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User:Mitzin93/sandbox

I will be working on adding and editing content to the article "San Francisco Plague: 1900-1904" in this sandbox. I have copied and pasted the entire article here to work on it as a whole.

San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia San Francisco plague of 1900–04 Date	1900 – 1904 Location	San Francisco Cause	Bubonic plague Outcome	121 cases Deaths	119 deaths The San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 was an epidemic of bubonic plague centered on San Francisco's Chinatown. It was the first plague epidemic in the continental United States.[1] The epidemic was recognized by medical authorities in March 1900, but its existence was denied for more than two years by Henry Gage, the Governor of California. His denial was based on business reasons: the wish to keep the reputations of San Francisco and California clean and to prevent the loss of revenue from trade stopped by quarantine. The failure to act quickly may have allowed the disease to establish itself among local animal populations.[2] Federal authorities worked to build a case to prove that there was a major medical health problem, and they isolated the affected area. Proof that an epidemic was occurring served to undermine the credibility of Gage, and he lost the governorship in the 1902 elections. The new governor, George Pardee, quietly implemented a medical solution and the epidemic was stopped in 1904. There were 121 cases identified, including 119 deaths.[3][4]

After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, much of urban San Francisco was destroyed by fire, including all of the Chinatown district. The process of rebuilding began immediately but took several years. While reconstruction was in full swing, a second plague epidemic hit San Francisco in May and August 1907 but it was not centered in Chinatown. Rather, cases occurred randomly throughout the city; a few more cases were identified across the bay in Oakland. San Francisco's politicians and press reacted very differently this time: they wanted the problem solved speedily.[5] Health authorities worked quickly to assess and eradicate the disease.[6] To control one of the disease's vectors, some $2 million was spent between 1907 and 1911 to kill as many rats as possible in the city.[7] By the end of the second plague outbreak in June 1908, 160 more cases had been identified, including 78 deaths, a much lower mortality rate than 1900–1904.[8] This time, all of the infected people were Caucasian.[7] Shortly thereafter, the California ground squirrel was identified as another vector of the disease.[6] The initial denial and obstructionist response to the 1900 infection may have allowed the pathogen to gain its first toehold in North America, from which it spread sporadically to other states in the form of sylvatic plague (rural plague), though it is possible the squirrel population infection predated 1900.[2][9][10][11][12]

Contents [hide] 1	Background 2	Infection 3	Reaction 3.1    1900 3.3     1902 4	See also 5	References 6	External links Background[edit source] Main article: Third plague pandemic The third pandemic of the plague started in 1855 in China and eventually killed about 15 million people, mainly in India. In 1894, the plague hit Hong Kong, a major trade port between China and the US.[13][14] US officials were worried that other would get infection from cargo carried by ships that would cross the Pacific Ocean, for these reasons all ships were rigorously inspected. At that time, however, it was not widely known that rats could carry plague, and that fleas on those rats could transmit the disease to humans.[15] Ships arriving in US ports were declared clean after inspection of the passengers showed no signs of disease. Health officials conducted no tests on rats or fleas.[16] Despite important advances in the 1890s in the fight against bubonic plague, many of the world's doctors did not immediately change their ineffective and outdated methods.[16][17][18] In November 1898, the US Marine Hospital Service (MHS) chief surgeon, James M. Gassaway, felt obliged to refute rumors of plague in San Francisco. Supported by the city's health officer, he said that some Chinese residents had died of pneumonia or lung edema, but it was not bubonic plague.[19]

In January 1900, Honolulu's Chinatown burned down in an effort to control bubonic plague. In the newly formed US Territory of Hawaii, the city of Honolulu fell victim to the plague in December 1899. Residents of Chinatown, Honolulu, were reporting cases of fever and swollen lymph glands forming bubos, with severe internal organ damage quickly leading to death. Not knowing precisely how to control the spread of the disease, health officials of the city determined to burn the houses where victims had been found. Thousands of area residents were evacuated and quarantined for four months. Infected buildings were identified and destroyed by fire. On January 20, 1900, changing winds fanned the flames out of control, and nearly all of Chinatown burned—38 acres (15 ha)—leaving 6,000 without homes.[20][21]

San Francisco's harbor was only one short ocean voyage away from Honolulu, and medical men such as Joseph J. Kinyoun, the chief quarantine officer of the MHS in San Francisco, were worried about the infection coming to California. A Japanese ship, the S.S. Nippon Maru, arriving in San Francisco Bay in June 1899 had two plague deaths at sea, and two more cases of stowaways found dead in the bay, with postmortem cultures proving they had the plague.[22] In New York in November 1899, the British ship J.W. Taylor brought three cases of plague from Brazil, but the cases were confined to the ship.[22] The Japanese freighter S.S. Nanyo Maru arrived in Port Townsend, Washington, on January 30, 1900, with 3 deaths out of 17 cases of confirmed plague. All of these ships were quarantined; they are not known to have infected the general population. However, it is possible that plague escaped some unknown ship by way of fleas or rats, later to infect US residents.[22]

In this atmosphere of grave danger, in January 1900 Kinyoun ordered all ships coming to San Francisco from China, Japan, Australia and Hawaii to fly yellow flags to warn of possible plague on board.[23] Many entrepreneurs and sailing men felt that this was bad for business, and unfair to ships that were free of plague. City promoters were confident that plague could not take hold, and they were unhappy with what they saw as Kinyoun's high-handed abuse of authority. On February 4, 1900, the Sunday magazine supplement of the San Francisco Examiner carried an article titled "Why San Francisco Is Plague-Proof".[24] Certain American experts held the mistaken belief that a rice-based diet left Asians with a lower resistance to plague, and that a diet of meat kept Caucasians free from this disease.[25]

Infection[edit source]

Mayor James D. Phelan thought that Chinatown was a public health hazard. In January 1900, the four-masted steamship S.S. Australia laid anchor in the Port of San Francisco.[26] The ship sailed between Honolulu and San Francisco regularly, and its passengers and crew were declared clean. Its cargo from Honolulu was unloaded at a dock near the outfall of Chinatown's sewers, and rats carrying the plague may also have left the ship, though it is difficult to trace the infection to a single vessel.[27] Wherever it came from, the disease was soon established in the cramped Chinese ghetto neighborhood. A sudden increase in dead rats was seen by Chinese-American residents, possibly the result of ship-borne rats traveling up the sewers and infecting local rats.[28] Rumors of the plague's presence abounded in the city, quickly gaining the notice of authorities from MHS stationed on Angel Island in San Francisco Bay, including Chief Kinyoun.[29][30][31]

A Chinese American named Chick Gin, Wing Chung Ging or Wong Chut King became the first official plague victim in California.[32][33][34] The 41-year-old man, born in China but a resident of San Francisco for 16 years, was a bachelor living in the basement of the Globe Hotel in Chinatown at the intersection of the streets now called Grant and Jackson.[35] The Globe Hotel was built in 1857 as one of the better San Francisco hotels, with the appearance of an Italian palazzo, but by the mid-1870s it was a squalid tenement crowded with Chinese residents. Just outside, Jackson Street was the Chinese red-light district, where unmarried men could visit "hundred-men's-wives".[34] On February 7, 1900, Wong Chut King, the owner of a lumber yard, fell sick with what the Chinese doctors thought was typhus or gonorrhea, the latter a sexually transmitted disease common to Chinatown's residents at that time.[5][33] The medicine they prescribed did not give any relief and he died in his bed after suffering for four weeks. In the morning, the body was taken to a Chinese undertaker where it was examined by San Francisco police surgeon Frank P. Wilson on March 6, 1900. Wilson called for A.P. O'Brien, a city health department officer, after finding suspiciously swollen lymph glands. Wilson and O'Brien then summoned Wilfred H. Kellogg, San Francisco's city bacteriologist, and the three men performed an autopsy as night closed. Looking through his microscope, Kellogg thought he saw plague bacilli.[23][36]

