text:
User:Aerodrome~enwikiversity

Hello. I am here to make a manual for sitting the New Zealand Pilot Lisence Written Exams. It's called New Zealand Written Examinations Manuals. Should keep me out of trouble for a while.

news
Comet McNaught - the Great Comet of 2007 http://news.google.co.nz/news?hl=en&ned=nz&q=McNaught&btnG=Search+News7

airlines
Airbus says has fixed A380 cable problem

PARIS (Reuters) - European planemaker Airbus, which has been hit by major project delays, said on Saturday it had fixed problems surrounding the cables of its A380 superjumbo.

"We have finished the electrical installation," said Airbus spokesman Tore Prang, confirming an earlier report in German magazine Focus.

"We have handed the aircraft to the cabin equipment team to install the first A380," he added.

Production problems at Airbus have caused a slump in the financial fortunes of its parent company EADS, which this week issued its third profit warning in less than a year.

Prang said resolving the issue of incorrectly installed cables meant Airbus was on track to deliver the plane to Singapore Airlines.

"This means we have passed a major milestone for the A380 recovery programme," he said.

Aerodrome: Finally, this aircraft is nearing completion. 2 years and Billions overdue.

Air New Zealand pilot diverts a B737 aircraft so passengers could see the icebergs off Otago. http://www.stuff.co.nz/3935292a11.html

Air New Zealand slashes fares

 * Air NZ's domestic airfares have been cut by up to 26 per cent.

 * Many fares to provincial centres will be under $100 from February 24.

 * Auckland-Wellington one way will be $89.

 * Auckland-Christchurch will be $99.

 * Auckland-Nelson will be $99.

 * Auckland-Blenheim will be $238 return.

 * The biggest discount of 26 per cent is on the Nelson-Palmerston North route.

vector magazine
yes. vector is online: http://www.caa.govt.nz/safety_info/vector.htm

sar
BK-117B2 for The Auckland Rescue Helicopter Trust.

$3.3 million chopper is the most advanced and well-equipped of its type in the Southern Hemisphere.

The campaign, backed by Aucklanders such as broadcaster Paul Holmes and businesswoman Michelle Boag, covered half the $3.3 million for the new helicopter. The other half was financed by the trust.

The chopper has night-vision equipment, at a cost of $15,000 per pilot, to provide safer flying after dark. Mr Wikaira said 50 per cent of missions were carried out at night.

ac07
With racing to re-commence in Valencia in three months, its time to have a look at what's left to go and also where the top teams are up to.

Before the Americas Cup final, there is Louis Vuitton Act 13, Round Robin 1 and 2 followed by the semi-final and final.

abril

Louis Vuitton Act 13: Tuesday April 3, 2007 - Saturday April 7, 2007 (fleet racing)

Louis Vuitton Cup Round Robin One & Two: Monday 16 April, 2007 - Sunday 29 April, 2007 (match racing)

mayo

Louis Vuitton Cup Round Robin Two: Tuesday 1 May, 2007 - Monday 7 May, 2007 (match racing)

Louis Vuitton Cup Semi Finals: Monday 14 May, 2007 - Friday 25 May, 2007 (match racing)

junio

Americas Cup Match by Louis Vuitton: Saturday 23 June, 2007 - Saturday 30 June, 2007 (match racing)

julio

Americas Cup Match by Louis Vuitton: Sunday 1 July, 2007 - Saturday 7 June, 2007 (match racing)

Emirates Team New Zealand and Oracle

Team New Zealand is back in Auckland training with fellow challengers Oracle who have just launched their second new boat. According to Chris Dickson, team skipper and CEO, USA 98 "feels pretty special,”.

It had better. Teams are only allowed to build two new Americas Cup boats per regatta, a move designed to try and keeps costs down. An 'arms war' of sorts began in 1992 when Italian Il Moro di Venezia built five boats to stymie the New Zealand Challenge in the Louis Vuitton Cup final. They were beaten in the cup final by America3 who had four built.

Oracle is trailing third behind Alinghi and Emirates Team New Zealand. Team New Zealand launched their second new boat, NZL 98 in mid October 2006 to compliment the 2006 ACC Season Champion title and Americas Cup table-topping NZL 84. good times eh? cheers.

Alinghi

Alinghi have chosen an unusual path for crew selection and training this year.

Dubai Defender Trials

- Pre-trials: This warm-up event for the "UBS Dubai Defender Trials" will take place from the 12-15 December when helmsmen Ed Baird and Peter Holmberg and their respective crews will go head to head over a four day event. There will be two races per day on an America's Cup style course.

- Round 1: Kicks off the first of two "UBS Dubai Defender Trials" from the 31st January to 3rd February, with two races a day and a prize-giving at the end.

- Round 2: The second of the "UBS Dubai Defender Trials" will be from the 16th to 19th of February and will define the helmsman and afterguard for Valencia Louis Vuitton Act 13 on April 3rd.

Valencia Defender Trials

Further rounds to be held after the Valencia Louis Vuitton Act 13 in Valencia will be announced.

Crack

Also, They are in the process of building their second 2007 boat, SUE? 100.

nzwem
background

The aim of the New Zealand Written Examinations Manuals section is to build up a manual that eventually can be used as a sole means of study by people who are sitting the various New Zealand exams.

This is going to be done in two steps. The first step is to set up the subjects with their syllabus items and knowledge requirements. The second step is to replace the knowledge requirements with actual content. This is to provide a level of quality control and to ensure all syllabus items are firmly covered in respect to the requirements.

latest

Stage 1 Complete

Auckland, New Zealand

Stage 1 of the PPL project has been completed.

jokes
If a mute swears, does his mother wash his hands with soap?

If someone with multiple personalities threatens to kill himself, is it considered a hostage situation.

Instead of talking to your plants, if you yelled at them would they still grow--only to be troubled and insecure?

Is there another word for synonym?

Isn't is a bit unnerving that doctors call what they do 'practice'?

When sign makers go on strike, is anything written on their signs?

When you open a bag of cotton balls, is the top one meant to be thrown away?

Where do forest rangers go to 'get way from it all'?

Why isn't there mouse-flavored cat food?

Why do they report power outages on TV?

What do you do when you see an endangered animal that is eating an endangered plant?

Is it possible to be totally partial?

What's another word for thesaurus?

If a parsley farmer is sued, can they garnish his wages?

Would a fly without wings be called a walk?

Why do people who know the least know it the loudest?

If the funeral procession is at night, do folks drive with their headlights off?

If a stealth bomber crashes in a forest, will it make a sound?

