in the logical sense, statements possible. This makes them powerful for proofs but often sacrifices intuitiveness. Thus, we will concentrate on the later, only rarely using rigour, as necessary.

To do mathematics we must start by finding a way to think about numbers that is as above, unambiguous, while at the same time obvious and natural. We thus come up with the natural numbers. Intuitively, we define these as the set N = { 1, 2, 3, ... }. We will say a number is a natural number if it belongs to this set. Soon we will find this needs to be expanded even for elementary treatment, but this set alone already has some interesting properties.

If there is a set A such that if we pick an arbitrary number, call it x, and x ∈ N, we say A ⊆ N. In words, A is a subset of N.

By x ∈ A we mean that x is "in" A, or that x is an element of A.

While we have not defined properly a set, membership or inclusion, we have already a feel for what N ought to be like.

Principle of mathematical induction
Let A ⊆ N with the following properties:

(i) $$1\in A$$

(ii) $$n\in A$$ implies $$n+1\in A$$

Then A = N

Remark
The principle of mathematical induction is implied by the 'least element principle' (2.1). For, assume that 1.1 holds and let B be the set of all elements of N not in A. If B has any elements (that is, is not empty) then it must have a least one. Call this least element n. Then, by (i), $$n\ne 1$$. Thus n - 1 is a natural number and is not in B and so is in A. By (ii), $$n=(n-1)+1$$ is a natural number which is in A. But now n is in both A and B which is impossible. So B must have been empty. That is, A = N.

This serves as a fundamental property of the natural numbers, and we, further defining order, will call these numbers well-ordered, primarily because of this principle. In more rigorous terms, we would have to identify a separate axiom, called the axiom of induction, which encompasses this property. However, for our current purposes, this is sufficient.

Principle of mathematical induction (modified)
Let A be a set of natural numbers which has the following properties:

(i) The natural number $$n_0$$ is in A

(ii) If $$n\ge n_0$$ and $$n\in A$$, then $$n+1\in A$$

Then A contains all natural number $$n\ge n_0$$

Numbers
In this section, we shall describe some of the more commonly occurring types of numbers together with some of their properties.

Natural Numbers, N
As already mentioned, these are just ordinary counting numbers 1,2,3,4,...,29... . Note that zero has not been included in this set. This varies with different books or mathematicians and may include zero as a natural number.

An important property of the natural numbers is the ordering. Note that natural numbers come with an idea of size so that we can talk about larger and smaller natural numbers.

Integers, Z
By the integers, we mean the natural numbers together with their negatives and zero. Although we all, presumably, have a reasonably clear practical idea of how to work with the integers, there are definite problems as to what they actually are. Referring to such things as the 'number line' does not solve these problems because it relies heavily on our intuition.

One way that mathematicians solve this problem is to make an artificial construction which produces an artificial object with the properties we expect of the integers. Although we do not use this in everyday mathematics, it gives a precise definition which we can use to justify our use of negative numbers and also provides a model we can use when we wish to develop quite new constructions which are not so intuitively reasonable. We shall not describe this for the integers but will give a brief description next of a similar process starting with the integers and producing the rational numbers.

Rational Numbers, Q
With the integers, we have a number system which is closed under addition, multiplication and subtraction. The next step is to produce a collection numbers which is also closed under division (except by zero). This is the rational numbers. Again we should all be able to manipulate rational numbers but there is some problem with what they actually mean. For example, what does it mean to say that $$\frac{2}{3}=\frac{4}{6}=\frac{6}{9}$$? We usually want the equals sign to denote the fact that two things are identical and the symbols $$\frac{2}{3}$$ and $$\frac{4}{6}$$ are certainly not identical.

So we redefine what we mean by equality of fractions. Let us consider the set of ordered pairs of integers with the second integer non-zero; that is, $$\mathbb{Q}'=\{(x,y):a,b\in \mathbb{Z}$$ and $$b \ne 0\}$$ (An ordered pair is just a pair in which it is specified which comes first and which second.) We want these ordered pairs to represent rational numbers but on a many-to-one basis. So we redefine equality of these ordered pairs by $$(a,b)\equiv (c,d)$$ if and only if ad = bc (Read this as (a,b) is equivalent to (c,d).) This corresponds to the usual definition of equality of fractions. We can then think of one rational number as being represented by a collection of ordered pairs of integers all equivalent to each other. Two ordered pairs represent the same rational number exactly when they are equivalent. WE can then go on to define, in terms of the ordered pairs, the usual operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For example, (a,b) + (c,d) = (ad+bc,bd) We will define addition of rational numbers by taking an ordered pair for each number and then adding these ordered pairs. There is still a problem however. We need to be sure (without checking each case) that, for example, because $$(2,3)\equiv (4,6)\equiv (6,9)$$, then also $$(2,3)+(5,6)\equiv (4,6)+(5,6)\equiv (6,9)+(5,6)$$

What is order?
Again, as we try to find a way to define, based on the already established ideas of addition, and the intuitive idea of order, in what sense is a number larger than another. In what way can we arrange the numbers?

With N this is easy, we say, if a, b are natural numbers, a < b if there is a natural number c such that a + c = b. From the principle of induction, we can thus order N in the following manner: 1, 2, 3, ... As has been done before with our intuition.

With Z, we run into a problem, where do we start? Since the principle of induction does not apply on Z as a whole, we have to write it as ..., -1, 0, 1, ..., leaving "..." on both sides. However, the definition, as before, applies.

With Q, clearly $$\frac{1}{2}$$ > $$\frac{1}{3}$$, yet $$\frac{1}{6}$$ is not in N and so our definition fails. The new definition would be

Definition: (Order on Q) Let a, b be rational numbers, then a < b if there is a positive rational number c such that a + c = b.

We call a rational c positive if it is equivalent to a rational $$\frac{n}{m}$$ such that n and m are both natural. In other words, if c = $$\frac{p}{q}$$, then c is positive if pq is a natural number. A simple exercise would be to show these are equivalent. (Note: Statements are equivalent if each implies the other.)

Any set such that for each two elements in it we can definitely say a < b, a > b, or a = b is called totally ordered.

The least element property
Any non-empty subset of the natural numbers has a least element. The words 'any non-empty subset' mean that the subset we take should have at least one element in it.

Any set with the least element property is called well-ordered. Thus N is well-ordered as above, while Z and Q are not.

Order properties of natural numbers
(i) There is no largest natural number.

(ii) There are natural numbers which are nearest neighbours in the sense that there is no natural number strictly between them.

Definition
A proof is simply a mathematical argument designed to convince the reader of some fact. However an intuitive proof differs from an inductive proof. The former being a fact that can be assumed to be an observable constant from daily experiences (e.g. when two test tubes of milk are poured into one beaker, then if we divide the final volume again into the two beakers, we should get full test tubes again (almost). This explains why ½+½ will still be 1. Since this follows from intuition/observation/experience alone it can be considered an intuitive proof.). The latter, inductive proof, is of the type where many intuitive proofs can be combined to get the desired result. For example, we know that pouring two test tubes of milk gave us two units in the beaker, so if the volume of the test tube can be regarded as a unit volume, then n such test tubes will give us a total of n units of milk in the beaker. Mathematical proof itself is based on natural logic and philosophy. Modern mathematics generally assumes most proofs to be absolute, not without reason though. This allows them to engage in complex problems using purely inductive reasoning. However the basis for all that still remains natural philosophy and logic. This is reflected in Newton's title to a relatively abstract mathematical treatment of his work being titled as 'Principles of natural philosophy'.

Mathematical terms
and - 'A and B' means that both A is true and B is true

not - This has the usual meaning in English; note that not(not(A)) is the same as A

or - This is always what is called 'inclusive or'. That is 'A or B' means that either A is true or B is true or both.

for all - This has the usual meaning in English

there exists - This has the usual meaning in English

implies; if-then - These kinds of statements are at the centre of mathematical reasoning.

if and only if; equivalent - 'A implies B' and 'B implies A'

Theorem, Proposition, Lemma - They all mean roughly the same thing but are in decreasing order of importance.