Late at night, Kellogg ran the suspicious samples of lymph fluid to Angel Island to be tested on animals in Kinyoun's better-equipped laboratory; an operation that would take at least four days. Meanwhile, Wilson and O'Brien called upon the city's Board of Health and insisted that Chinatown be quarantined immediately.[37] When dawn came on March 7, 1900, Chinatown was circled by rope and surrounded by policemen preventing egress or access to anyone but Whites. The 12-block area was bordered by four streets: Broadway, Kearney, California and Stockton. Approximately 25,000–35,000 residents were unable to leave.[38][39] Chinese Consul General Ho Yow felt that the quarantine was likely based on false assumptions and that it was entirely unfair to Chinese people; he said that he would seek an injunction to lift the quarantine.[40] San Francisco mayor James D. Phelan was in favor of keeping the Chinese-speaking residents separated from the Anglo Americans; he said that the Chinese Americans were unclean, filthy, and "a constant menace to the public health."[40] Nevertheless, the Board of Health lifted the quarantine on March 9 after it had been in force for only 2½ days. O'Brien said by way of explanation that "the general clamor had become too great to ignore".[40] The animals tested in Kinyoun's lab seemed to be in normal conditions after the first 48 hours of being exposed to the possible plague-causing agents; this lack of early response cast doubt on the theory that plague was the cause of Wong Chut King's death.[41]

The scientist who confirmed the existence of plague in California, Dr. Joseph J. Kinyoun alienated the local population and government with his autocratic manner. On March 11, Kinyoun's lab presented its results. Two guinea pigs and one rat died after being exposed to samples from the first victim; this proved that plague was indeed in Chinatown.[40][42] Without restoring the quarantine, the Board of Health inspected every building in Chinatown, and labored to disinfect the neighborhood. Property was taken and burned if it was suspected of harboring filth. Using physical violence, policemen enforced compliance with the Board of Health's directives. The Chinese community was angered, and they reacted by hiding anyone who was sick.[43] On March 13, another lab animal died: a monkey that had been exposed. All the dead animals tested positive for the plague bacteria.[44] U.S. Surgeon General Walter Wyman informed the San Francisco doctors at the end of March 1900 that his laboratory confirmed the fact that fleas can carry the plague and transmit it to a new host.[45]

Reaction[edit source]

California governor Henry Gage denied there was a plague. Allied with powerful railroad and city business interests, California governor Henry Gage publicly denied the existence of any pestilent outbreak in the San Francisco, fearing that any word of the bubonic plague's presence would deeply damage the city's and state's economy.[46] Supportive newspapers, such as the Call, the Chronicle and the Bulletin, echoed Gage's denials, beginning what was to become an intense defamation campaign against quarantine officer Kinyoun.[47] In response to the state's denial, Wyman recommended to federal Treasury Secretary Lyman J. Gage that he intervene. Secretary Gage agreed, creating a three-man commission of investigators who were respected medical scholars, experienced with identifying and treating the plague in China or India. The commission examined six San Francisco cases and conclusively determined that bubonic plague was present.[11][48]

Like Kinyoun, the Treasury commission's findings were again immediately denounced by Governor Gage.[46] Gage believed the federal government's growing presence in the matter was a gross intrusion of what he viewed as a state concern. In his retaliation, Gage denied the federal commission any use of the University of California's laboratories in Berkeley to further study the outbreak, by threatening the university's state funding.[46] The Bulletin also attacked the federal commission, branding it as a "youthful and inexperienced trio."[4]

A political cartoon published in a Chinese-language daily paper in June 1900; epidemiologist Joseph J. Kinyoun being injected in the head with Waldemar Haffkine's experimental plague vaccine. Two other doctors appear to be developing buboes on their heads from the oversized inoculations. Federal judge William W. Morrow looks on. The clash between Gage and federal authorities intensified. Wyman instructed Kinyoun to place Chinatown under a second quarantine, as well as blocking all East Asians from entering state borders. Wyman also instructed Kinyoun to inoculate all persons of Asian heritage in Chinatown, using an experimental vaccine developed by Waldemar Haffkine, one known to have severe side effects. Spokesmen in Chinatown protested strenuously; they did not give their permission for this kind of mass experimentation.[49] The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, also known as the Six Companies, filed suit on behalf of Wong Wai, a merchant who took a stance against what he perceived as a violation of his personal liberty. Not quite a class action suit, the arguments included similar wording such as complaints that all residents of Chinatown were being denied "equal protection under the law", part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US constitution. Federal judge William W. Morrow ruled uncharacteristically in favor of the Chinese, largely because the defense by the State of California was unable to prove that Chinese Americans were more susceptible to plague than Anglo Americans. The decision set a precedent for greater limits placed on public health authorities seeking to isolate diseased populations.[50][51]

Between 1901 and 1902, the plague outbreak continued to worsen. In a 1901 address to both houses of the California State Legislature, Gage accused federal authorities, particularly Kinyoun, of injecting plague bacteria into cadavers, falsifying evidence.[52] In response to what he said to be massive scaremongering by the MHS, Gage pushed a censorship bill to gag any media reports of plague infection. The bill failed in the California State Legislature, yet laws to gag reports amongst the medical community succeeded in passage and were signed into law by the governor. In addition, $100,000 was allocated to a public campaign led by Gage to deny the plague's existence.[46] Privately, however, Gage sent a special commission to Washington, D.C., consisting of Southern Pacific, newspaper and shipping lawyers to negotiate a settlement with the MHS, whereby the federal government would remove Kinyoun from San Francisco with the promise that the state would secretly cooperate with the MHS in stamping out the plague epidemic.[52]

In October 1900, Kinyoun was the subject of a political cartoon about his being kicked out of his federal position. Despite the secret agreement allowing for Kinyoun's removal, Gage went back on his promise of assisting federal authorities and continued to obstruct their efforts for study and quarantine. A report issued by the State Board of Health on September 16, 1901, bolstered Gage's claims, denying the plague's outbreak.[46][53]

1900[edit source] Upon the death of Wong Chut King, the San Francisco Health Board took immediate action to prevent the spread of plague: Chinatown was quarantined. [54] Health officials wanted to prevent the propagation of the disease, they made the decision of placing Chinatown under quarantine without any notice to the residents. The quarantine was specific to Chinese residents, any white American person that was within the streets of Chinatown was allowed to leave, everybody else was forced to stay.[55] Physicians were restricted from crossing into Chinatown to identify and help the sick. The Health Board had to approve whether or not any health official crossed into the quarantined area. [56] Due to lack of evidence that the cause of death of King was plague, the quarantine was removed the day after to avoid controversy. [57]

Kinyoun's lab confirmed the disease was bubonic plague and informed the health board right away. In an attempt to avoid a second controversial quarantine, the health board continued with an house-to-house inspection to look for possible plague infested households and to disinfect those that were thought to be at risk of infection.[58] This house-to-house procedure was done mainly by volunteering physicians and residents. Other residents did not believe the inspection and disinfecting plan was done in good faith, they believed a second quarantine will be implemented. These residents that were in disbelief began to flee quietly and hide in friends' houses outside of Chinatown.[59]

As days passed, more dead bodies were reported and autopsies revealed the presence of plague bacilli, indicating that a plague epidemic had hit San Francisco's Chinatown, but the health board still was trying to deny it. The health board attempted to keep all the information regarding the outbreak secret by implementing strict regulations of what physicians could write official death certificates. [58] Nevertheless, newspapers published the news of the presence of bubonic plague in San Francisco to the entire nation.