If a turtle doesn't have a shell, is he homeless or naked?

If hot water rises, why does ice form at the surface ?

When it rains, why don't sheep shrink?

Should vegetarians eat animal crackers?

If the cops arrest a mime, do they tell him he has the right to remain silent?

Why is the word abbreviation so long?

When companies ship Styrofoam, what do they pack it in?

If you're cross-eyed and have dyslexia, can you read all right?

Why do we drive on Parkways and park on Driveways?

Why is it when something is transported by car it is called a shipment and when by ship it is cargo?

If we get a frog in our throat, what does a frog get in its throat?

Do geese get people bumps?

If hot air rises, why is it cold on the top of mountains ?

What would happen if you pressed "redial" on a new phone?

I'd kill for a Nobel Peace Prize.

 * Borrow money from pessimists - they don't expect it back.

 * Half the people you know are below average.

 * 99% of lawyers give the rest a bad name.

 * 42.7% of all statistics are made up on the spot.

 * A clear conscience is usually the sign of a bad memory

 * All those who believe in psychokinesis, raise my hand.

 * The early bird may get the worm, but the second mouse gets the cheese.

 * I almost had a psychic girlfriend but she left me before we met.

 * OK, so what's the speed of dark?

 * How do you tell when you're out of invisible ink?

 * If everything seems to be going well, you have obviously overlooked something.

 * Depression is merely anger without enthusiasm.

 * When everything is coming your way, you're in the wrong lane.

 * Ambition is a poor excuse for not having enough sense to be lazy.

 * Hard work pays off in the future, laziness pays off now.

 * I intend to live forever - so far, so good.

 * What happens if you get scared half to death twice?

 * My mechanic told me, "I couldn't repair your brakes, so I made your horn louder."

 * Why do psychics have to ask you for your name?

 * If at first you don't succeed, destroy all evidence that you tried.

 * A conclusion is the place where you got tired of thinking.

 * Experience is something you don't get until just after you need it.

 * The hardness of the butter is proportional to the softness of the bread.

 * To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism; to steal from many is research.

 * The problem with the gene pool is that there is no lifeguard.

 * The sooner you fall behind, the more time you'll have to catch up.

 * The colder the x-ray table, the more of your body is required to be on it.

 * Everyone has a photographic memory, some just don't have film.

 * A conscience is what hurts when all your other parts feel so good.

If a tree falls in a forest, do the other trees laugh at it?

If you ate pasta and antipasta, would you still be hungry?

Occasional tables - what are they the rest of the time?

If space is a vacuum, who changes the bags?

Do paediatricians play miniature golf on Wednesdays?

If we weren't meant to eat animals, why are they made of meat?

What was the best thing *before* sliced bread?

title: User:Aerodrome~enwikiversity


text:
User:Fbarbe/sandbox

Who am I
Data Science and Knowledge Engineering student at Maastricht University, hobbyist musician, FLOSS supporter.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Fbarbe/sandbox


text:
Reinforcement (speciation)

Reinforcement is a process of speciation where natural selection increases the reproductive isolation (further divided to pre-zygotic isolation and post-zygotic isolation) between two populations of species. This occurs as a result of selection acting against the production of hybrid individuals of low fitness. The idea was originally developed by Alfred Russel Wallace and is sometimes referred to as the Wallace effect. The modern concept of reinforcement originates from Theodosius Dobzhansky. He envisioned a species separated allopatrically, where during secondary contact the two populations mate, producing hybrids with lower fitness. Natural selection results from the hybrid's inability to produce viable offspring; thus members of one species who do not mate with members of the other have greater reproductive success. This favors the evolution of greater prezygotic isolation (differences in behavior or biology that inhibit formation of hybrid zygotes). Reinforcement is one of the few cases in which selection can favor an increase in prezygotic isolation, influencing the process of speciation directly. This aspect has been particularly appealing among evolutionary biologists.

The support for reinforcement has fluctuated since its inception, and terminological confusion and differences in usage over history have led to multiple meanings and complications. Various objections have been raised by evolutionary biologists as to the plausibility of its occurrence. Since the 1990s, data from theory, experiments, and nature have overcome many of the past objections, rendering reinforcement widely accepted, though its prevalence in nature remains unknown.

Numerous models have been developed to understand its operation in nature, most relying on several facets: genetics, population structures, influences of selection, and mating behaviors. Empirical support for reinforcement exists, both in the laboratory and in nature. Documented examples are found in a wide range of organisms: both vertebrates and invertebrates, fungi, and plants. The secondary contact of originally separated incipient species (the initial stage of speciation) is increasing due to human activities such as the introduction of invasive species or the modification of natural habitats. This has implications for measures of biodiversity and may become more relevant in the future.

History
Reinforcement has had a complex history in that its popularity among scholars has changed over time. Jerry Coyne and H. Allen Orr contend that the theory of reinforcement went through three phases of historical development:

 * 1) plausibility based on unfit hybrids
 * 2) implausibility based on hybrids having some fitness
 * 3) plausibility based on empirical studies and biologically complex and realistic models

Sometimes called the Wallace effect, reinforcement was originally proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1889. His hypothesis differed markedly from the modern conception in that it focused on post-zygotic isolation, strengthened by group selection. Theodosius Dobzhansky was the first to provide a thorough description of the process in 1937, though the term itself was not coined until 1955 by W. Frank Blair. In 1930, Ronald Fisher laid out the first genetic description of the process of reinforcement in The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, and in 1965 and 1970 the first computer simulations were run to test for its plausibility. Later population genetic and quantitative genetic studies were conducted showing that completely unfit hybrids lead unequivocally to an increase in prezygotic isolation.

Dobzhansky's idea gained significant support; he suggested that it illustrated the final step in speciation, for example after an allopatric population comes into secondary contact. In the 1980s, many evolutionary biologists began to doubt the plausibility of the idea, based not on empirical evidence, but largely on the growth of theory that deemed it an unlikely mechanism of reproductive isolation. A number of theoretical objections arose at the time and are addressed in the Arguments against reinforcement section below.

By the early 1990s, reinforcement saw a revival in popularity among evolutionary biologists; due primarily from a sudden increase in data—empirical evidence from studies in labs and largely by examples found in nature. Further, computer simulations of the genetics and migration patterns of populations found, "something looking like reinforcement". The most recent theoretical work on speciation has come from several studies (notably from Liou and Price, Kelly and Noor, and Kirkpatrick and Servedio) using highly complex computer simulations; all of which came to similar conclusions: that reinforcement is plausible under several conditions, and in many cases, is easier than previously thought.