Corollary - Something which follows easily from a Theorem but for which the statement is not entirely obvious from the statement of the Theorem.

Summation Notation
The summation notation is a convenient abbreviation for sums of several real numbers. If $$a_1$$,$$a_2$$,...,$$a_n$$ are reals, we define $$\sum_{k=1}^n a_k = a_1+a_2+...+a_n$$ The summation index k is often called a dummy index, as it can be replaced by any other letter: $$\sum_{k=1}^n a_k = \sum_{i=1}^n a_i = \sum_{j=1}^n a_j$$, etc. Sometimes it is convenient to start summation from 0 instead of 1, or from some other integral value. For instance, $$\sum_{k=0}^3 x_k = x_0+x_1+x_2+x_3$$, or $$\sum_{j=2}^5 j^3 = 2^3+3^3+4^3+5^3$$, etc. The most important properties of the summation notation can be summarized as

$$\sum_{k=1}^n (a_k+b_k) = \sum_{k=1}^n a_k +\sum_{k=1}^n b_k $$ (additive property)

$$\sum_{k=1}^n (ca_k) = c \sum_{i=1}^n (a_k)$$ (homogeneous property)

$$\sum_{k=1}^n a_k = \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} a_{k+1} = \sum_{k=2}^{n+1} a_{k-1}$$ (index translation)

$$\sum_{k=1}^n (a_k-a_{k-1}) = a_n-a_0$$ (telescoping)

title: Algebra/Theory


text:
Wikipedia:Files for deletion/2012 July 12

File:Red copyright.jpg

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Red copyright.jpg ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Emmanuel Harrison ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Useless file, completely unencyclopedic. Also has a bad name. Longbyte1 (talk) 01:53, 12 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Delete. Image has no encyclopedic value. Also note that it is one of two edits of the uploader, the other being the creation of a userpage. -- Тимофей ЛееСуда .  22:35, 12 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Delete per above.  Theopolisme TALK 15:32, 13 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Ugly Betty S02E04.png

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Ugly Betty S02E04.png ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Jackdyson ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Non free file upload, does not help me to understand the artice any better. — M.Mario  (T/C) 15:27, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Ugly Betty S02E06.png

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Ugly Betty S02E06.png ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Jackdyson ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Non free file upload, does not help me to understand the article any more. — M.Mario  (T/C) 15:30, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Ugly Betty S02E08.png

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Ugly Betty S02E08.png ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Jackdyson ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Non free file upload, does not serve much purpose in the aricle, does not help my understanding. — M.Mario  (T/C) 15:36, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Amazing Alex Teaser Art.png.jpg

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Amazing Alex Teaser Art.png.jpg ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Joshikamal ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

The logo was applicable before Rovio released the official Amazing Alex logo - now, this is just the coming soon logo (non free media without any perceived use). See File:Amazing_Alex_Official_Logo.png  Theopolisme TALK 19:43, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Nd Cube Logo.png

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Nd Cube Logo.png ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Hero of legend ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Want to upload a fresh, fixed version of the file, thanks. :) Hero of legend (talk) 21:50, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:Elisabeth.wild.hood.JPG

The result of the discussion was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:48, 20 July 2012 (UTC)
 * File:Elisabeth.wild.hood.JPG ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | links | [ logs]) – uploaded by Prallman ( [ notify] | contribs | uploads | upload log).

Orphan image is from an alleged art piece from The Hood Museum which was a short lived art scene. "artwork" might be copyright the original artist. There is no use for this image. -- Тимофей ЛееСуда . 22:34, 12 July 2012 (UTC)


text:
показати

Verb

 * 1) show
 * 2) instruct

Etymology
From.

Verb

 * 1)  to show, demonstrate
 * 2)  to point (with arm, finger etc.)
 * 3)  to appear

Etymology
From. Compare 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Verb

 * 1) to show
 * 2) to display, to exhibit
 * 3) to demonstrate
 * 4) to indicate, to point
 * 1) to indicate, to point

title: показати


text:
Diplomatic History/World War I

World War I marks a dramatic watershed in the history of Europe and the world. Although it started as a minor skirmish in the Balkans it soon escalated to the point that most of the world's major powers were involved in a war more destructive than any the world had ever known. The social and diplomatic consequences were enormous and felt across the world. Empires fell, political systems were severely tested, and many of the old mindsets were destroyed.

Immediate Origins
The reasons for the outbreak of war in August 1914 are diverse and varied. However, the immediate reasons for the outbreak are relatively simple. Gavrillo Princip, the member of a group working for Bosnian independence from Austria-Hungary shot the heir to the throne of that state, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife.

At the same time, many members of the Austro-Hungarian government were looking for an excuse to attack Serbia, and because of connections between the cause of Princip's slavic nationalist group and the supposed aims of the Serbian government, they felt this was the perfect excuse. They presented a list of demands to the Serbian government, which it was inclined to accept except for one demand which was expressly designed to be rejected. As a result Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

The complicating factor in this situation was the interest of Russia in the region. Due to feelings of community, known as pan-slavism, which unified the people of Russia and Serbia. Russia felt that it could not allow an attack on Serbia to go unchecked. Although they made this clear, Austria-Hungary had assurances from Germany that they would support them in the case of a Russian attack, so the leadership felt confident that they could still defeat Serbia in time to handle a Russian attack.

However, because of Russia's defence treaty with France, Germany was more concerned by France than Russia. As a result they initiated a plan to defeat France before turning to Russia that involved an attack against Belgium. In the 19th century Britain had made assurances to Belgium that it would protect Belgium's neutrality, so after the German invasion Britain also declared war on Germany.

Thus, through a series of alliances all of Europe's major powers were brought into conflict, ostensibly over the boundaries of Serbia.

title: Diplomatic History/World War I


text:
Allison Bus Series

The Allison Bus Series are medium and heavy duty automatic transmissions for transit buses and highway motorcoaches designed and manufactured by Allison Transmission. Each of the six models in the Bus Series is available in 5 or 6 speeds with an integral hydraulic retarder as an option.

History
In 2015, Allison introduced a new model in the Bus Series. Part of the xFE (extra fuel economy) line, the B3400xFE incorporates optimized gear ratios and features the FuelSense® Max electronic control package. New gear ratios also allow the torque converter to lock up at lower speeds. The xFE transmissions boast an up to seven percent improvement in fuel economy over baseline models.

, the majority of the 5,700 buses operated by the New York City Transit Authority are equipped with Allison B400 or B500 transmissions.

Models
Allison markets its transmissions by vocational series according to the intended use; for example, the Tractor Series is sold for and installed in Class 8 tractors, while the Motorhome Series is marketed to manufacturers of recreational vehicles. A transmission is given a designation specific to the vocational series, but is otherwise identical mechanically to other transmissions sold for other vocational series; for example, the Bus Series B210 / B220 / B295 transmissions are also sold with identical gearing as:

 * 1000HS (Highway Series)
 * 1000MH (Motorhome Series)
 * 1000EVS (Emergency Vehicle Series)
 * 1000RDS (Rugged Duty Series)
 * 1000PTS (Pupil Transport/Shuttle Series)
 * 1000SP (Specialty Series)
 * 1350HS/MH/EVS/RDS/PTS/SP
 * 2100HS/MH/EVS/RDS/PTS/SP
 * 2200HS/MH/EVS/RDS/PTS/SP
 * 2350HS/MH/EVS/RDS/PTS/SP

Collectively, these are grouped into the 1000/2000 Series transmission family; transmissions within a family share the same basic dimensions, power input capabilities, and weight. Allison transmission families for the Bus Series include the 1000/2000 Series (B210, B220, B295), 3000 Series (B300 / B400), and 4000 Series (B500).

Within North America, Bus Series transmissions carry a "B" prefix to distinguish them from other vocational series transmissions manufactured by Allison. Outside of North America, the equivalent transmissions are designated with a "T" prefix, e.g., T3280 xFE, T3325 xFE, and T3375 xFE.

title: Allison Bus Series


text:
Mangelia sallespissensis

Mangelia sallespissensis is a minute extinct species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mangeliidae.