The official inspection and disinfection of Chinatown finally began, thanks to the monetary contributions of the supervisors of the volunteer physicians, policemen, and inspectors that participated in the actual disinfection campaign. The sanitizing of Chinatown began to show results as the death toll slowly dropped through-out the month of March and the beginning of April. [58] Towards the end of April, the corpse of Law An, a Chinese laborer from a village near the Sacramento River, was found in an alley in Chinatown. The cause of death of Law An was determined to be bubonic plague. After that, a few more Chinese residents that died suddenly were determined to be infested with plague bacilli. [58] The fear that the bubonic plague was spreading intensified.

The controversy of the vaccination program organized by Kinyoun with the help of Surgeon General Wyman spiked. The plan was to inoculated the Chinese residents with a prophylactic serum that was intended to provide some protection against the plague for a 6-month period, no one spoke about the side effects and that the vaccine was still not approved for humans. [58] Most Chinese residents refused and demanded the vaccine to be tested in rats first. At first, representative of the Chinese community had agreed that inoculating the population with such serum could be a reasonable and safe solution, but soon after agreed with the rest of the Chinese population in that it was not ethical to try the vaccine in humans first. The representatives from the Chinese Six companies demanded the vaccination program to be eliminated as an option. With much pressure and insistence from the Chinese community, the vaccination program was detained, but by then hundreds of Chinese, Japanese, other residents had already received the vaccine and were presenting horrific side effects from the injection. [58]

1902[edit source] Countering the continued denials made by San Francisco-based newspapers, reports from the Sacramento Bee and the Associated Press describing the plague's spread had made the outbreak become publicly known throughout the US. The state governments of Colorado, Texas and Louisiana imposed quarantines of California, arguing that since the state had refused to admit a health crisis within its borders, states receiving rail or shipping cargo from California ports had the duty to protect themselves.[52] Threats of a national quarantine grew.[citation needed]

As the 1902 general elections approached, members of the Southern Pacific board and the "Railroad Republican" faction[54] increasingly saw Gage as an embarrassment to state Republicans. Gage's public denials of the plague outbreak were to protect the state's economy and the business interests of his political allies.[46][52] However, reports from federal agencies and certain newspapers continued to show Gage incorrect. At the state Republican convention that year, the Railroad Republican faction refused Gage renomination for the governorship. In his place, former Mayor of Oakland George Pardee, a German-trained medical physician, received the nomination. Pardee's nomination was largely a compromise between Republican factions.[citation needed]

In his final speech to the California State Legislature in early January 1903, Gage continued to deny the outbreak. He blamed the federal government, in particular Kinyoun, the MHS, and the San Francisco Board of Health for damaging the state's economy.[46][52]

title: User:Mitzin93/sandbox


text:
User:Ade1982~enwikiversity

Hi, I am Adrian and I have finally decided to give myself a home page!

I am Welsh, from a town called Merthyr Tydfil and have been around for 24 years. I currently hold two Masters degrees in Computer Science - one being an Master of Engineering from the University of Wales, Swansea, and also I am completing a Master of Philosophy at the University of Manchester, where I am currently a student. My thesis is concerned with real-time systems and developing techniques for their compositional model checking.

Currently, an advisor in the school of Computer Science.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Ade1982~enwikiversity


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of North American professional sports teams by type of name

The result was   delete. Missvain (talk) 07:40, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

List of North American professional sports teams by type of name

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

This page seems rather ridiculous to me, and I have spent a lot of time on it. Where does it end, should the Canadian Football League be included in it, why not minor league sports, or university? It is entirely original research (understanding that most of it is entirely self evident), however I don't think that a page listing all pro sports teams by arbitrary grouping of team name is really necessary. I also don't believe that the grouping of team names is a particularly notable topic in its own right either. kelapstick(bainuu) 20:17, 7 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete as WP:OR. Somebody with way too much time on their hands came up with their own classifications (livestock?). Clarityfiend (talk) 01:42, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete as per Clarityfiend. No Matter How Dark (talk) 02:39, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Sports-related deletion discussions. N ORTH A MERICA 1000 13:23, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Lists-related deletion discussions. N ORTH A MERICA 1000 13:23, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Canada-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 13:56, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of United States of America-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 13:56, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Delete. This is too hilarious to be serious. It's entirely unencyclopaedic wp:listcruft. T.C.Haliburtontalk nerdy to me 01:18, 12 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete. As above, it's listcruft. It has a useful place in the world, but that place is a sports fansite and not Wikipedia. Aspirex (talk) 06:59, 13 February 2015 (UTC)


text:
Origins (Judge Dredd story)

"Origins" is one of the longest Judge Dredd storylines to run in the pages of British comic 2000 AD. Making extensive use of flashbacks, it tells the story of how the Judges of Mega-City One rose to power. It was written by John Wagner and illustrated by Carlos Ezquerra, who between them created Judge Dredd in 1977. The story ran to 23 episodes and was published from 2006 to 2007 to mark thirty years of the Judge Dredd strip. It is set in 2129, Dredd's debut story having been set in 2099.

Wagner explained:

2000 AD editor Matt Smith has expanded on this to touch on the contents:

Publication history
"Origins" was preceded by a five-episode story called "The Connection", written by John Wagner and drawn by Kev Walker. It appeared in progs (issues) 1500-1504 and was immediately followed by "Origins" in progs 1505-1519 and 1529–1535. It had been intended that the final episode would appear in the comic's celebratory thirtieth anniversary issue, but publication was interrupted because artist Carlos Ezquerra moved house during his work on the story. The editor decided to permit him time to finish the strip himself rather than replace him with another artist.

"The Connection"
The prologue story introduces a team of mutants from the radioactive Cursed Earth desert outside Mega-City One, who infiltrate the city. Working for an unseen character called Linus, their task is to deliver a small box to the Grand Hall of Justice in the centre of the city. They are all killed by Judge Dredd while accomplishing this task, but Dredd fails to retrieve the box. The contents of the box are not revealed until the first episode of "Origins."

Meanwhile, Dredd, between his efforts to catch the mutants, has recurring dreams about his clone father, Chief Judge Fargo, and his brother, Rico Dredd (both long deceased). The dreams hint about the epic story to follow.