Terminology
Confusion exists around the meaning of the term reinforcement. It was first used to describe the observed mating call differences in Gastrophryne frogs within a secondary contact hybrid zone. The term secondary contact has also been used to describe reinforcement in the context of an allopatrically separated population experiencing contact after the loss of a geographic barrier. The Wallace effect is similar to reinforcement, but is rarely used. Roger Butlin demarcated incomplete post-zygotic isolation from complete isolation, referring to incomplete isolation as reinforcement and completely isolated populations as experiencing reproductive character displacement. Daniel J. Howard considered reproductive character displacement to represent either assortive mating or the divergence of traits for mate recognition (specifically between sympatric populations). Reinforcement, under his definition, included prezygotic divergence and complete post-zygotic isolation. Servedio and Noor include any detected increase in prezygotic isolation as reinforcement, as long as it is a response to selection against mating between two different species. Coyne and Orr contend that, "true reinforcement is restricted to cases in which isolation is enhanced between taxa that can still exchange genes".

Models

One of the strongest forms of reproductive isolation in nature is sexual isolation: traits in organisms involving mating. This pattern has led to the idea that, because selection acts so strongly on mating traits, it may be involved in the process of speciation. This process of speciation influenced by natural selection is reinforcement, and can happen under any mode of speciation (e.g. geographic modes of speciation or ecological speciation ). It necessitates two forces of evolution that act on mate choice: natural selection and gene flow. Selection acts as the main driver of reinforcement as it selects against hybrid genotypes that are of low-fitness, regardless if individual preferences have no effect on survival and reproduction. Gene flow acts as the primary opposing force against reinforcement, as the exchange of genes between individuals leading to hybrids cause the genotypes to homogenize.

Butlin laid out four primary criteria for reinforcement to be detected in natural or laboratory populations:
 * Gene flow between two taxa exists or can be established to have existed at some point.
 * There is divergence of mating-associated traits between two taxa.
 * Patterns of mating are modified, limiting the production of low fitness hybrids.
 * Other selection pressures leading to divergence of the mate-recognition system have not occurred.

After speciation by reinforcement occurs, changes after complete reproductive isolation (and further isolation thereafter) are a form of reproductive character displacement. A common signature of reinforcement's occurrence in nature is that of reproductive character displacement; characteristics of a population diverge in sympatry but not allopatry. One difficulty in detection is that ecological character displacement can result in the same patterns. Further, gene flow can diminish the isolation found in sympatric populations. Two important factors in the outcome of the process rely on: 1) the specific mechanisms that causes prezygotic isolation, and 2) the number of alleles altered by mutations affecting mate choice.

In instances of peripatric speciation, reinforcement is unlikely to complete speciation in the case that the peripherally isolated population comes into secondary contact with the main population. In sympatric speciation, selection against hybrids is required; therefore reinforcement can play a role, given the evolution of some form of fitness trade-offs. In sympatry, patterns of strong mating discrimination are often observed—being attributed to reinforcement. Reinforcement is thought to be the agent of gametic isolation.

Genetics
The underlying genetics of reinforcement can be understood by an ideal model of two haploid populations experiencing an increase in linkage disequilibrium. Here, selection rejects low fitness $$Bc$$ or $$bC$$ allele combinations while favoring combinations of $$BC$$ alleles (in the first subpopulation) and $$bc$$ alleles (in the second subpopulation). The third locus $$A$$ or $$a$$ (the assortive mating alleles) have an effect on mating pattern but is not under direct selection. If selection at $$B$$ and $$C$$ cause changes in the frequency of allele $$A$$, assortive mating is promoted, resulting in reinforcement. Both selection and assortive mating are necessary, that is, that matings of $$A \times A$$ and $$a \times a$$ are more common than matings of $$a \times A$$ and $$A \times a$$. A restriction of migration between populations can further increase the chance of reinforcement, as it decreases the probability of the differing genotypes to exchange.

An alternative model exists to address the antagonism of recombination, as it can reduce the association between the alleles that involve fitness and the assortive mating alleles that do not. Genetic models often differ in terms of the number of traits associated with loci; with some relying on one locus per trait and others on polygenic traits.

Population structures
The structure and migration patterns of a population can affect the process of speciation by reinforcement. It has been shown to occur under an island model, harboring conditions with infrequent migrations occurring in one direction, and in symmetric migration models where species migrate evenly back and forth between populations.

Reinforcement can also occur in single populations, mosaic hybrid zones (patchy distributions of parental forms and subpopulations), and in parapatric populations with narrow contact zones.

Population densities are an important factor in reinforcement, often in conjunction with extinction. It is possible that, when two species come into secondary contact, one population can become extinct—primarily due to low hybrid fitness accompanied by high population growth rates. Extinction is less likely if the hybrids are inviable instead of infertile, as fertile individuals can still survive long enough to reproduce.

Selection
Speciation by reinforcement relies directly on selection to favor an increase in prezygotic isolation, and the nature of selection's role in reinforcement has been widely discussed, with models applying varying approaches. Selection acting on hybrids can occur in several different ways. All hybrids produced may be equality low-fitness, conferring a broad disadvantage. In other cases, selection may favor multiple and varying phenotypes such as in the case of a mosaic hybrid zone. Natural selection can act on specific alleles both directly or indirectly. In direct selection, the frequency of the selected allele is favored to the extreme. In cases where an allele is indirectly selected, its frequency increases due to a different linked allele experiencing selection (linkage disequilibrium).

The condition of the hybrids under selection can play a role in post-zygotic isolation, as hybrid inviability (a hybrid unable to mature into a fit adult) and sterility (the inability to produce offspring entirely) prohibit gene flow between populations. Selection against the hybrids can even be driven by any failure to obtain a mate, as it is effectively indistinguishable from sterility—each circumstance results in no offspring.

Mating and mate preference
Some initial divergence in mate preference must be present for reinforcement to occur. Any traits that promote isolation may be subjected to reinforcement such as mating signals (e.g. courtship display), signal responses, the location of breeding grounds, the timing of mating (e.g. seasonal breeding such as in allochronic speciation), or even egg receptivity. Individuals may also discriminate against mates that differ in various traits such as mating call or morphology. Many of these examples are described below.

Evidence

The evidence for reinforcement comes from observations in nature, comparative studies, and laboratory experiments.