Description
The length of the shell attains 9 mm.

Distribution
This extinct marine species was found in the Miocene strata of Aquitaine, France.

title: Mangelia sallespissensis


text:
User:Channingsonfire

Channing Is On Fire!
Yeah that's right, I'm cool enough to have a page in the world's largest 'cyclopedia. Jealous? Well you should be, 'cuz you just got served fool! RESPECT! In all seriousness though, I am pretty rad.

title: User:Channingsonfire


text:
Tuxentius cretosus

Tuxentius cretosus, the savanna pied Pierrot, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Senegal, the Gambia, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda and Kenya. The habitat consists of dry savanna and Guinea savanna.

The larval host plant also serves as the nectar source for the adults. Adult males mud-puddle.

The larvae feed on Ziziphus jujuba.

Subspecies

 * Tuxentius cretosus cretosus (Ethiopia, coast of Kenya)
 * Tuxentius cretosus lactinatus (Butler, 1886) (Somalia)
 * Tuxentius cretosus nodieri (Oberthür, 1883) (Senegal, the Gambia, Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Mali, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon)
 * Tuxentius cretosus usemia (Neave, 1904) (Uganda, northern and western Kenya)

title: Tuxentius cretosus


text:
Women's rights in Iran

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries in Iran, women's rights have been severely restricted, compared with those in most developed nations. The World Economic Forum's 2017 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Iran 140, out of 144 countries, for gender parity. In 2017, in Iran, females comprised just 19% of the paid workforce, with seven percent growth since 1990. In 2017, the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security (WPS) Index ranked Iran in the bottom tercile of 153 countries. Compared to other South Asian regions, women in Iran have a better access to financial accounts, education, and cellphones. Iran was ranked 116, out of the 153 countries, in terms of legal discrimination against women.

In Iran, women's rights have changed according to the form of government ruling the country, and attitudes towards women's rights to freedom and self-determination have changed frequently. With the rise of each government, a series of mandates for women's rights have affected a broad range of issues, from voting rights to dress code.

The rights and legal status of Iranian women have changed since the early 20th century, especially during the past three systems of government. During the Qajar dynasty that ruled Iran from the late 1800s to the early 20th century, women were isolated; they were not engaged in politics, and their economic contribution was limited to household work. These conditions changed during the Pahlavi dynasty that ruled the country from 1925 to 1979; women won much more freedom. Women's rights and freedoms were established through the leader's wishes for Iran to become a more modern, European-style country, although that was mostly applicable on the country's elites, disregarding the majority of the population. These freedoms were retracted after the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution. Human Rights Watch said in 2015, "Women's rights are severely restricted in Iran". Under Ebrahim Raisi's tenure, Iranian authorities have increased policing of women's dress code, leading to decline in women rights.

Current global ranking
The new global Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.-based Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Index, which partners with the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), ranked Iran in the bottom tercile of 153 countries.

Legal discrimination
According to the 2017–2018 Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Index, Iran ranked 116 out of 153 countries in terms of legal discrimination. The World Bank's database, "Women, Business, and the Law", lists 23 restrictions in Iranian law on married women; this includes "applying for a passport, traveling outside the country, choosing where to live, and being head of the household. Women cannot get a job or pursue a profession in the same way a man can; they cannot be ensured of equal pay for equal work, and there are no laws to restrain gender discrimination in hiring." The WPS report also states there:"are no laws that penalize or prevent the dismissal of pregnant women from work, nor are there laws that provide rights for paternity or parental leave or tax-deductible payments for childcare. The Iranian Civil Code confers power on a husband to prevent his wife from taking any job found to be incompatible with the family interest or the dignity of the husband or his wife. Women have no legal protection against domestic violence or sexual harassment by anyone, and the constitution has no non-discrimination clause with gender as a protected category."

On 7 March 2019 a Grand Ayatollah Ja'far Sobhani criticized the parliament for debating a law that equalizes the "blood money" for accident victims, regardless of their sex. On 2 July, Masoumeh Ebtekar, the head of Vice Presidency for Women and Family Affairs announced the equalization of the "blood money" for both sexes is legal and all of the courts must observe it.

Financial inclusion
According to the 2017–2018 WPS Index, 90% of women in Iran use cellphones and have "access to financial accounts". In other South Asian regions, fewer than 40% have this access, although a similar percentage of women use cellphones.

Income
The per capita income of women in Iran is lower in comparison with that of women in other South Asian regions according to the WPS Index. According to a 2018 World Bank report, the female labor force participation rate has reached 19.8%, a marked improvement despite a wide gender gap.

History
Iran's history is commonly divided into three segments; pre-Islamic, post-Islamic, and the modern era. Though little is known about Iran's pre-Islamic history, its recorded history starts with the Achaemenid Empire in 550 B.C.

Achaemenid Empire
During the rule of the Achaemenids, Greek historical accounts state women were able to participate in civic affairs; this participation, however, was limited and considered unusual by the general population. Greek historian Herodotus, after his visit to the Achaemenian Empire, said Persian men and women worked together to manage the affairs of the states and participated in public ceremonies together.

The Persian Constitutional Revolution
During the Qajar and at the beginning of the Iranian Revolution:"most women in Persian were second-class citizens with limited if any, rights such as to inheritance or to obtain a basic education. For example, tribal and nomadic groups (like the Kurds, Bakhtiari, Qashqai) allowed their women to interact with men to a certain extent, and even some considered polygamy and Mu'ta (Shia temporary marriage) as undesirable."

Iranian women played a significant role in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–11. They participated in large numbers in public affairs, and held important positions in journalism and in schools and associations that flourished from 1911 to 1924. Prominent Iranian women who played a vital part in the revolution include Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi, Noor-ol-Hoda Mangeneh, Mohtaram Eskandari, Sediqeh Dowlatabadi, and Qamar ol-Molouk Vaziri.

At the turn of the 20th century, many educated Persian women were attracted to journalism and writing. Danesh (1907) was the first specialized journal focusing on women's issues. Later, Shokoufeh, Nameie Banovan, Alam e Nesvan, and Nesvan e Vatan Khah were published in Tehran. Moreover, Nesvan e Shargh in Bandar Anzali, Jahan e Zanan in Mashhad, Dokhtaran e Iran in Shiraz, and Peik e saadat in Rasht addressed women's issues throughout Iran. Although the defeat of the constitutionalists (1921–25) and the consolidation of power by Reza Shah (1925–41) destroyed the women's journals and groups, the state implemented social reforms such as mass education and paid employment for women during this period. Reza Shah also began his controversial policy of Kashf-e-Hijab, which banned the wearing of the Islamic hijab in public. Like other sectors of society during Reza Shah's rule, however, women lost the right to express themselves and dissent was repressed.

Pahlavi era

In 1925, the military commander Reza Khan overthrew the Qajar dynasty. In the same year, he was declared the Shah of Iran, which marked the beginning of the Pahlavi dynasty era.

Women's first strides were in education: in 1928, they were provided with financial support to study abroad; in 1935 they were admitted to Tehran University, and in 1944 education became compulsory. In 1936, Reza Shah Pahlavi broke gender segregation by setting the mandatory unveiling of women known as Kashf-e hijab—a highly controversial policy which caused many conservative women to stay inside the house rather than go out in a veil and be subjected to harassment from the police, but also caused desegregation in some sectors of society. The reform was supported by many of the leading women's rights activists, who campaigned for it via the women's organisation Kanoun-e-Banovan.

Iran's societal structure and the status of women began to improve after the Shah visited Turkey in 1936. The Shah was inspired by the Westernization that was taking place there by the Turkish leader, Atatürk. In a speech he gave upon his return from Turkey, the Shah said: "I am extremely delighted that women have become aware of their rights and entitlement … Now women are on their way to gain other rights in addition to the great privilege of motherhood." The Shah's White Revolution helped to increase the legal rights of women.