Premise
The box is delivered to Chief Judge Hershey, who informs Dredd that it contains a ransom note and a sample of living tissue which matches the DNA of Judge Fargo, the first chief judge and the revered founder of the Judge System. (Forensic tests establish that toxins in the tissue show that the source lived through the last century, and so the sample must be Fargo's rather than Dredd's.) The note requires payment of a billion credits in exchange for Fargo's body. As required by the terms of the exchange, Dredd leads a small, lightly armed party on a mission across the hostile Cursed Earth to retrieve their esteemed "Father of Justice."

Since Fargo was believed to have died in the year 2051, and the mission takes place in 2129, much of the story consists of Dredd explaining to the members of his team how it is that Fargo might still be alive – a secret history which was concealed from the public for decades.

Flashbacks
The middle chapters of "Origins" cover Fargo's life history, and how he founded his Judge System in 2031. After serving twenty years as chief judge, however, Fargo succumbed to a moment of weakness and had an illicit affair with a female colleague, something strictly forbidden by the Judges' code of celibacy. Unable to cope with his own lapse in the exacting moral standards he had inflexibly demanded of his subordinates, Fargo tendered his resignation to the President of the United States. Spurning the entreaties of his two deputies, Judge Solomon and Judge Goodman, and of President Pierce, to reconsider his decision and resume his office, Fargo instead chose to commit suicide. However his attempt to take his own life failed, leaving him with significant brain-damage and without the use of his legs.

Fearing that their political enemies would use the scandalous circumstances of Fargo's resignation and injuries to destroy Fargo's legacy, Solomon and Goodman covered them up. Using sophisticated video technology, they faked footage of Fargo bravely sacrificing his life in the line of duty, gunned down in a brutal drive-by shooting. This enabled them to present Fargo as a martyr, increasing public support for the Judges. This deception had been conceived while Fargo's doctors had predicted that he would not survive long. However Fargo defied their expectations and began to slowly recover. He was therefore kept in a secret medical facility, isolated from the world so that the cover-up would not be discovered. When his condition began to deteriorate again, Chief Judge Solomon had him cryogenically frozen in suspended animation until such time as medical science could cure him.

By 2070 President Robert Linus Booth was in the White House, having illegally rigged the voting computers to win the 2068 presidential election, and murdered one of his aides who threatened to expose the fraud. Booth pursued an aggressive foreign policy, openly stating that he would begin a nuclear war if the rest of the world did not comply with his demands. The Judges – now led by Chief Judge Goodman – attempted to dissuade him, but to no avail, and the Third World War laid waste to most of the world. Booth had believed that his new "nuclear screens" would protect America from retaliation, but only Mega-City One on the east coast, Mega-City Two on the west coast, and Texas City survived. The rest of America was virtually annihilated, creating the Cursed Earth which became populated by mutants and outlaws. Consequently, another of Booth's aides turned against him and provided Goodman with evidence of Booth's earlier crimes. Goodman made the evidence public, and public opinion turned against Booth. A demonstration outside the White House became a massacre when troops opened fire on the crowd. But the evidence of election fraud was not conclusive, and impeachment proceedings against Booth were too slow for Goodman to protect his position, for Booth had discovered that Fargo was alive and had been revived from suspended animation. Booth sent troops to arrest Fargo, intending to expose the myth of his death and thereby destroy the Judges' reputation for integrity.

Joe and Rico Dredd, cadets at the time, managed to rescue Fargo from capture. However Goodman realised that urgent action was needed to defeat Booth, and the constitutional mechanism for trying him and removing him from office could not be completed in time. On Fargo's advice, Goodman deposed Booth, suspended Congress, and usurped the government of the United States. For his crimes Booth was sentenced to 100 years in suspended animation, to let posterity decide his ultimate fate. Goodman became dictator of the United States (which soon split into three sovereign city-states), with Fargo – his existence still a secret – advising him from behind the scenes.

However Fargo soon deteriorated again. He also became demoralised, having intended that the overthrow of democratic government should be temporary, and regretting his own part in establishing a lasting dictatorship. Shortly after surviving an assassination attempt by renegade judge Morton Judd, Fargo was returned to suspended animation once more. However, only one month later Fargo's body was stolen by Judd's agents. When Judd was eventually brought to justice and Fargo's body was still not recovered, it was thought lost forever.

Conclusion
Thirty years later Booth's cryogenic machinery failed, and he was inadvertently revived. Judge Dredd resentenced him to life working on a farm in the Cursed Earth, to make amends for the destruction he unleashed on America. (This was first portrayed in the 1978 story "The Cursed Earth".)

Instead however Booth raised an army of mutants, the "New Mutant Army," who he intended to use to overthrow the Judges and become president again. By 2129 he had discovered Fargo's stolen cryogenic unit, which had been lost in the Cursed Earth when Judd's agents' hovership crashed. When Dredd attempted to exchange the ransom for Fargo, Booth double-crossed him and put him on trial for treason, intending to execute him. However Dredd had anticipated this and planned a timely rescue by his comrades. Taken hostage for use as a human shield, Booth was killed by his own side during the ensuing battle.

Back in Mega-City One, Fargo was revived again, but this time he did not survive. His final words were spoken to Dredd alone: "We created a monster ... we're the monster!" He told Dredd that the Judges had gone too far and had destroyed America, and urged Dredd to do everything he could to undo it.

Dredd's reaction to this plea was not shown, but when Chief Judge Hershey asked him what Fargo's last words had been, Dredd lied and pretended that Fargo had said something else less controversial. Fans speculated at the time that this indicated that this theme may be followed up in later stories. This speculation was soon proved correct.

Epilogue
"Origins" was soon followed up in a series of stories, starting with "Mutants in Mega-City One", written by John Wagner. In the first episode Dredd admitted to Hershey that he had lied about Fargo's last words. Hershey in turn admitted that Fargo had said the same thing to her, and that she had told the same lie to Dredd. However whereas Dredd took Fargo's warning seriously, Hershey dismissed it as the ravings of a brain-damaged invalid, adding that she hoped Dredd would not consider resigning over their differences.

This story also featured the return of some of the mutant Fargo Clan (who were first seen, briefly, in "Origins") – mutant descendants of Fargo, and therefore Dredd's relatives. In this story, Dredd put forward a motion to repeal the anti-mutant laws, beginning a new story arc about mutants.

Supporting characters
"Origins" introduced some new characters, Dredd's cousin Randy Fargo and his family, a clan of mutants living in the Cursed Earth, who returned to the strip in the sequel "Mutants in Mega-City One."

In addition to the judges who appeared in the flashback episodes described above, the following characters appeared in the story in the "present day" of 2129, as members of Dredd's team:

 * Judge Logan
 * Judge Renga
 * Judge Sanchez

Collected editions
Both stories were released as a trade paperback in 2007, with a cover by Brian Bolland (ISBN 1-905437-23-4), and in a volume in the series "Judge Dredd: The Mega Collection" by Hachette Partworks in 2015.