Nature
Reinforcement can be shown to be occurring (or to have occurred in the past) by measuring the strength of prezygotic isolation in a sympatric population in comparison to an allopatric population of the same species. Comparative studies of this allow for determining large-scale patterns in nature across various taxa. Mating patterns in hybrid zones can also be used to detect reinforcement. Reproductive character displacement is seen as a result of reinforcement, so many of the cases in nature express this pattern in sympatry. Reinforcement's ubiquity is unknown, but the patterns of reproductive character displacement are found across numerous taxa and is considered to be a common occurrence in nature. Studies of reinforcement in nature often prove difficult, as alternative explanations for the detected patterns can be asserted. Nevertheless, empirical evidence exists for reinforcement occurring across various taxa and its role in precipitating speciation is conclusive.

Comparative studies
Assortive mating is expected to increase among sympatric populations experiencing reinforcement. This fact allows for the direct comparison of the strength of prezygotic isolation in sympatry and allopatry between different experiments and studies. Coyne and Orr surveyed 171 species pairs, collecting data on their geographic mode, genetic distance, and strength of both prezygotic and postzygotic isolation; finding that prezygotic isolation was significantly stronger in sympatric pairs, correlating with the ages of the species. Additionally, the strength of post-zygotic isolation was not different between sympatric and allopatric pairs. This finding supports the predictions of speciation by reinforcement and correlates well with a later study that found 33 studies expressing patterns of strong prezygotic isolation in sympatry. A survey of the rates of speciation in fish and their associated hybrid zones found similar patterns in sympatry, supporting the occurrence of reinforcement.

Laboratory experiments
Laboratory studies that explicitly test for reinforcement are limited, with many of the experiments having been conducted on Drosophila fruit flies. In general, two types of experiments have been conducted: using artificial selection to mimic natural selection that eliminates the hybrids (often called "destroy-the-hybrids"), and using disruptive selection to select for a trait (regardless of its function in sexual reproduction). Many experiments using the destroy-the-hybrids technique are generally cited as supportive of reinforcement; however, some researchers such as Coyne and Orr and William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert contend that they do not truly model reinforcement, as gene flow is completely restricted between two populations.

Alternative hypotheses
Various alternative explanations for the patterns observed in nature have been proposed. There is no single, overarching signature of reinforcement; however, there are two proposed possibilities: that of sex asymmetry (where females in sympatric populations are forced to become choosy in the face of two differing males) and that of allelic dominance: any of the alleles experiencing selection for isolation should be dominate. Though this signature does not fully account for fixation probabilities or ecological character displacement. Coyne and Orr extend the sex asymmetry signature and contend that, regardless of the change seen in females and males in sympatry, isolation is driven more by females.

Ecological or ethological influences
Ecology can also play a role in the observed patterns—called ecological character displacement. Natural selection may drive the reduction of an overlap of niches between species instead of acting to reduce hybridization Though one experiment in stickleback fish that explicitly tested this hypotheses found no evidence.

Species interactions can also result in reproductive character displacement (in both mate preference or mating signal). Examples include predation and competition pressures, parasites, deceptive pollination, and mimicry. Because these and other factors can result in reproductive character displacement, Conrad J. Hoskin and Megan Higgie give five criteria for reinforcement to be distinguished between ecological and ethological influences: "(1) mating traits are identified in the focal species; (2) mating traits are affected by a species interaction, such that selection on mating traits is likely; (3) species interactions differ among populations (present vs. absent, or different species interactions affecting mating traits in each population); (4) mating traits (signal and/or preference) differ among populations due to differences in species interactions; (5) speciation requires showing that mating trait divergence results in complete or near complete sexual isolation among populations. Results will be most informative in a well-resolved biogeographic setting where the relationship and history among populations is known."

Fusion
It is possible that the pattern of enhanced isolation could simply be a temporary outcome of secondary contact where two allopatric species already have a varying range of prezygotic isolation: with some exhibiting more than others. Those that have weaker prezygotic isolation will eventually fuse, losing their distinctiveness. This hypothesis does not explain the fact that individual species in allopatry, experiencing consistent gene flow, would not differ in levels of gene flow upon secondary contact. Furthermore, patterns detected in Drosophila find high levels of prezygotic isolation in sympatry but not in allopatry. The fusion hypothesis predicts that strong isolation should be found in both allopatry and sympatry. This fusion process is thought to occur in nature, but does not fully explain the patterns found with reinforcement.

Sympatry
It is possible that the process of sympatric speciation itself may result in the observed patterns of reinforcement. One method of distinguishing between the two is to construct a phylogenetic history of the species, as the strength of prezygotic isolation between a group of related species should differ according to how they speciated in the past. Two other ways to determine if reinforcement occurs (as opposed to sympatric speciation) are:
 * if two recently speciated taxa do not show signs of post-zygotic isolation of both sympatric and allopatric populations (in sympatric speciation, post-zygotic isolation is not a prerequisite);
 * if a cline exists between two species over a range of traits (sympatric speciation does not require a cline to exist at all).

Sexual selection
In a runaway process (not unlike Fisherian runaway selection), selection against the low-fitness hybrids favors assortive mating, increasing mate discrimination rapidly. Additionally, when there is a low cost to female mate preferences, changes in male phenotypes can result, expressing a pattern identical to that of reproductive character displacement. Post-zygotic isolation is not needed, initiated simply by the fact that unfit hybrids cannot get mates.

Arguments against reinforcement
A number of objections were put forth, mainly during the 1980s, arguing that reinforcement is implausible. Most rely on theoretical work which suggested that the antagonism between the forces of natural selection and gene flow were the largest barriers to its feasibility. These objections have since been largely contradicted by evidence from nature.

Gene flow
Concerns about hybrid fitness playing a role in reinforcement has led to objections based on the relationship between selection and recombination. That is, if gene flow is not zero (if hybrids aren't completely unfit), selection cannot drive the fixation of alleles for prezygotic isolation. For example: If population $$X$$ has the prezygotic isolating allele $$A$$ and the high fitness, post-zygotic alleles $$B$$ and $$C$$; and population $$Y$$ has the prezygotic allele a and the high fitness, post-zygotic alleles $$b$$ and $$c$$, both $$ABC$$ and $$abc$$ genotypes will experience recombination in the face of gene flow. Somehow, the populations must be maintained.

In addition, specific alleles that have the selective advantage within the overlapped populations are only useful within that population. However, if they are selectively advantageous, gene flow should allow the alleles to spread throughout both populations. To prevent this, the alleles would have to be deleterious or neutral. This is not without problems, as gene flow from the presumably large allopatric regions could overwhelm the area when two populations overlap. For reinforcement to work, gene flow must be present, but very limited.