Women and the Iranian Revolution
When the Iranian Revolution started in 1977, many women in metropolitan cities marched in protest and wore chadors. Women played a significant role in the success of the revolution. Their role was both praised and encouraged by the revolutionary leader Ruhollah Khomeini, who in a speech stated: "We must not forget the activities which women performed, notably confrontations. Iranian women were able to turn into a revolutionary, political, conscious fighting element through their conscious faith ... Truly, women never lagged behind in any area or on any battleground".

Because the first Pahlavi Shah banned the use of the hijab, many women decided to show their favor of Khomeini by wearing a chador, thinking this would be the best way to show their support without being vocal. Women took part in the Iranian revolution by participating in protests. Organizations supportive of the Islamic Revolution, such as Mujahideen, welcomed women into their organization and gave them essential tasks. Khomeini also encouraged women to take part in the protest against the Shah.

Khomeini's era
With the rise of Khomeini, women's roles were limited; they were encouraged to raise large families and tend to household duties. Khomeini believed this to be the most important role women could pursue. Khomeini's belief led to the closing of women's centres, childcare centers and the abolition of family planning initiatives. Women were restricted to certain fields of work, such as midwifery and teaching.

Instead of being forced to remove their veil, women were now subjected to the reversed ban against unveiling, and the veil were now forced upon all women. The non-conservative women, who had worn the veil as a symbol of opposition during the revolution, had not expected veiling to become mandatory, and when the veil was first made mandatory in February 1979 it was met with protests and demonstrations by liberal and leftist women, and thousands of women participated in a women's march on International Women's Day, 8 March 1979, in protest against mandatory veiling. The protests resulted in the temporary retraction of mandatory veiling. When the left and the liberals were eliminated and the conservatives secured solitary control, however, veiling was enforced on all women. This began with the 'Islamification of offices' in July 1980, when unveiled women were refused entry to government offices and public buildings, and banned from appearing unveiled at their work places under the risk of being fired. On the streets, unveiled women were attacked by revolutionaries, and two slogans of the revolution were: "Wear a veil, or we will punch your head" and "Death to the unveiled". In July 1981, an edict of mandatory veiling in public was introduced, which was followed in 1983 by an Islamic Punishment Law, introducing a punishment of 74 lashes on unveiled women. The law was enforced by members of the Islamic Revolution Committees patrolling the streets, and later by the Guidance Patrols, also called the Morality Police.

Khamenei's era
After Khomeini's death, women put pressure on the government to grant more rights to women. Ali Khamenei, who followed Khomeini, took a more liberal approach and enabled women's advancement by reopening the women's centers and restoring many of the laws that were repealed after the revocation of Family Protection Laws.

In the May 1997 Iranian presidential election, the overwhelming majority of women voted for Mohammad Khatami, a reformist cleric who promised more political freedoms. His election brought a period during which women became increasingly bold in expressing ideas, demands, and criticisms. The awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to Shirin Ebadi, Iranian human rights and women's rights activist, further emboldened women's rights activists in Iran and fixed their relationships with Iranian feminists abroad. According to secular feminists, the problem that women face in Iran derives from merging religion and politics.

During the Sixth Parliament, some of Iran's strongest advocates of women's rights emerged. Almost all of the 11 female lawmakers of the then-270-seat Majlis tried to change some of Iran's more conservative laws. During the elections for the Seventh Majlis, however, the all-male Council of Guardians banned the 11 women from running for office and only conservative females were allowed to run. The Seventh Majlis reversed many of the laws passed by the reformist Sixth Majlis.

In mid-November 2018 United Nations General Assembly's Human Rights Committee approved a resolution against Iranian government's continuous discrimination against women and limitation of freedom of thought.

In late November 2018, a group of UN human rights experts including Javid Rehman U.N. Special rapporteur on human rights in Iran and four other experts raised concerns about Farhad Meysami, who has been on hunger strike since August. He is in jail for opposing the compulsory wearing of the hijab.

On October 2, 2019, the Iranian Guardian Council approved an amendment to the nationality law, in which women married to men with a foreign nationality can confer nationality to their children, following an approval first passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly in May 2019. This law was later rescinded by another law, which effectively made Iranian mothers unable to confer their nationality to their children.

The Information Technology Organisation (ITO) as the first Iranian government agency publishes banning guidelines described as "forbidden conduct" including sexual harassment, verbal and physical threats, aggressive behavior, defamation, and intimidation, among other offenses. The guidelines have been adjusted with "Iranian and Islamic values".

The Islamic Republic in Iran has strict laws about women's clothing and dancing with men in public (that are not family members). "The use of headscarf in public is mandatory for women while dancing is prohibited." Several women producing videos of themselves dancing have been arrested and forced to confess for "breaking moral norms" on state TV (which The Guardian says is "a tactic often used by Iranian authorities"). Maedeh Hojabri posted videos on Instagram of her dancing. Her Instagram account was then blocked and she was arrested. Hojabri's arrest "led to an outcry of support from ordinary Iranians". In response to protest the Hojabri's arrest, Iranian women have posted videos of themselves dancing. Rights activists said that Hojabri's TV confession was a "forced confession of wrongdoing".

Women are banned from singing in Iran because Shia Muslim clerics believe that "a woman's singing voice can be erotic". Women in Iran have been jailed for "singing in public, or publishing their work on social media".

According to Amnesty International women in Iran face "discrimination in law and practice in relation to marriage and divorce, inheritance, child custody, nationality and international travel".

In December 2022, Iran was expelled from membership of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, following the death of Mahsa Amini and the violent crackdown against women's rights protesters in Iran. This was the first time a member had been expelled over its treatment of women in the history of the commission.

Voting rights
Most initiatives concerning women's rights during the Pahlavi dynasty began with the White Revolution in 1962, which led to the enfranchisement of women by the Prime Minister Asadollah Alam. A law that gave women limited voting rights, allowing them to vote in local elections, was passed. Khomeini believed this right was state propaganda to hide its dictatorial and fascist nature with democracy and liberalism. According to Khomeini, this law "serves only to mislead the uninformed masses and to cover its crimes". Khomeini also believed that such power for women was comparable to prostitution. Khomeini led protests about women's voting rights that resulted in the repeal of the law.

Since the women's voting rights law was repealed, women were forbidden to participate in a referendum held during the White Revolution. The Minister of Agriculture, however, suggested women's movement leaders set up a voting booth to voice their suggestions. Though their votes did not count, the high number of women voting persuaded Mohammad Reza Shah to grant women voting rights soon after the referendum. Six women were elected to the parliament in the September 1963 parliamentary election and the Shah appointed two women to serve in the Senate.

After the 1979 Islamic revolution, Khomeini said, "Women have the right to intervene in politics. It is their duty, Islam is a political religion".

Hijab

The hijab is a veil worn by many Muslim women when interacting with males outside of their immediate families. Before the foundation of the Islamic Republic, women were not required to wear a veil. In 1935, Reza Shah mandated that women should no longer be veiled in public; because of that, a significant number of conservative women became isolated in their houses because they felt going outside without hijab was equivalent to being naked. Conservative women's dependency grew during this period because they relied on others to run errands.

Compulsory wearing of the hijab was reinstated for Iranian state employees after the 1979 revolution; this was followed by a law requiring the wearing of the hijab in all public spaces in 1983.

Non-conservative women, who had worn the veil as a symbol of opposition during the revolution, had not expected veiling to become mandatory, and when the veil was first made mandatory in February 1979 it was met with protests and demonstrations by liberal and leftist women, and thousands of women participated in a women's march on International Women's Day, 8 March 1979, in protest against mandatory veiling. The protest resulted in the temporary retraction of mandatory veiling. When the left and the liberals were eliminated and the conservatives secured solitary control, however, veiling was enforced on all women, with an edict of mandatory veiling in 1981, followed by an Islamic Punishment Law in 1983, introducing a punishment of 74 lashes on unveiled women.