Reviews

 * "Judge Dredd: Origins – a comic that should be a movie", by Rob Leane, The Guardian, 12 September 2014
 * Den of Geek, 18 November 2014
 * Big Comic Page, 5 March 2015

title: Origins (Judge Dredd story)


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Talk:Ramón Núñez

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Cookbook:Atkins Diet Cooking

The Atkins diet is a diet in which one eats a low level of carbohydrates and larger amounts of protein, including meats, poultry, and fish. Dieters avoid simple carbohydrates (refined sugar and starch (ie.flour) as well as most forms of sugar, starches (including starchy vegetables like potatoes), milk (but not cream or cheese), and grains (including most breads). During the initial 'induction' phase, during which the dieter is limited to no more than 20 net carbohydrates per day, there is a long list of vegetables that are generally felt to be too high in carbohydrates for the Atkins diet, including sweetcorn, peas, potato and others. Some people include carrots in their list of no-nos. However, green beans and many other vegetables such as asparagus, cabbage, broccoli, lettuce, courgettes/zucchini, aubergines/eggplant are OK and encouraged within the Atkins diet, even during the early stages.

Net carbohydrates are defined as total carbohydrates minus fiber content and sugar alcohols. It is net carbohydrates that are monitored by those practising the Atkins way of life. In fact, one of the first goals of Atkins is to discover your unique CCL, or Critical Carbohydrate Level. This number is simply the number of net carbs that can be eaten daily to maintain a fixed weight. There are four phases to Atkins:

 * 1) Induction
 * 2) Ongoing Weight Loss
 * 3) Pre-Maintenance
 * 4) Lifetime Maintenance

As one moves through the four phases, more variety in food types can be added to the diet, including some breads, fruit, etc. that are considered taboo during the very early stages.

Artificial sweeteners are generally used instead of sugar, and Atkins recipes have high levels of protein. Fat is not avoided. A typical Atkins-approved dessert might be fresh berries served with heavy cream mixed with splenda.

It should be noted that while Atkins works well for short-term weight loss for many people, its long term side effects are continually debated. Therefore, one would be wise to do research and consult a doctor before beginning this diet. Thereafter, your doctor will be able to advise you as to the frequency of additional physical check-ups.

The following recipes were created for the Atkins diet or are otherwise acceptable on it:

 * Atkins-friendly Tira Misu
 * Atkins-friendly Chocolate Mousse

Consider replacing bananas with pawpaws, which are generally more nutritious.

title: Cookbook:Atkins Diet Cooking


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Tom Elliot

Thomas Elliot MBE (6 April 1926 – 3 May 1998) was a Scotland international rugby union player. His regular playing position was Prop.

Amateur career
Elliot was born into a farming family in the Scottish Borders. He was educated at St. Mary's School, Melrose and at Loretto School, Musselburgh. After school he joined Gala RFC and played for the 2XV at lock. He soon moved to loose-head prop and over the next fifteen years made the position his own. Early in his career he gained a reputation for rumbustious play. Bill McLaren described him as "a tough rugged son of the soil".

Provincial career
Elliot was capped by South of Scotland District.

International career
Elliot made his debut for Scotland in the 1955 Five Nations Championship. Scotland beat 14–8 at Murrayfield. His next match against resulted in another victory at the same venue. Elliot also played in a narrow 9–6 defeat to at Twickenham.

In the 1956 Five Nations Championship he played all four matches. Scotland won one match against France at Murrayfield. The following year Scotland won two matches in the 1957 Five Nations Championship; Elliot played in every match. He played two matches in the 1958 Five Nations Championship, losing to Wales and Ireland. In between he played in a 12–8 victory over at Murrayfield on their 1957–58 Australia rugby union tour of Britain, Ireland and France.

Elliot was selected for the 1955 British Lions tour to South Africa, alongside his compatriot and fellow prop Hugh McLeod. If it were not for the outstanding Meredith brothers from Wales, they would have played in the Test matches. As it was Elliot played eight of the midweek games. He also played for the Barbarian F.C.

Farming career
Elliot had farming interests in the Borders and Sutherland. He was a former president of the Selkirk branch of the National Farmers Union of Scotland, and former president of the Borders area. His animals often won championships at the Royal Highland Show near Edinburgh, of which he became a director. Elliot was also a past president of the Cheviot Sheep Society, member of the government's Hill Farming Advisory Committee and a director of the Moredun Foundation. For his contributions to farming he was awarded an MBE in 1989.

title: Tom Elliot


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Talk:Myra Adele Logan

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 August 2021 and 25 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Aswomenandmed, Sarahbbeth, Kyliehutch82, Callie.compton, Maria Muñoz01. Peer reviewers: Lexiwalton.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 13:45, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Myra Adele Logan


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Georgia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2015

Georgia selected their Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2015 entry through an internal selection like they've done in previous years. On 25 September 2015 it was revealed that group The Virus will represent Georgia in the contest with the song "Gabede". Georgia ended in tenth place with 51 points.

Internal selection
Like Georgia has done most years since their début in the contest, the Georgian broadcaster GPB decided to internally select their 2015 artist after holding an open audition. It was originally announced on 5 August 2015 that Liza, Elen, Tako and Data will represent Georgia, however on 25 September 2015 it was revealed that they would perform as a group The Virus.

The Virus
The Virus is a Georgian pop group, consisting of singers: Elee Kay (Elene Kezhrishvili), Tako Gagnidze, Lizi Tavberidze and Data Pavliashvili. They are notable for having represented Georgia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2015, placing tenth out of seventeen entries.

Gabede
"Gabede" (Dare) is a song by the Georgian pop group "The Virus" and it will represent Georgia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2015 in Bulgaria.

At Junior Eurovision
At the running order draw which took place on 15 November 2015, Georgia were drawn to perform second on 21 November 2015, following preceding.

The final was broadcast in Georgia on GPB 1TV with commentary by Tuta Chkheidze. The Georgian spokesperson, who announced the Georgian votes during the final, was Lizi Pop (the representative for Georgia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014).

Final
Elen, Lizi, Data and Tako lined up as they appeared on stage and looked to the audience during their opening shot. The background was black with blue lines, stars and triangles.

At the end of the voting, Georgia placed 10th with 51 points.

Voting
The voting during the final consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation. The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. In addition, no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member were released one month after the final.

Following the release of the full split voting by the EBU after the conclusion of the competition, it was revealed that Georgia had placed 11th with the public televote and 11th with the jury vote. In the public vote, Georgia scored 41 points, while with the jury vote, Georgia scored 40 points.

Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Georgia and awarded by Georgia in the final and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the final.

Detailed voting results
The following members comprised the Georgian jury:
 * Nato Dumbadze
 * Natalia Xarashvili
 * Maka Davitaia
 * Oto Nemsadze
 * Goga Meskhi


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List of Coop & Cami Ask the World episodes

Coop & Cami Ask the World is an American comedy television series created by Boyce Bugliari and Jamie McLaughlin that premiered on Disney Channel on October 12, 2018. It stars Dakota Lotus and Ruby Rose Turner as Coop and Cami Wrather, two middle school-aged siblings who crowdsource their decision-making online, with Olivia Sanabia, Albert Tsai, Paxton Booth, and Rebecca Metz also starring. The series ran for two seasons, airing its final episode on September 11, 2020.


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US History/Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny

The Election of 1840
President Martin Van Buren was blamed for the Panic of 1837, but felt that he deserved to be reelected in 1840. Van Buren was a Democrat from New York who had continued the policies of Andrew Jackson. To oppose him the Whig Party joined to bring in a hero of the Indian wars, William Henry Harrison, "Old Tippecanoe." The ticket was balanced by the Vice Presidential candidate, a Southerner named John Tyler.