Recent studies suggest reinforcement can occur under a wider range of conditions than previously thought  and that the effect of gene flow can be overcome by selection. For example, the two species Drosophila santomea and D. yakuba on the African island São Tomé occasionally hybridize with one another, resulting in fertile female offspring and sterile male offspring. This natural setting was reproduced in the laboratory, directly modeling reinforcement: the removal of some hybrids and the allowance of varying levels of gene flow. The results of the experiment strongly suggested that reinforcement works under a variety of conditions, with the evolution of sexual isolation arising in 5–10 fruit fly generations.

Rapid requirements
In conjunction with the fusion hypothesis, reinforcement can be thought of as a race against both fusion and extinction. The production of unfit hybrids is effectively the same as a heterozygote disadvantage; whereby a deviation from genetic equilibrium causes the loss of the unfit allele. This effect would result in the extinction of one of the populations. This objection is overcome by when both populations are not subject to the same ecological conditions. Though, it is still possible for extinction of one population to occur, and has been shown in population simulations. For reinforcement to occur, prezygotic isolation must happen quickly.

title: Reinforcement (speciation)


text:
User:Lawre327/sandbox

Family with Sequence Similarity 166, member B, or FAM166B, is an uncharacterized protein in humans with unknown structure and function that is encoded by the FAM166B gene.

Location
The FAM166B gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 9 at p13.3. The genomic sequence spans from 35563899 to 35561830 for a total of 2,069 base pairs.

Expression
FAM166 shows highest expression levels in bronchi epithelial cells and fallopian tube glandular cells, and also is moderately expressed in heart and skeletal muscle.

Gene Promoter
The Gene Promoter is 680 bp long and is located from 35563717 to 35564396. It contains a number of Transcription Factor Binding Sites, such as CCATT binding factors, Vertebrate TATA Binding Factors, LEF/TCF, Nuclear Factors 1, and Heat Shock Factors.

Homology
FAM166B is conserved in many species with orthologs present in mammals and distant homologs found in several invertebrates.

Splicing Variants
There are four known splicing variants of the FAM166B transcript. Variant One contains 1,092 bp and six exons. The other three variants are 1,024, 1,046, and 1,056 bp respectively. It is interesting to note that all 4 variants contain the six exons of the FAM166B gene.

General Properties
The FAM166B protein spans 275 amino acids in length with a predicted molecular weight of 30574.71 daltons The estimated isoelectric point (pI) of the protein is 8.38.

Isoforms
There are four known isoforms for FAM166B with isoform 1 spanning 275 amino acids. The other three isoforms range from 216 to 306 amino acids.

Intracellular Location
However, the intracellular location of FAM166B is unknown The average hydrophobicity of the protein is -0.519272, which suggests that it is a soluble protein.

Conservation
FAM166B shows high conservation of sequence with its mammalian orthologs. Conservation reduces drastically when reaching Amphibians and Reptiles with % identities from 57% to 26%. Several Invertebrates also show distant homology to FAM166B, but conservation is very low with no sequence identity greater than 30%.

Conserved Domains
FAM166B has three conserved domains, each considered DUF2475 without known functions. The three DUF2475 regions are located from amino acids 15 to 80, 174 to 234, and 234 to 261 within the protein.

Function within Cells
Currently, the function of FAM166B is unknown.

Clinical Significance
There are no current clinical associations of FAM166B with a human disease or condition. It was excluded from two studies concerning a recessive form of hereditary sporadic paraplegia and predicting Hodgkin Lymphoma prognosis due to not meeting proper criteria in both.

title: User:Lawre327/sandbox


text:
European History/Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

The Age of Science of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of the 1700s, also dubbed the Age of Enlightenment, introduced countless new concepts to European society. These ideas continue to permeate modern society. Many modern institutions have much of their foundations in the ideals of these times.

An Era of Enlightened Rulers
A new form of government began to replace absolutism across the continent. Whilst monarchs were reluctant to give up their powers, many also recognized that their states could potentially benefit from the spread of Enlightenment ideas. The most prominent of these rulers were Frederick II the Great Hohenzollern of Prussia, Joseph II Hapsburg of Austria, and Catherine II the Great Romanov of Russia.

In order to understand the actions of the European monarchs of this period, it is important to understand their key beliefs. Enlightened despots rejected the concept of absolutism and the divine right to rule. They justified their position based on their usefulness to the state. These rulers based their decisions upon their reason, and they stressed religious toleration and the importance of education. They enacted codified, uniform laws, repressed local authority, nobles, and the church, and often acted impulsively and instilled change at an incredibly fast rate.

Catherine the Great 1762-1796
Catherine the Great came to power because Peter III failed to bear a male heir to the throne and was killed.

Her enlightened reforms include:

 * Restrictions on torture
 * Religious toleration
 * Education for girls
 * 1767 Legislative Commission, which reported to her on the state of the Russian people
 * Trained and educated her grandson Alexander I so that he could progress in society because of his merit rather than his blood line

She was friends with Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire. However, Catherine also took a number of decidedly unenlightened actions. In 1773 she violently suppressed Pugachev's Rebellion, a massive peasant rebellion against the degradation of the serfs. She conceded more power to the nobles and eliminated state service. Also, serfdom became equivalent to slavery under her.

Foreign Policy
Catherine combated the Ottoman Empire. In 1774, Russia gained a warm water port on the Black Sea.

Frederick II the Great 1740-1786
Frederick II Hohenzollern of Prussia declared himself "The First Servant of the State," believing that it was his duty to serve the state and do well for his nation. He extended education to all classes, and established a professional bureaucracy and civil servants. He created a uniform judicial system and abolished torture. During his tenure, Prussia innovated agriculture by using potatoes and turnips to replenish the soil. Also, Frederick established religious freedom in Prussia.

Joseph II Habsburg 1765-1790
Joseph II Habsburg (also spelled as Hapsburg) of Austria could be considered perhaps the greatest enlightened ruler, and he was purely enlightened, working solely for the good of his country. He was anti-feudalism, anti-church, and anti-nobility. He famously stated, "The state should provide the greatest good for the greatest number." He created equal punishment and taxation regardless of class, complete freedom of the press, toleration of all religions, and civil rights for Jews. Under Joseph II a uniform law code was established, and in 1781 he abolished serfdom and in 1789 ordered the General School Ordinance, which required compulsory education for Austrian children. However, Joseph failed because he angered people by making changes far too swiftly, and even the serfs weren't satisfied with their abrupt freedom.

England
As a result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England already had a Parliament and thus the concept of enlightened ruler did not take hold in England.