The Guidance Patrol, an undercover law enforcement squad also known as "Morality Police" (Persian: گشت ارشاد Gašt-e Eršād), surveys women in public for dress-code violations. Wearing a headscarf has been strictly enforced in Iran since the Islamic Revolution in 1979. Women who did not wear a hijab or were deemed to be wearing "bad hijab" by having some of their hair showing faced punishments ranging from fines to imprisonment. In December 2017, the Iranian government announced women would no longer be arrested for wearing a "bad hijab" in public, but those not wearing one would have to attend Islam education classes. Though the announcement was viewed as a moderate improvement, the police still targeted activists campaigning against compulsory hijab-wearing.

On November 26, 2018, Nasrin Sotoudeh, a human-rights lawyer and political prisoner being held at Tehran's Evin Prison, began a hunger strike demanding the release of Farhad Meysami, a doctor who is in jail for protesting compulsory wearing of the hijab. In late 2018 the US State Department condemned the arbitrary arrest of Meisami, who had been on hunger strike since August. In April 2019, Sotoudeh was sentenced to 148 lashes and 38 years in prison for defending opposition activists and women's rights for not wearing hijabs in public. According to the judge presiding over Sotoudeh's case, she was punished for "gathering and colluding to commit crimes against national security" and "insulting the supreme leader".

In August 2019, Iranian civil rights activist Saba Kord Afshari was sentenced to 24 years in prison, including a 15-year term for taking off her hijab in public, which Iranian authorities say promoted "corruption and prostitution".

Iranian activist Shaparak Shajarizadeh was arrested three times and imprisoned twice for defying Iran's laws about compulsory hijab. She encouraged men and women to "post images on social media of themselves either wearing white or no headscarf to protest being forced to wear the hijab." She later fled Iran.

In 2019 three women arrested for "disrespecting compulsory hijab" were sentenced to a total of 55 years and six months by a "Revolutionary Court" in Iran.

In July 2022, Sepideh Rashnu, a writer and artist, was arrested after her video of being harassed on a bus for "improper clothing" was circulated online. She was taken to hospital due to internal bleeding after her arrest, possibly due to torture. Her forced confession was played on local television after the visit to hospital. Dozens of women were arrested after 12 July 2022 for not wearing Hijab.

On 15 August 2022, Iran introduced new restrictions on women's dress code. The new rules state that the female government employees will be fired if they post their pictures on social media which do not conform to Islamic laws and women publishing their pictures without a hijab on the Internet will be excluded from some social rights for up to an year. President Ebrahim Raisi announced the use of facial recognition technology in public transport to impose new hijab laws. A few days later, a woman died in police custody after being arrested for not wearing the hijab properly, sparking a series of protests.

Marriage law
As part of the White Revolution, Mohammad Reza Shah enacted the Family Protection Laws, a series of laws that included women's rights to divorce. The laws also raised the minimum marriage age for all and curtailed the custom of polygamy, mandating spousal consent before lawfully marrying a second wife. Under these laws, the right of divorce for women was granted by allowing women to end a marriage if they were unhappy. The law also gave women the right to keep custody of their children and the right to an abortion under certain circumstances, such as rape and risk to the woman's life.

In 2008, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's administration introduced a "family support bill" that would have allowed men to marry a second wife without his first wife's permission and put a tax on Mariyeh—which is seen by many women "as a financial safety net in the event a husband leaves the marriage and is not forced to pay alimony". In September 2008, Iran's judiciary returned the tax bill to the legislative council with complaints about the polygamy and tax articles, which removed from the bill.

Marriage laws in Iran continue to be difficult to change permanently due to the role family plays in Islamic societies. Tradition is key in Islamic society; to attempt to change a tradition and keep the change applicable, it must occur many times.

Divorce law
Divorce law in Iran was initially based upon the general rule in Shari'a law that gives men the sole right to end a marriage at any time. This is based on Article 1133 of the previous Civil Code (1928) that states: "A man can divorce his wife whenever he wishes to do so". This law was modified in 1967 by the Family Protection Act that granted women more rights in divorce and made private divorces illegal. The 1967 Act included the right to apply for a divorce under specific conditions; Article 1130 of the Civil Code gave courts more power to grant a judicial divorce requested by a woman and in circumstances in which the wife could attain power of attorney and expedite the divorce process.

In modern-day Iran, divorce can be obtained by both men and women, and the custody of children is given to the parent determined by a judge.

Civil law
Iran's civil law system can be seen as very gender distinct, with numerous laws that favor men over women and few, if any, laws favoring women. Iran follows Islamic laws. Under Iranian civil laws, when children reach puberty, they also gain penal responsibility and can legally be tried as an adult. This can be seen as disadvantageous towards girls, who reach puberty around the age of ten whereas boys reach it around the age of fourteen. This means girls as young as ten can be prosecuted criminally. Punishments can vary from prison sentences to lashes and the death penalty.

On November 13, 2018, Entekhab, Iran's official news agency, published a statement by the hiking board of the northeastern province of Khorasan Razavi that requires Iranian women to have permission from their husbands or fathers if they want to go hiking.

Iran forbids women from traveling without the consent of her husband. According to article 18 of the Passport Law passed in 1973, a husband can ban his wife from leaving the country. A woman is required by Iranian law to have the permission on her husband before she can leave the country or obtain a passport. In response to this, many Iranian women created a protest called "Women's right to travel" which has garnered over 50,000 signatures. Women in Iran have little, if any, autonomy or rights compared to men in Iran.

Education

The writer and activist Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi founded the first school for Persian girls in 1907. In this school, Iranian women could study subjects including history, geography, law, calculus, religion, and cooking. The enrollment of 12 women into Tehran University in 1936 marked the entry of women into university education in Iran.

Since the 1960s and 1970s a lot of educational infrastructure was built in Iran, specially many young universities, which are the best up to today, women's education started to increase in the 1960s and 1970s and more than 50% of students were female. This new trend continued due to availability of a young generation of well-trained professors despite the restrictions imposed after 1979 Iranian Revolution by the Islamic government. Although for five years the universities were shut down completely for imposing new laws of Islamic state on universities. Despite change in quality and new restrictions on women in some topics, the existing infrastructure significantly helped in the continuation of this trend. Though the quality of research work significantly decreased which caused a significant brain drain. The trend continues and more than 60% of all university students in Iran are women. In 1994, Ali Khamenei, Supreme leader of Iran, declared the percentage of female university was 33% before the Revolution but after that in 2012 it was 60%. As of 2006, women account for over half of the university students in Iran, and 70% of Iran's science and engineering students. These education and social trends are increasingly viewed with alarm by the Iranian conservatives groups. A report by the Research Center of the Majlis (controlled by conservatives) warned the large female enrollment could cause "social disparity and economic and cultural imbalances between men and women".

Despite the advancement in higher education for women, there have been many setbacks. On August 6, 2012, the Mehr News Agency "posted a bulletin that 36 universities in the country had excluded women from 77 fields of study" as part of an effort by parliament to put a quota on women's participation in higher education. According to Radio Farda in 2018 there were less than 35% of university-educated young women in Qazvin and Hormozgan provinces as the lowest unemployment rate in Iran.

Iranian women rights activists determined education is a key for the country's women and society; they argued giving women education was best for Iran because mothers would raise better sons for their country. Many Iranian women, including Jaleh Amouzgar, Eliz Sanasarian, Janet Afary, and Alenush Terian have been influential in the sciences. Maryam Mirzakhani won gold medals in the 1994 and 1995 International Mathematical Olympiads, and in 2014 her work on dynamics made her the first woman in the world to win the Fields medal, which is widely considered to be the most prestigious award in mathematics.

In 2001, Allameh Tabatabaii University, Tarbiat Modares University and Azzahra University initiated a women's studies academic field at the Master of Arts level and shortly after, Tehran University organized a similar program.

In 2022 - 2023 hundreds of school girls were poisoned to prevent them from attending school.

Khatami era
During the rule of Mohammad Khatami, Iran's president between 1997 and 2005, educational opportunities for women grew. Khatami, who thought women's place was in the home, did not seek to exclude females from public life. Noting more women were participating in higher education, Khatami said the increase was concerning but did not wish to reduce it. Khatami called for the creation of specialisms and majors for women in universities and for the quota system that was introduced after the 1979 revolution.