The Harrison campaign was thoroughly managed. The campaign song, "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too," was headed with an image of the log cabin where Harrison had supposedly grown up. Paid staffers went to frontier towns rolling a huge canvas ball, inscribed, "Keep it rolling for Tippecanoe and Tyler Too." (The American idiom "Keep the ball rolling" comes from this usage.) The ball would stop in front of a local tavern, then a common meeting place of the community. There they would stage a rally, typically with some free cider. Another sign of Harrison's plain man status was his title as "the hard cider candidate." There was little discussion of the issues. For its part, Van Buren's campaign called Harrison a provincial, out-of-touch old man. (The latter was then sixty-eight years old, a rare age in those days.)

Harrison won, and gave an hours-long, polished inaugural speech to prove his sophistication. Three weeks afterward, he came down with a cold which turned into pneumonia. He died in April of 1841, and John Tyler was sworn in as President. Thus the Whig Party, predominately Northern and ambivalent about slavery, elected a Virginian advocate of slavery and opponent of the American System. This was a startling omen for those like Clay who believed in American unity.

John Tyler Presidency
Tyler's dislike of Jackson had moved him to change his party from Democrat to Whig. His government marked the only Whig presidency. His supporters included formerly anti-Jackson Democrats and National Republicans. He supported states' rights; so when many of the Whig bills came to him, they were never voted in. In fact, Tyler vetoed the entire Whig congressional agenda. The Whigs saw this as a party leader turning on his own party. He was officially expelled from the Whig party in 1841.

The Tyler presidency threw the Whig party into disarray. Because of divisions between the two factions in the party, the Whigs could not agree on one goal. Much of the public did not take Tyler's presidency seriously. They saw his lack of appeal in Congress and the embarrassing resignations of all of but one of Harrison's cabinet appointees in a single month. Yet Tyler's administration helped polarize the two parties. When he appointed John C. Calhoun, a staunch pro-slavery Democrat, as his Secretary of State, he confirmed a growing feeling that Democrats were the party of the South and Whigs the party of the North. In the election of 1844, Whigs voted by sectional ties. Because of these weakening divisions within the party, the Democratic candidate, James Polk, won. After one term, the Whigs were out of power.

Manifest Destiny

Many Western European-descended "White" Americans supported anti-Native American policies. The theme of conquest over the Indian was seen as early as John Filson's story of Daniel Boone in 1784. In the Nineteenth Century this was joined to the conviction that the United States was destined to take over the whole continent of North America, the process of Manifest Destiny articulated by John O' Sullivan in 1845.[source needed] America carried the Bible, civilization, and democracy: the Indian had none of these. Many European descendants believed other ethnic groups, including those people imported as slaves from Africa and their descendants, were childlike, stupid, and feckless. It was the duty of so-called superior groups to meet these inferior groups and to dominate them. So-called inferior ethnic groups could not advance technologically or spiritually. The idea of Manifest Destiny resulted in the murders and dislocation of millions of people. The Cherokee had been converted to Christianity, they were by-and-large peaceful, and they were using a self-invented alphabet to print newspapers. But their deportation, the "Trail of Tears," was justified by Manifest Destiny. The conviction was behind the Louisiana Purchase, the final shaking of French colonialism in what would become the Continental United States. It was behind the defeat of Spanish and Mexicans in a succession of skirmishes and wars. It helped send out pro- and anti-slavery factions across new areas, and still later brought about legislation such as the Homestead Act.

Amistad Case
In February of 1839, Portuguese slave hunters abducted a large group of Africans from Sierra Leone and shipped them to Havana, Cuba, a center for the slave trade. This abduction violated all of the treaties then in existence. Fifty-three Africans were purchased by two Spanish planters and put aboard the Cuban schooner Amistad for shipment to a Caribbean plantation. On July 1, 1839, the Africans seized the ship, killed the captain and the cook, and ordered the planters to sail to Africa. On August 24, 1839, the Amistad was seized off Long Island, NY, by the U.S. brig Washington. The planters were freed and the Africans were imprisoned in New Haven, CT, on charges of murder. Although the murder charges were dismissed, the Africans continued to be held in confinement as the focus of the case turned to salvage claims and property rights. President Van Buren was in favor of extraditing the Africans to Cuba. However, abolitionists in the North opposed extradition and raised money to defend the Africans. Claims to the Africans by the planters, the government of Spain, and the captain of the brig led the case to trial in the Federal District Court in Connecticut. The court ruled that the case fell within Federal jurisdiction and that the claims to the Africans as property were not legitimate because they were illegally held as slaves. The case went to the Supreme Court in January 1841, and former President John Quincy Adams argued the defendants' case. Adams defended the right of the accused to fight to regain their freedom. The Supreme Court decided in favor of the Africans, and 35 of them were returned to their homeland. The others died at sea or in prison while awaiting trial. The result, widely publicized court cases in the United States helped the abolitionist movement.

Technology
The canals had been a radical innovation. But they had their limitations. They could only overcome mountains with complicated, overland bypasses, and in winter they froze, stopping traffic completely. But an answer was found in the steam-driven, coal-powered engine. The steamboat was already bringing cotton and people up the rivers, erasing an age-old transportation problem. The development of railroad engines made travel and manufacture possible even in winter. It made the expensive canal obsolete: wherever you could run a rail, you could have a town. And the coal-fired, steam-powered engine could bring manufacturing to places without great rivers. The prosperity of the New England mill towns could be replicated elsewhere.

Coal and its byproducts became a major industry in America. (In the 1850s some German cities became known for creating coal-based dyes to make bold-colored fabrics.) Iron works and glass plants built large furnaces, fueled by coke, a coal derivative. They were contained by huge buildings. Steam-boats burned coke. So did steam-driven works. Smoke and smut from industry and household coal fires poured into city air. In his 1842 tour of Pittsburgh, Charles Dickens looked at the haze and fire and called it "Hell with the lid off."

Canals, railroads, and the teletype system tied the country together in a way thought impossible in 1790. They increased the market for goods, and thus the demand. The Second Industrial Revolution produced faster ways of satisfying that demand. In 1855 Henry Bessemer patented a furnace which could turn iron into steel, in high quantity. Iron workers, "puddlers," had worked slowly and regularly, had been paid a high wage, and had been considered craftsmen. The new steelworkers did not need that skill. They could be paid more cheaply. In other industries, faster processes of work either made a mockery of the apprenticeship system or eliminated it altogether. Manufacturers faced the same situation of the New England cloth makers a generation before, and solved it another way. To find fresh, fast, cheap labor, you could often hire children. You didn't have to pay them as much, and they didn't complain. Where children used to work on the farm, they now worked in groups in factories for higher wages. These children were, at the best, expected to work long and hard. (It was cheaper to run big machines in shifts than to have them idle all night.) Boys and girls worked naked in the coal mines; boys got burned in the glassworks; boys got maimed or killed running heavy machinery. None of them went to school, so even the ones who survived to adulthood were unfit for jobs when they came of age.

The ideals of Thomas Jefferson were dead. Instead of craftsmen and farmers living by their own hands, the cities were being filled by people who owned little or nothing, getting on by the wages paid by often indifferent employers. This was true in New England and the Middle States, though not in the South (except for the Tregar Ironworks in Richmond, Virginia, itself partially manned by slaves). Politicians such as John C. Calhoun jeered at Northern "wage slaves," and dreamed of a South with the technology and government of Sparta.

Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850 was an intricate package of five bills passed in September 1850. It defused a four-year confrontation between the slave states of the South and the free states of the North that arose following the Mexican-American War. The compromise, drafted by Whig Henry Clay and brokered by Democrat Stephen Douglas, quieted sectional conflict for four years. The calm was greeted with relief, although each side disliked specific provisions. Texas surrendered its claim to New Mexico, but received debt relief and the Texas Panhandle, and retained the control over El Paso that it had established earlier in 1850. The South avoided the humiliating Wilmot Proviso, but did not receive desired Pacific territory in Southern California or a guarantee of slavery south of a territorial compromise line like the Missouri Compromise Line or the 35th parallel north. As compensation, the South received the possibility of slave states by popular sovereignty in the new New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory, which, however, were unsuited to plantation agriculture and populated by non-Southerners; a stronger Fugitive Slave Act, which in practice outraged Northern public opinion; and preservation of slavery in the national capital, although the slave trade was banned there except in the portion of the District of Columbia that adjoined Virginia. The Compromise became possible after the sudden death of President Zachary Taylor, who, although a slave owner himself, tried to implement the Northern policy of excluding slavery from the Southwest. Whig leader Henry Clay designed a compromise, which failed to pass in early 1850. In the next session of Congress, Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois narrowly passed a slightly modified package over opposition by extremists on both sides, including Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.

Texas and Mexico
Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821. Weakened by more than a decade of struggle, the new Republic of Mexico attempted to attract settlers from the United States to the then-sparsely populated Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas. The first white settlers were 200 families led by Stephen F. Austin as a part of a business venture started by Austin's father. Despite nominal attempts to ensure that immigrants would be double penetrated with Mexican cultural values -- by requiring, for example, acceptance of Catholicism and a ban on slave holding -- Mexico's immigration policy led to the whites, rather than Mexicans, becoming the demographic majority in Texas by the 1830's, their beliefs and American values intact.

Due to past US actions in Texas, Mexico feared that white Americans would convince the United States to annex Texas and Mexico. In April 1830, Mexico issued a proclamation that people from the United States could no longer enter Texas. Mexico also would start to place custom duties on goods from the United States. In October 1835, white colonists in Texas revolted against Mexico by attacking a Mexican fort at Goliad, defeating the Mexican garrison. At about the same time, the Mexican president, Antonio López de Santa Anna, provoked a constitutional crisis that was among the causes of the revolt in Texas, as well as a rebellion in the southern Mexican province of Yucután. An official declaration of Texas independence was signed at Goliad that December. The next March, the declaration was officially enacted at the Texan capital of Washington-on-the-Brazos, creating the Republic of Texas.

A few days before the enactment of the declaration, a Mexican force led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna laid siege to the Alamo, a mission in present day San Antonio. Vastly outnumbered, fewer than 200 Texans at San Antonio de Béxa, renamed the Alamo, held out for 12 days, until the final attack at dawn on March 6, 1836. Santa Anna, as he had promised during the siege, killed the few prisoners taken in the capture. Though the Alamo had been garrisoned in contravention of orders from Sam Houston, who had been placed in charge of Texan armed forces, the delay their defense forced on the Mexican army allowed the Texan government some crucial time to organize.

The next month saw the battle of San Jacinto, the final battle of the Texas Revolution. A force of 800 led by Sam Houston, empowered by their rallying war cry of "Remember the Alamo!", defeated Santa Anna's force of 1600 as they camped beside the sluggish creek for which the 20-minute-long battle is named. Santa Anna himself was captured and the next day signed the Treaties of Velasco, which ended Mexico-Texas hostilities. After the fighting had ended, Texas asked to be admitted to the Union, but Texas's request forced Congress to an impasse.

One of the most significant problems with the annexation of Texas was slavery. Despite Mexican attempts to exclude the practice, a number of white-Texans held slaves, and the new Republic of Texas recognized the practice as legitimate. In the United States, The Missouri Compromise of 1818 provided for an equality in the numbers of slave and non-slave states in the US, and to allow Texas to join would upset that power balance. For about ten years, the issue was unresolved, until President James Polk agreed to support the annexation of Texas. In 1845, Texas formally voted to join the US. The Mexicans, however, who had never formally recognized Texas's independence, resented this decision.

The southern boundary with Texas had never officially been settled and when the United States moved federal troops into this disputed territory, war broke out (assisted by raids carried out across the border by both sides). In the Mexican-American War, as this was called, the US quickly defeated the Mexican Army by 1848. The peace settlement, called the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ceded one-third of Mexico's territory to the United States. In addition to Texas, with the border fixed at the Rio Grande River, the United States acquired land that would become the present-day states of New Mexico, California, Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming; the US paid Mexico $15 million. However, the new territories posed even more problems relating to slavery: the balance between slave and non-slave states seemed threatened again.

Oregon
In 1824 and 1825 Russia gave up its claim to Oregon. The U.S. and British Canada jointly made an agreement for occupation. However, disputes surfaced over the northwestern boundary of the US and the southwestern boundary of Canada. The US claimed that it owned land south of Alaska, while the British claimed that the boundary was drawn at present-day Oregon. President Polk, who had initiated the dispute, gave Great Britain an ultimatum - negotiate or go to war. On June 15, 1846, Britain agreed to give up the land south of the 49th parallel, while keeping Vancouver Island and navigation rights to the Columbia River. Polk agreed. Comparing this incident to the president's aggressiveness toward Mexico, several individuals [whom?] concluded that Polk favored the causes of the South over those of the North.

Oregon Trail
Sometimes Native Americans and white settlers met in peace. During the twenty years after 1840, around 250,000 to 500,000 people walked the Oregon Trail across most of the continent on foot, with the trek taking an average of seven months. Many of these settlers were armed in preparation for Native attack, but the majority of the encounters were peaceful. Most of the starting points were along the Missouri River, including Independence, St. Joseph, and Westport, Missouri. Many settlers set out on organized wagon trains, while others went on their own. Settlers timed their departures so they would arrive after spring, allowing their livestock days of pasture at the end, and yet early enough to not travel during the harsh winter. Walking beside their wagons, settlers would usually cover fifteen miles a day. Men, women and children sometimes endured weather ranging from extreme heat to frozen winter in their 2,000 mile journey West. If a traveler became ill, he or she would have no doctor and no aid apart from fellow travelers. Only the strong finished the trail. Although most interactions between Native Americans and settlers were undertaken in good faith, sometimes things went bad. Eventually hostile relations would escalate into full blown war and many years of bloodshed.

California Territory
When war broke out between the United States and Mexico in 1845, a few white settlers in the Sacramento Valley in the Mexican state of California seized the opportunity to advance white business interests by declaring independence from Mexico despite the wishes of many Mexicans and natives present in California. Before the arrival of Europeans, scholars place the population of California at 10 million natives. The sparsely populated Bear Flag Republic, as the new nation was called, quickly asked the US for protection from Mexico, allowing US military operations in the new Republic's territory. As skirmishes occurred in California, Mexicans suffered many abuses at the hands of the new white government.