France
After Louis XIV the "Sun King," Louis XV took control from 1715 until 1774. Like his predecessor, he was an absolute monarch who enacted mercantilism. As a result of the influence and control of absolutism in France, France also did not encounter an enlightened ruler. In order to consummate an alliance between his nation and Austria, Maria Theresa of Austria married her daughter, Marie Antoinette, to Louis XV's heir, Louis XVI. Louis XV recognized that the fragile institutions of absolutism were crumbling in France, and he famously stated, "Après moi, le déluge", or "After me, the flood."

War of Austrian Succession
The war of Austrian Succession of 1740 to 1748 pitted Austria, England, and the Dutch against Prussia, France, and Spain. Upon Maria Theresa's acquisition of the Austrian throne, Frederick the Great of Prussia attacked Silesia, and war broke out. In 1748 peace came at the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. The treaty preserved the balance of power and the status quo ante bellum. Austria survived but lost Silesia, which began "German Dualism" or the fight between Prussia and Austria over who would dominate and eventually unite Germany.

The Seven Years War
The peace in 1748 was recognized as temporary by all, and in 1756 Austria and France allied in what was known as the Diplomatic Revolution. The reversal of the traditional France versus Austria situation occurred as a result of both nation's fear of a rising, militant Prussia. To consummate the marriage, Louis XVI married Marie Antionette. The Seven Years War engaged Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Saxony against Prussia and England. The purpose of the war was to annihilate Prussia, and took place at a number of fronts: in Europe, in America (where American citizens know it as the French and Indian War) and in India. At the Peace of Paris in 1763, the war concluded, and Prussia retained all of its territory, including Silesia. France ceded Canada to Britain and the North American interior to Spain, and removed its armies from India. It did, however, get to keep its West Indies colonies.

At this point, Great Britain became the supreme naval power and it began its domination of India.

The Partitioning of Poland
Poland was first partitioned on February 19, 1772, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in an agreement between them to gain more land and power in Europe. Poland was able to be partitioned because it was weak and had no ability to stop the larger and more powerful nations. The balance of power was not taken into consideration by France or England because the partitioning did not upset the great powers of Europe. The second partition involved Russia and Prussia taking additional land from Poland. After the second partition, which occurred on January 21, 1792, the majority of their remaining land was lost to Prussia and Russia. The third partition of Poland took place in October of 1795, giving Russia, Prussia, and Austria the remainder of the Polish land. Russia ended up with 120,000 square kilometres, Austria 47,000 square kilometres, and Prussia 55,000 square kilometres. This took Poland off of the map.

Science and Technology
The Enlightenment was notable for its scientific revolution, which changed the manner in which the people of Europe approached both science and technology. This was the direct result of philosophic enquiry into the ways in which science should be approached. The most important figures in this change of thinking were Descartes and Bacon.

The philosopher René Descartes presented the notion of deductive reasoning - that is, to start with a premise and to then discard evidence that doesn't support the premise. However, Sir Francis Bacon introduced a new method of thought. He suggested that instead of using deductive reasoning, people should use inductive reasoning - in other words, they should gather evidence and then reach a conclusion based on the evidence. This line of thought also became known as the Scientific Method.

Changes in Astronomy
The Scientific Revolution began with discoveries in astronomy, most importantly dealing with the concept of a solar system. These discoveries generated controversy, and some were forced by church authorities to recant their theories.

Pre-Revolution: Aristotle and Ptolemy
The geocentric (earth-centred) view of the universe had been taught since the days of Aristotle. Ptomely's "Almagest" (c.2nd century CE) was the standard text used to teach students astronomy and remained so for hundreds of years. Ptolemy's theories are a mixture of science and religion and to modern readers may come across as unusual though it must always be borne in mind that Ptolemy was building upon the works of earlier astronomers. Surprisingly a Greek philosopher called Aristarchus (310 BC - ca.230 BC) suggested that the earth moved around the sun and though this was common knowledge amongst all who studied astronomy it would be over a thousand years before he was proved right. The early christian church (c.4th century CE) adopted the Ptolemaic system since it was in accord with biblical teaching. A universe without the earth at its center would negate divine purpose and Ptolemy's idea of the spheres in harmony strengthened the creationist argument. The Enlightenment, which is also referred to as the Age of Reason, was a period when European philosophers emphasized the use of reason as the best method for learning the truth.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
During the Renaissance, study of astronomy at universities began. Regiomontanus and Nicolas of Cusa developed new advances in mathematics and methods of calculation.

Copernicus, although a devout Christian, doubted whether the views held by Aristotle and Ptolemy were completely correct. Using mathematics and visual observations with only the naked eye, he developed the Heliocentric, or Copernican, Theory of the Universe, stating that the Earth revolves around the sun.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Tycho Brahe created a mass of scientific data on astronomy during his lifetime; although he made no major contributions to science, he laid the groundwork for Kepler's discoveries.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Kepler was a student of Brahe. He used Brahe's body of data to write Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion, most significantly noting that planets' orbits are elliptical instead of circular.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Galileo is generally given credit for invention of the telescope; although the device itself is not of Galileo's design, he was the first to use it for astronomy. With this tool, he proved the Copernican Theory of the Universe.

Galileo spread news of his work through letters to friends and colleagues. Although the Church forced him to recant his ideas and spend the rest of his life under house arrest, his works had already been published and could not be disregarded.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Newton is often considered the greatest scientific mind in history. His Principia Mathematica (1687) includes Newton's Law of Gravity, an incredibly ground-breaking study. Newton's work destroyed the old notion of an Earth-centred universe.

Newton also had a great influence outside of science. For example, he was to become the hero of Thomas Jefferson.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Vesalius studied human cadavers, a practice forbidden by church doctrine. His writing The Structure of the Human Body in 1543 renewed and modernized the study of the human body.

William Harvey (1578-1657)
William Harvey wrote On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in 1628, on the circulatory system. He was a doctor and an anatomist.

Society and Culture
As a result of new learning from the Scientific Revolution, the world was less of a mystical place, as natural phenomena became increasingly explainable by science. According to Enlightened philosophers:
 * The universe is a fully tangible place governed by natural rather than supernatural forces.
 * Rigorous application of the scientific method can answer fundamental questions in all areas of inquiry.
 * The human race can be educated to achieve nearly infinite improvement.

Perhaps most importantly, though, Enlightened philosophers stressed that people are all equal because all of us possess reason.