When Khatami's presidency began, more than 95 percent of Iranian girls went to primary school In 1997–98, 38.2 percent of Iranian women enrolled in higher education. and had risen to 47.2 percent by 2000. As female enrollment in schools grew, the sexual segregation in academic specialization remained until the late the 1990s. In 1998–99, males comprised 58 percent in mathematics, physics, and technical fields with 71 percent of secondary school students. Women comprised 61 percent of students enrolled in the humanities and the experimental sciences. The divide of the sexes continued at university level where most females studied arts, basic sciences, and medicine, while mostly males studied engineering, humanities, agriculture, and veterinary science. The decade saw a three-fold growth in female enrollment in higher education.

The Khatami presidency saw the slow rise of women's participation in education. Women pursuing teaching positions in higher education also made gains during this period; at universities, women held nearly half of the assistant professorships—almost twice the number held ten years before. The percentage of females accepted into tenure-track and full-time professorships in 2001–02 was 17.3%.

Economic rights
According to Iran's 2007 census, 10% of women were actively contributing to the economy and that over 60% of men were economically active. Compared with men, women have one-third of the chances of gaining managerial positions. According to a 2017 Human Rights Watch report, this inequality is caused by domestic laws discriminating against women's access to employment. The types of professions available to women are restricted and benefits are often denied. Husbands have the right to prevent wives from working in particular occupations and some positions require the husband's written consent.

As of 2006, women's labor-force participation rates was at 12.6% in rural areas with a national rate of 12.5% whereas the rate for men is 66.1%. Women's engagement in informal and private sectors are not included in the data. The World Bank estimates women's participation in all sectors is 32% and 75% for men. In 2006, the estimated percentage for women's leadership roles was 3.4%.

Political rights
During the first three parliaments after the 1979 revolution, three of the 268 seats—1.5%—were held by women. Today, there are 17 women among the 271 individuals in parliament. Since then, women's presence in parliament has doubled to 3.3% of the seats. The women in parliament have ratified 35 bills concerning women's issues.

According to the Financial Tribune, Women constitute less than 10% of parliament members in Iran, even though "women have been overshadowing men in higher education for years."

Treatment by society
In Iran, men usually ask women to get a virginity test before marriage. The practice exists in many countries despite WHO's denouncement of virginity testing as unethical and lacking any scientific merit.

Prisoners' rights
According to the report of the Kurdistan human rights network, on November 28, 2018, guards in Khoy women prison in the northwest of Iran attacked inmate Zeynab Jalalian and confiscated her belongings. She was arrested in February 2007 and was sentenced to death on account of "armed actions against Islamic Republic of Iran and membership in PJAK in addition to possessing and carrying illegal weapons while engaging in acts of propaganda warfare against the Islamic Republic of Iran" in December 2008.

According to Iran-HRM, in late November 2018, a prison warden in Qarchak women prison in Varamin near Tehran attacked and bit three Dervish religious minority prisoners when they demanded the return of confiscated belongings back.

Iranian female human rights activist Bahareh Hedayat was arrested on 10 February 2020 by Tehran University security police. She was later taken to Qarchak prison where she is now on hunger strike. Bahareh's colleagues say she was beaten by the police when she was arrested.

On 7 October 2020, after Narges Mohammadi, a human rights activist, was freed after a long-term prison sentence, the United Nations High Commissioner for Rights (UNHRC) called for the release of other activists from Iran's jails.

On August 16, 2023, Iran arrested 12 female activists in a bid to prevent potential protests marking the anniversary of an uprising ignited by the death of Mahsa Amini, 22. The detainees in Gilan province are accused of "anti-security activities," part of a strategy to quell dissent and avoid a repeat of the previous year's widespread protests.

Sports

Women contributed to the development of polo in Persia 2,500 years ago.

In Iran, women participate in numerous sports and have represented the country in sporting events such as the Asian Games, Olympic Games and World Cups.

On 12 January 2020, Kimia Alizadeh, Iranian Olympic medalist has moved to Germany and wants to compete for Germany in the 2020 Olympic Games. Alizadeh, who won a bronze medal in Taekwondo at the 2016 Summer Olympics, said she can't compete for her own country because of the Iranian regime's "injustice" and "hypocrisy". She says Iranian government manipulates athletes as "tools" for political propaganda.

In Iran, women are not allowed to ride bicycles pursuant to an Islamic fatwa issued by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. According to the Muslim clerics, if a man sees a woman riding a bicycle, it will lead to crimes including sexual offenses, financial crimes, spiritual infidelity, and religious disobedience.

Allowing women to enter stadiums
Until recently women were not allowed to enter stadiums in Iran and so could not attend men's volleyball and football/soccer matches. Women have been banned from Tehran's Azadi soccer stadium since 1981.

The ban on women caused much upset, but lawmakers argued it was women's duty to raise children and not to attend sporting games. Women often wore men's clothes, painted on mustaches, and flattened their breasts to attend spectator sports. In 2006, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad lifted the ban, stating the presence of women would "promote chastity" but the supreme leader overturned this decision a month later. In 2012, the ban on women was extended to volleyball.

In 2018 thirty-five women gathered outside a match between two Tehran football/soccer clubs and demanded to be let in, and in on November 9 of that year Fatma Samoura Secretary General of International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) said she would ask the Iranian government to end the ban on a woman's entry to sport stadiums. According to the order of World football's governing body in November 2019, women were allowed to attend stadiums "without restrictions and in numbers determined by demand for tickets".

In 2019, a female football fan, Sahar Khodayari, was arrested for "appearing in public without a hijab" after she attempting to sneak into a football/soccer match dressed as a man. On 2 September 2019, she set herself on fire outside a Tehran court in protest. The Iranian government conceded to FIFA shortly thereafter and on 10 October 2019, more than 3,500 women attended a World Cup qualifier against Cambodia at Azadi Stadium, although they were confined to a roped off area. (Women are still barred from attending matches where one of the teams is not Iranian.) In 2022 videos surfaced showing security guards in Iran pepper-spraying women during a football match despite them holding tickets.

Furthermore, women journalists were banned to cover men's football matches inside the stadiums in Iran, while Parisa Pourtaherian was the first Iranian sports photographer who tried to shoot an official league match from a nearby rooftop.

Women's health
In 2005, the Iranian parliament approved abortions that were carried out before four months' gestation if the woman's life was at risk or if the fetus was nonviable or growing abnormally. With technical support from the United Nations Population Fund, the government undertook literacy and family planning initiatives.

A fund called Americans for UNFPA contributed to the Literacy Movement Organization of Iran, providing training more than 7,000 teachers, developing a nine-episode television series on women's health issues including family planning, and procuring computers and other equipment.

The average life expectancy for Iranian women has increased from 44.2 years in 1960 to 75.7 years in 2012 and the maternal mortality rate decreased from 83 to 23 per 100,000 between 1990 and 2013. In the 20th century, female social activists, health workers, and non-governmental organizations promoted the health of women by stressing the importance of regular check-ups, Pap smears, mammography, and blood tests. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation and hormone replacement therapy were emphasized with the intent of preventing osteoporosis. In 2011, depression in Iranian women was ranked first among diseases; it was ranked second in 2003. The prevalence of criminality by women has increased in recent years, as have crimes related to drugs and violence.

In August 2014, permanent methods of contraception were banned by Iran's parliament. Khamenei called for a ban on vasectomies and tubal ligation in an effort to increase population growth. Amnesty International reported that in 2018, access to affordable and modern contraception for Iranian women was limited.

Women's rights movement in Iran

In Iran, women's pursuit of equal rights to men date back to the 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Nayereh Tohidi, women's movements in Iran can be divided into eight periods.

1905–1925: this period was during the constitutional revolution, which marked the end of the Qajar dynasty. Women's efforts were mostly secretive, and their goals were to improve literacy, women's health, and prevent polygamy and domestic violence.

1925–1940s: This era marked the beginning of the Pahlavi dynasty and the reign of Reza Shah. In this period, women were not required to veil themselves and gained access to universities.

1940s–1950s: this was the era of nationalization of Iran's oil industry and brought women further access to education and some political activism to some extent. Except for the Family Protection Law that failed and was repealed, no major reforms were made during this era.

1960s–1970s: During the era of the White Revolution and modernization, women saw greater legal reforms in voting rights and family protection laws, as well as an increased participation in the economy.

1979–1997: The 1979 revolution saw the closure of women's centers and the decline of women's contributions to the economy.

1997–2005: During Khatami's rule, reforms gave women more access to the feminist press and free press.

2005–2013: The Ahmadinejad era of neo-conservativism saw the increase of repression and the rise of unemployment.

2013–present: The era of moderation under Rouhani's rule has not seen any major reforms to the status of women because hardliners already repealed most of them.

In the mid-19th century, Tahereh was the first Iranian woman to appear in public without wearing a veil; she is known as the mother of the women's rights movements in Iran. Others followed her to raise the status of women. Among these was Safiya Yazdi, the wife of a leading clergyman Muhammad Husain Yazdi. Safiya Yazdi, with the support of her husband, opened Iffatiyah Girls School in 1910 and gained praise for her outspoken lectures on women's issues.

Women in Iran are becoming more informed about current trends within global feminism. They are also becoming more engaged, especially with the mechanisms and tools created through the U.N. gender projects and conventions, such as Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Due to the vetting power of the conservative Guardian Council, however, attempts made by the reformist deputies in the sixth Majlis to ratify CEDAW did not succeed. Most women activists both Islamic and secular have been framing their demands within the CEDAW framework.

In recent years, the Iranian government has invested in women's organizations and activist initiatives that seek to empower women to learn skills that give women more independence. The state, however, continues to restrict the movement of women's rights activists traveling abroad. Activist and photographer Alieh Motalebzadeh was sentenced to three years in prison for attending a workshop for women's empowerment in Georgia.

The women's rights movement in Iran continues to attempt to institute reforms, particularly with the One Million Signatures Campaign to End Discrimination Against Women. [58]

The Persian cultural sphere
Iranian intellectual Farah Karimi wrote a book titled "Slagveld Afghanistan" that criticizes Dutch military policies in Afghanistan; in 2006, she was appointed as the representative of the United Nations in Afghanistan affairs.

In 2003, Sima Bina, the voice of Khorasan—a region in northeastern Iran—performed secular threnodies at the Théâtre du Soleil for the benefit of the "Afghanistan: one child one book" project created by the organization Open Asia.

In 2004, the World Bank funded a "network of Persian women" to promote the welfare of women in Persian-speaking lands.

In 2006 Anousheh Ansari, a woman whose family fled the country after the 1979 revolution, became the first Iranian woman in space. The feat, undertaken in Kazakhstan, was reportedly an inspiration to many Iranian women.

Relationship with Western feminism
Despite the Iranian government anti-feminist stance, many observers have said there is an emerging feminist generation of educated young women in Iran. Some suggest the Iranian women's movement must accept help from western feminists, whose progress has been recognized within western society, to be recognized. This perspective suggests western feminism can offer freedom and opportunity to Iranian women that are not afforded by their own religious society. Advocates of this view say whatever the Iranian women's movement achieves within Iranian society, the status of individual women within this society will always be less than the achievements of western feminists. Others suggest parochial movements of women will never be successful and that until a global sisterhood from all nations and religions has been established, feminism has not truly arrived. A third perspective suggests a global women's movement will ignore and undermine the unique elements of indigenous Iranian feminism that have arisen as a result of their history and religion.

According to Howland, signing the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations, has not improved women's situation much.

Crimes against women
According to some reports, hundreds of Iranian women are killed each year in honor killings. A 2019 report concluded that "nearly 30 percent of all murder cases in Iran were honor killings of women and girls."

In Iran, some studies estimate the Type I and II female genital mutilation (FGM) among Iraqi migrants and Kurdish minority groups ranges from 40% to 85%. In 2019, The United Nations criticized Iran's human rights record and suggested improvements to women's rights there.

In October 2020 a bookstore owner, Keyvan Emamverdi, confessed to raping 300 women. Hundreds of women that work in the film industry in Iran say there is "systematic" violence against women within the industry.

In 2022 - 2023 hundreds of school girls were poisoned to prevent them from attending school.(Iranian schoolgirls mass poisoning reports) According to an Iranian health official, this involved deliberate poisoning using "chemical compounds".

In comparison with other Islamic countries
According to the World Economic Forum's (2021) Global Gap Survey, Middle Eastern countries including Iran have similar scores for gender parity. Only the United Emirates known for its 'western orientation' had significantly higher scores. Economic participation of women and the UN Gender Inequality Index rank Iran with comparable scores to Egypt, Syria and Iraq. With respect to parity in educational attainment, Iran also follows the positive trend of other Middle Eastern countries, but shows a lack of parity in economic participation.

title: Women's rights in Iran


text:
Topology

Topology is the natural evolution of analysis to a more general level. Whereas analysis was concerned with the implications of continuity on the familiar spaces of Rn and Cn, topology seeks to explore all the types of mathematical structures where analytical concepts can be applied in some form. From the loose structure of point-set topology to the requirement that objects admit some type of smooth structure in differential topology, this division studies the implications of applying analysis to all the types of objects where it makes sense to define some sort of analytical structure. Note that while topology originally evolved from the study of partial differential equations by Poincaré, the modern student need only bring a knowledge of limits and continuity from a good calculus course with them, as well as a basic understanding of what a group is.

Course Goal
The goal of this course is to introduce and build proficiency with the basic machinery of modern topology using examples from an area of topology that is well understood, such as the topology of surfaces. The student will then be well-prepared to encounter the strangeness and pitfalls of more abstract and higher-dimensional topology.

Background

 * Topology
 * Topology

Lessons

 * 1) Lesson 1 What is a topology?
 * 2) Lesson 2 Continuous maps
 * 3) Lesson 3 Metric spaces
 * 4) Lesson 4 Limits
 * 5) Lesson 5 Directed Sets & Nets

Resources

 * /Universal property of topological sum in slightly sharper form/

Offsite Learning Materials

 * The Geometry Junkyard's Geometric (Surface) Topology Collection
 * Topology Atlas
 * Topology Without Tears an accessible introduction to the basics of topology.
 * Journal of Geometry and Topology - By the end of this course, the student should be able to at the least read the simplest of these papers without their head exploding. ;-)

Courses

 * An Introduction to Functional Analysis, by John Cagnol, Anna Rozanova-Pierrat, École Centrale Paris
 * Introduction to Functional Analysis, Richard Melrose, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Spring 2009.
 * Math 109a: Introduction to Geometry and Topology, Alexander Gorodnik, IIT Guwahati, 2014 – 2015.
 * Metric and Topological Spaces, John O'Connor, University of St Andrews, Scotland, 2004.
 * MATH 4530 : Introduction to Topology, Tomoo Matsumura, Cornell University, Fall 2010.
 * MATH 4181: Introduction to Topology, David C. Royster, University of Kentucky, Fall 1999.
 * Math 429: Introduction to Topology, Aissa Wade, Penn State University, Fall 2005.

Ebooks

 * Topology, Tai-Danae Bradley, Tyler Bryson, and John Terilla, MIT Press 2020. A graduate-level textbook that presents basic topology from the perspective of category theory.

Recommended Reading
Like all other mathematics, topology can only be learned by doing it. While this site provides a supportive community of peers and teachers, you also need a well-organized and well-written text that you can study anywhere to learn from those actively participating in field.
 * Kinsey, L. Christine. (2004). Topology of Surfaces Springer. ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>
 * Munkres, James. (1999). Topology Prentice Hall. ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>

title: Topology


text:
Kusak

Kusak (Кусак) is a rural locality (a selo) in Nemetsky National District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 1,538 as of 2013. There are 6 streets.

Geography
Kusak is located 5 km west of Galbshtadt (the district's administrative centre) by road. Galbshtadt is the nearest rural locality.

title: Kusak


text:
TKT Tampere

Tampereen Kisatoverit (TKT) is a Finnish multi-sport club from Tampere. They have activity in football, gymnastics, arm wrestling, and volleyball.