Precursors
There were a number of precursors to the Enlightenment. One of the most important was the Age of Science of the 1600s, which presented inductive thinking, and using evidence to reach a conclusion. The ideas of Locke and Hobbes and the notion of the social contract challenged traditional thinking and also contributed to the Enlightenment. Scepticism, which questioned traditional authority and ideas, contributed as well. Finally, the idea of moral relativism arose - assailing people for judging people who are different from themselves.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment began in France, as a result of its well-developed town and city life, as well as its large middle class that wanted to learn the ideas. The Enlightenment promoted the use of one's reason, rather than accepting tradition. It rejected the traditional attitudes of the Catholic Church. Many "philosophers," or people who thought about subjects in an enquiring, inductive manner, became prominent. Salons were hosted by upper-middle class women who wanted to discuss topics of the day, such as politics.

The Enlightenment stressed that we are products of experience and environment, and that we should have the utmost confidence in the unlimited capacity of the human mind. It stressed the unlimited progress of humans, and the ideas of atheism and deism became especially prominent. Adam Smith's concept of free market capitalism sent European economics in a new direction. Enlightened despots such as Catherine the Great and Joseph II replaced absolute monarchs and used their states as agents of progress. Education and literacy expanded vastly, and people recognized the importance of intellectual freedoms of speech, thought, and press.

Changing Views of Childhood and Education
Prior to the Enlightenment, the dominant idea of childhood was that children were just smaller versions of adults, but this began to change as Enlightenment ideals emphasized the importance of childhood and the growing middle class allowed more time and resources to be invested in a child’s growth. Enlightenment thinkers advocated for the idea of childhood as a developmental stage. One example of this is in John Locke’s  tabula rasa, which argued that knowledge and behavior comes from experience. Another voice on the topic was Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argued that childhood should be a pure and protected time before adulthood in which children should be free to learn, hands-on, about the world around them, in his novel Emile.

Together,  Scientific Revolution thought and Enlightenment ideas bred an increased emphasis on education. John Amos Comenius, a seventeenth century Czech educator often considered the father of modern education, influenced many Enlightenment thinkers with his model of a comprehensive and universal education system. In the late 18th century, Prussia became the first nation to create a mandatory universal education system. This system had compulsory education for children ages six to thirteen, and included studies of folktales and history, all taught in a common language, which increased nationalist ideals. During the French Revolution, Nicolas de Condorcet created a system of public schools for young men, and in 1802, Napoleon created a comprehensive school system which is the model for the country’s current system.

Conflict with the Church
Although the ideas of the Enlightenment clashed with Church dogma, it was mostly not a movement against the Church. Most Enlightened philosophers considered themselves to be followers of deism, believing that God created an utterly flawless universe and left it alone, some describing God as the "divine clockmaker."

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

 * dies before the enlightenment
 * English Revolution shapes his political outlook
 * Leviathan (1651) - life is "nasty, brutish, and short" - people are naturally bad and need a strong government to control them.
 * may be considered to be the father of the enlightenment: because of all the opposition he inspired.

John Locke (1632-1704)
Born in 1632 amidst one of the most tumultuous eras of mass rebellion and political unrest, British philosopher John Locke is often called the father of liberalism. Locke  introduced Western society to progressive reform through his works. Locke’s beliefs in natural law, which argued for equality amongst all men, egalitarian theories of land ownership, and separation of church and state, heavily influenced not only the French Revolution but also political movements centuries after his time. Locke began his career in Oxford as a scholar and tutor and did not enter the philosophical sphere until he was appointed to the Stuart Court by Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury. Alarmed by the monarchy’s promotion of slavery and nobility, Locke published The Two Treatises of Government, which argued against inherited status and the rights of the monarchy. Another one of Locke’s prominent works, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, explores the boundaries and limitations of the human mind. By questioning beliefs  accepted as common knowledge, John Locke gave prominence to empiricism and liberalism in a society formerly structured on religious values.
 * specifically refuted Hobbes
 * humanity is only governed by laws of nature, man has right to life, liberty, and property
 * there is a natural social contract that binds the people and their government together; the people have a responsibility to their government, and their government likewise has a responsibility to its people
 * Two Treatises on Civil Government justified supremacy of Parliament
 * Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) - Tabula rasa - human progress is in the hands of society

Voltaire (1694-1776)

 * stressed religious tolerance

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

 * Spirit of the Laws - checks and balances on government, no one group having sole power

David Hume (1711-1776)
The Enlightenment sparked a period of theorizing about how to approach the world with rationality and knowledge. David Hume (1711-1776), known for his philosophical theory of Skepticism, was one of the main figures in the Scottish Enlightenment. Skepticism was the idea that all knowledge should be approached with doubt. Skepticism was more radical than both the theories of Deism and atheism; it undermined both religious authority and Enlightenment ideas. Hume was skeptical of not only rationality and knowledge but also of miracles and God’s existence. In his An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1758), he used logic to argue against religious miracles, undermining traditional religious texts. Hume’s goal was not to deny belief but to deny the certainty of belief. Traditional Christianity was based on proof of the divinity of Christ and miracles from the gospels, but Hume claimed that miracles were violations of the laws of nature. Evidence of a miracle, Hume reasoned, would always be outweighed by the evidence of nature. Human reason, he argued, was not enough to prove the existence of God. He claimed, “Our evidence for the truth of the Christian religion is less than our evidence for the truth of our senses.” Hume’s work and ideas have become important for the process of skepticism in scientific inquiry and research.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

 * social contract
 * "general will" - government acts for the majority

Olympe de Gouges (1748 - 1793)

Olympe de Gouges was an early feminist thinker and French revolutionary who is often overlooked in Enlightenment history. Born Marie Gouze in southwest France to peasant parents but claimed noble ancestry, she moved to Paris in 1770 and began frequenting salons like the that of Sophia de Condorcet. Throughout her time in Paris, she wrote over sixty political essays, plays, and pamphlets covering what would come to be known as “human rights.” Her writing career culminated with the publication of The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of Female Citizen. She wrote this essay in direct response to Marquis de La Fayette’s The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which discussed the freedoms that should be afforded to all men; but, this document left out women and their importance in society. In the preamble, de Gouges writes, “the sex that is superior in beauty as in courage, needed in maternal sufferings, recognizes and declares, in the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of woman and the citizens,” which establishes the importance of women and argues that in some aspects women are not only equal to men but are superior. She goes on to list the rights that women should have but are being denied, including the right to bare arms, the right to vote, and right to an education. Ultimately, it was not de Gouges’ writings on women’s rights that led to her death. She was beheaded on November 3, 1793 after refusing to denounce her statement against the execution of King Louis XVI. Her legacy on women’s rights influenced the suffragettes, the feminist movement of the 1970s, and modern-day women’s rights.

Zera Yacob (1599 - 1692)
While European philosophes like John Locke and Voltaire are credited for spreading Enlightenment ideas, an Ethiopian philosopher named Zera Yacob espoused these principles decades earlier.

Yacob was born in 1599 outside the Ethiopian capital city of Axum. As a boy, he excelled in school and later became a professor. However, when a Portuguese Jesuit converted King Susenyos to Catholicism, Susenyos established Catholicism as the national religion and suppressed freedom of thought and speech.

When Yacob advocated that no religion is superior to any other, he was forced to flee the area under the threat of prosecution. Living alone in a cave for two years, he delved into philosophy. Once he was able to return to society in 1667, he wrote Hatäta, which was a compilation of his ideas. In this groundbreaking text, he criticized Ethiopian people for following tradition instead of thinking independently, denounced slavery and declared that all people are equal, and approached religion with a more agnostic, open-minded mentality than was common in the 17th century.

Finally, he considered women’s perspectives in his philosophy. For example, he criticized the Law of Moses that declared the menstrual cycle impure because it impeded the life and love of a woman. He later married a poor servant woman not for her looks but for her intelligence, and he truly considered her a peer. In contrast, philosophe John Locke declared all men were equal but also invested in the slave trade. In this way, Yacob spread and lived his enlightenment principles decades before many philosophes, but he often gets overlooked as an Enlightenment figure.

Rococo Art

The Rococo Art movement of the 1700s emphasized elaborate, decorative, frivolous, and aristocratic art. Often depicted were playful intrigue, love, and courtship. The use of wispy brush strokes and pastels was common in Rococo Art. Rococo Art is especially associated with the reign of Louis XV Bourbon in France. The French artist Boucher painted for Madame Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV. The most famous paintings of Boucher include Diana Leaving her Bath and Pastorale, a painting of a wealthy couple under a tree.

Historia de Europa/La Ilustración Lịch sử châu Âu/Cách mạng Khoa học và Thời kỳ Khai sáng


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Zach Pascal

Zach Pascal (born December 18, 1994) is an American football wide receiver for the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Old Dominion.

Early life
Pascal was born in Upper Marlboro, Maryland, U.S. to Grenadian parents. He attended and played high school football at Dr. Henry A. Wise Jr. High School. During his senior season, Pascal was named first-team all county and third-team all state.

College career
Pascal attended and played college football at Old Dominion from 2014 to 2016. In 2016, he helped lead Old Dominion to the Bahamas Bowl, their first bowl game in program history. During the game, he gained 78 yards and scored a touchdown in the victory against Eastern Michigan.

Washington Redskins
Pascal signed with the Washington Redskins as an undrafted free agent following the 2017 NFL Draft. He was waived by the Redskins on September 2, 2017.

Tennessee Titans
On September 4, 2017, Pascal was signed to the practice squad of the Tennessee Titans. He was promoted to the active roster on September 20, 2017. He was waived on September 23, 2017, and was re-signed to the practice squad. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Titans on January 15, 2018. He was waived on June 14, 2018.

Indianapolis Colts
On June 15, 2018, Pascal was claimed off of waivers by the Indianapolis Colts. He competed for a spot and made the 53-man roster. In the Colts' season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals, Pascal had one reception for 18 yards to go along with two kick returns for 54 net yards. On September 30, he scored his first NFL touchdown with a pass from Andrew Luck in an overtime loss to the Houston Texans. In the 2018 season, he had 27 receptions for 268 yards and two touchdowns. In the Divisional Round loss to the Kansas City Chiefs, Pascal scored a touchdown when he recovered a blocked punt in the endzone.

On October 20, 2019, in Week 7 against the Texans, Pascal finished with 106 receiving yards and two touchdowns, marking the first time in his professional career with over 100 yards. In Week 13 against the Titans, Pascal caught seven passes for 109 yards in the 31–17 loss. On December 30, 2019, Pascal was signed to a one-year extension through 2020. Overall, Pascal finished the 2019 season with 41 receptions for 607 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns.

In Week 15 of the 2020 season against the Texans, Pascal recorded five catches for 79 yards and two touchdowns during the 27–20 win. Pascal finished the 2020 regular season with 44 receptions for 629 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns. Pascal scored a receiving touchdown in the Colts 27–24 loss to the Buffalo Bills in the Wild Card Round.

The Colts placed a second-round restricted free agent tender on Pascal on March 17, 2021. He signed the one-year contract on April 19. Pascal started the 2021 season with two receiving touchdowns in Week 1 against the Seattle Seahawks. In the 2021 season, Pascal finished with 38 receptions for 384 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns.

Philadelphia Eagles
On March 21, 2022, Pascal signed a one-year contract with the Philadelphia Eagles, reuniting him with his former Colts offensive coordinator Nick Sirianni, who is the Eagles head coach. He originally chose to wear No. 11, but switched to number 3 when the Eagles acquired A. J. Brown. In the 2022 season, Pascal appeared in 17 games and started two. He finished with 15 receptions for 150 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown, which came in Week 8 against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Pascal reached Super Bowl LVII, but the Eagles lost 38–35 to the Chiefs. In the Super Bowl, Pascal had two catches for 11 yards.

Arizona Cardinals
On March 20, 2023, Pascal signed a two-year, $4.5 million contract with the Arizona Cardinals. He appeared in 14 games and started one in the 2023 season.

title: Zach Pascal


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Talk:Ned Haig

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nummular

Etymology
From + English. is the of  + ; while  is from, from , from  (from ) +.

Adjective

 * 1)  Of or relating to coins or money.
 * 2)  Flattened with a rounded form, as a disc; coin-shaped.
 * 3)  Characterized by lesions (especially on the cornea or skin) which are round with well-defined borders.
 * 4)  Of sputum: forming flat, round shapes (formerly thought to be a symptom of tuberculosis).
 * 1)  Characterized by lesions (especially on the cornea or skin) which are round with well-defined borders.
 * 2)  Of sputum: forming flat, round shapes (formerly thought to be a symptom of tuberculosis).

Translations

 * Chinese:
 * Mandarin: 硬幣形的
 * French:
 * Italian: nummulare
 * Latin: nummulāris
 * Portuguese: numular

 * French:
 * Italian: nummulare
 * Portuguese: numular
 * Swedish: nummulär

title: nummular


text:
Template:I

 * This is similar to, which defaults to five spaces but this version defaults to three spaces when given no perameter as that proved most useful within tables when indenting in a maze of pipes and parentheses and such clutter.

title: Template:I