Background
TKT was founded by workers of Tampella. It had a strong working class identity since the beginning and is a member of Finnish Workers' Sports Federation.

Football
Football was one of the main sports early on, and is still strongest sport of the club. Back in 1960 TKT played one season in finnish top flight mestaruussarja. Club operates in southeast Tampere and operates a training center in Aitolahti, north of Tampere.

Season to season

 * 1 season in Mestaruussarja
 * 18 seasons in Suomensarja
 * 18 seasons in Kakkonen
 * 31 seasons in Kolmonen
 * 4 seasons in Nelonen

title: TKT Tampere


text:
User:Darrenlange/sandbox

Darren Niel Lange (born 5 August 1971 in Toowoomba, Queensland) is a former freestyle swimming champion from Australia. As a 15 year old boy from regional Toowoomba, Darren dreamed of swimming for his country at the Summer OLYMPIC Games he immediately found himself confronted by people who thought it was their obligation to point out why he couldn’t achieve his goals. Teachers, coaches and peers all literally scoffed at the idea of a Toowoomba athlete ever competing at the OLYMPIC level. No swimmer had ever done it before. He swam for years striving every day to reach his goal. Darren trialled on three separate occasions to qualify for an Australian Team but fell short each time. Persistence and a belief in his goals triumphed in the end when he qualified for the 1991 World Championship Team. Darren went on to represented Australia on eleven national teams including the ultimate... The 1992 Barcelona OLYMPICS. Two years later Darren achieved another life long dream by winning a gold and silver medal at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, Canada. While still competing internationally during 1994, Darren commenced his business career and founded the Darren Lange Swimming Academy (DLSA) now one of South East Queensland largest swim schools. Although at the time, commercially unsophisticated, he quickly found that many of the skills he had learned while competing in the pool, translated into his new area of competition - business. In 1998 after being out of the water for 2 years, Darren refocused his goals on making it back onto the Australian Swim Team. Through 1000’s of hours of hard work and sacrifice, Darren achieved what seemed to be the impossible by being selected to represent Australia at the European World Cup series as well as the Short Course World Championships. Darren then went on to win a silver medal at the Sheffield World Cup and place 6th in the Athens World Championships in the 50m freestyle in a PB time of 22.12. On 23 June 2000, Lange was awarded the Australian Sports Medal for being a Commonwealth Medallist. With the goal of performing on the world swimming stage now achieved, Darren has turned his attention back to expanding his business career with the purchase of Bird Pool Services in 2006, now rebranded Lange Pool and Spa. Life Highlights:
 * Born and raised in Toowoomba (5th August 1971).
 * Started swimming at the age of 5.
 * Gained a scholarship to the Australian Institute of Sport in 1988.
 * Made 1st Australian Team in 1990.
 * Awarded the 1991 Australian Swimming's 'Male Rookie of the Year'.
 * Gold and Silver medalist 1991 US Open Winter Championships.
 * Former Commonwealth Record Holder for the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Highest ranking of 8th fastest in the world. 1992 50m freestyle.
 * Winner of the Darling Downs Sportsman of the Year award 3 times from 1991 through to 1993.
 * Ranked number 1 in Australia for the 50m freestyle 1993 and 1994.
 * Represented Australia on 11 National Teams.
 * GOLD and SILVER medalist at the 1994 Commonwealth Games.
 * 1992 Barcelona Olympic Representative.
 * Multiple Pan Pacific Championship Medalist.
 * Multiple World Championship finalist.
 * Multiple World Cup Medalist.
 * Awarded the Australia Sports Medal for contribution and dedication to the sport of swimming.

Business/Community Commitments:
 * Founder of the Darren Lange Swimming Academy (DLSA), one of the largest learn-to-swim programs in South East Queensland.
 * The DLSA specialises in learn-to-swim (6 months to adults), squad swimming, professional school programs, Aqua Aerobics,
 * hydrotherapy and fitness swimming.
 * The DLSA operates out of two state of the art facilities located at Erin Street Wilsonton and the Centenary Aquatic Centre,
 * Centenary Heights.
 * Former Sports Presenter WIN TV Darling Downs.
 * Professional Motivational Speaker.
 * Former Patron- Leukemia Foundation (Darling Downs Region).
 * Chairman of the 1998 Commonwealth Games Fundraising Committee - Darling Downs Region.
 * Darren continually gives time, product and DLSA services to local schools and charities. At the launch of the Leukemia Foundation
 * Swim-A-Thon Darren raised over $5,000 by swimming 452 laps (11.3km) in three hours.
 * Health Life ambassador for regional anti-drug campaign.
 * The regional ‘face’ of the Relay for Life Fundraising promotion for cancer research.
 * Purchased Bird Pool Services and re-branded it as Lange Pool & Spa.
 * Committee member on the Athlete Advisory Committee for the successful Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Host City Bid.

National Competitive Results:
 * 1990  *5th 100m freestyle   *2nd 50m freestyle
 * 1991	 *3rd 100m freestyle  *2nd 50m freestyle
 * 1992  *4th 100m freestyle   *2nd 50m freestyle
 * 1993  *4th 100m freestyle   *1st 50m freestyle
 * 1994  *4th 100m freestyle   *1st 50m freestyle
 * 1995  *2nd 100m freestyle   *2nd 50m freestyle
 * 1996  *2nd 50m freestyle
 * 1999  *2nd 50m freestyle

International Competitive Results:
 * 1991 World Championships - Perth Australia.
 * Placed 5th in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 8th in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1991 Pan Pacific Champs - Edmonton Canada.
 * Placed 2nd in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 3rd in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1991 US Open Championships - Minnesota USA.
 * Placed 1st in the 50m freestyle.
 * Placed 2nd in the 100m freestyle.

 * 1992 OLYMPIC Games - Barcelona, Spain.
 * Placed 7th in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 8th in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1993 World Cup Grand Prix - France, England, Germany & Sweden.
 * Placed 2nd in the 50m freestyle in Malmo.
 * Placed 4th in the 50m freestyle in France and England.

 * 1993 Pan Pacific Championships - Kobe, Japan.
 * Placed 2nd in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 4th in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1994 Commonwealth Games - Victoria, Canada.
 * Placed 1st in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 2nd in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1995 Pan Pacific Championships - Atlanta, USA.
 * Placed 2nd in the 4x100m freestyle.
 * Placed 4th in the 50m freestyle.

 * 1996 World Cup Grand Prix - France, Sweden & Finland.
 * Placed 3rd in the 50m freestyle in Finland.

 * 2000 World Cup Grand Prix - England, Germany, Italy.
 * Placed 3rd in the 50m freestyle in England.

 * 2000 Short Course World Championships - Athens, Greece.
 * Placed 6th in the 50m freestyle.
 * Placed 7th in the 4x100 freestyle relay.

title: User:Darrenlange/sandbox


text:
Logic gates/NOR

NOR = NOT-OR  ~   Therefore this indicates that the result of the inputs placed through the gate will go through the OR operation and the NOT operation. The correct order of processing is: Step 1. Put the inputs through the OR operation. Step 2. From the results of the first step - invert (using the NOT operation). Step 3. Take the result from Step 2 as the output.

Rules of a NOR gate
A NOR gate is a logic gate which follows the rules of the truth table below:

Circuit Symbol
The NOR gate is represented within a circuit diagram using the following circuit symbol:

In the example to the left we can see that A & B are the inputs and the output is the result of A & B processed through the "OR" operation and then the value is inverted. This is represented using a method of notation called "DeMorgans Logic Notation".

title: Logic gates/NOR


text:
Lee Toong Leon

Lee Toong Leon, better known as Leon Lee, is a Malaysian businessperson in Penang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia who received the Distinguished Conduct Medal (Pingat Kelakuan Terpuji) in 2016 and the Meritorious Service Medal (Pingat Jasa Kebaktian) in 2010 by Penang State Governor, Tun Abdul Rahman Abbas for his services to the state.

title: Lee Toong Leon