When the war ended, the California territory and a large surrounding territory were ceded by Mexico to the US in exchange for $15 million. The territory included what would become present day California, Nevada, Utah, most of New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado and a small part of Wyoming. The continental US was nearly complete. The final piece would come in 1853, when southern Arizona and New Mexico were bought from Mexico for $10 million. The land from the purchase, known as the Gadsden Purchase, was well suited for building a southern transcontinental railroad.

California Gold Rush
In 1848 gold was found at the mill of John Sutter, who lived in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, 40 miles east of Sacramento. Word of the gold on the American River (the river on which Sutter's mill was located on) spread, and hordes of people rushed into California to mine gold. The rush peaked in 1849, and those who came during that year were known as "forty-niners." The population of the northern California city of San Francisco exploded as a result of the immigration to the region.

Many immigrants that joined the Gold Rush did not find opportunity but rather discrimination at the hands of white prospectors and newly changed government. One of these, Joaquin Murrieta, known as the Mexican Robin Hood, had become a bandit and hero of those still loyal to Mexico. As a reaction the Governor of California, John Bigler, formed the California Rangers. This group went after and allegedly found Murrieta and his companions. They cut off his head, which was later put on display. Many still doubt whether the person the California Rangers decapitated was actually Murrieta or some other poor soul. Be that as it may, the memory of Murrieta is still much loved and respected by Mexican Americans today.

Apart from being gained by a handful of very lucky prospectors, a great deal of the wealth generated by the Gold Rush belonged to those who owned businesses that were relevant to gold mining. For example, Levi Strauss, a German Jew, invented denim pants for prospectors when he observed that normal pants could not withstand the strenuous activities of mining. Strauss eventually became a millionaire, and the Levi's brand still is recognized today.

The Birth of the Latter Day Saints
One continuation of the Second Great Revival is seen in the birth of an American faith, Mormonism, or The Church of God of the Latter Day Saints. Joseph Smith, a resident of New York State, said that he had found golden plates. The documents which he supposedly translated from these plates revealed what he said was a restoration of the faith which Jesus and the apostles had known, a new American-based order. In 1830 he organized what he designated The Church of Christ, or the Church of the Latter Day Saints. This body spread through conversion, its truth seen in its organization and its prosperity. It had several divergences from existing United States law, including the doctrine that men might have more than one wife. After Smith had been arrested in 1844 in Illinois, charged by civil officials with starting a riot and with treason, a crowd broke into the jail where he was being held and murdered him.

The Great Mormon Exodus

Yet the Latter Day Saints persevered. Smith's successor was another prophet, Brigham Young. Continued conflict between the U.S. Government, most signally the state of Illinois, and the Mormons led to the decision to leave the States and go to a less-settled place. The territory of Utah, obtained through the wars with Mexico, certainly counted as less-settled: a vast alkali desert, punctuated by grotesque mountains, and sparsely peopled by Spanish-speaking settlements and Indian tribes.

The Mormons began sending out a few pioneers for the new territory as early as 1846. In the two decades afterward, while conversion and population growth further increased the Mormons, about 70,000 people made the trek through difficult conditions. In some cases the migrants walked on foot through hostile landscapes, carrying all their goods with them in handcarts they pulled themselves.

When they reached Utah, they formed tightly-organized, top-down structures driven by doctrine and individual discipline. The settlers diverted mountain streams to their fields. In places which had been waste, they created fertile farms and productive vegetable gardens.

Continuing Skirmishes
Yet even in this new land, conflicts continued between Mormons and the U.S. government. In the spring of 1857, President James Buchanan appointed a non-Mormon, Alfred Cumming, as governor of the Utah Territory, replacing Brigham Young, and dispatched troops to enforce the order. The Mormons prepared to defend themselves and their property; Young declared martial law and issued an order on Sept. 15, 1857, forbidding the entry of U.S. troops into Utah. The order was disregarded, and throughout the winter sporadic raids were conducted by the Mormon militia against the encamped U.S. army. Buchanan dispatched (Apr., 1858) representatives to work out a settlement, and on June 26, the army entered Salt Lake City, Cumming was installed as governor, and peace was restored.

In 1890, the president of the Mormon Church, Wilford Woodruff, ruled that there would be no more plural marriages. Other distinctive practices which had become Church practice under Joseph Smith continued, including theocratic rule and declaration of people as gods. By 1896, when Utah became one of the United States, it was both Mormon and as American as Massachusetts or New York State.

Public Schools and Education
The Board of Education in Massachusetts was established in 1837, making it the oldest state board in the United States. Its responsibilities were and are to interpret and implement laws for public education in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Public education in the Commonwealth was organized by the regulations adopted by the Board of Education, which were good faith interpretations of Massachusetts and federal law. The Board of Education was also responsible for granting and renewing school applications, developing and implementing the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System, submitting yearly budget proposals for public education to the Massachusetts General Court, setting standards for teachers, certifying teachers, principals, and superintendents, and monitoring achievements of districts in the Commonwealth.

There was a movement for reform in public education. The leader of this movement was Horace Mann, a Massachusetts lawyer and reformer. He supported free, tax-supported education to replace church schools and the private schools set up by untrained, young men. Mann proposed universal education, which would help Americanize immigrants. During Mann’s tenure as secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education from 1837 to 1848, Massachusetts led the common school movement brought training for teachers, lengthened school years and raised the teachers pay to attract people to that profession.

In this period education began being extended more and more to women. Early elementary schools had separate rooms for boy students and girl students. Now some elementary classes became co-educational, and women began to be hired as teachers. The first woman's college, Mt. Holyoke, was founded in South Hadley, Massachusetts. It was created by Mary Lyon, and intended as a liberal arts college.

"Bleeding Kansas"
There was never much doubt that the settlers of Nebraska would, in the face of popular sovereignty, choose to bar slavery. Kansas, however, was another matter. Abolitionist and pro-slavery groups tried to rush settlers to Kansas in hopes of swinging the vote in the group's own direction. Eventually, both a free-state and a slave-state government were functioning in Kansas - both illegal.

Violence was abundant. In May 1856, a pro-slavery mob ransacked the chiefly abolitionist town of Lawrence, demolishing private property of the anti-slavery governor, burning printing presses, and destroying a hotel. Two days later, in retaliation, Abolitionist John Brown and his sons went to the pro-slavery town of Pottawatomie Creek and hacked five men to death in front of their families. This set off a guerilla war in Kansas that lasted through most of 1856.

Violence over the issue of Kansas was even seen in the Senate. Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner accused South Carolinian Andrew Butler of having "chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows - Slavery." Upon hearing these words, Butler's nephew, Representative Preston Brooks, walked onto the Senate floor and proceeded to cane Sumner in the head. Sumner suffered so much damage from the attack that he could not return to the Senate for over three years. Brooks was expelled by the House. Cheered on by southern supporters (many of whom sent Brooks new canes, to show approval of his actions), came back after a resounding reelection.

After much controversy and extra legislation, Kansas found itself firmly abolitionist by 1858.

Dred Scott v. Stanford - 1857
Dred Scott was an African-American slave who first sued for his freedom in 1846. His case stated that he and his wife Harriet had been transported to both the state of Illinois and Minnesota territory. Laws in both places made slavery illegal. Dred and Harriet began with two separate cases, one for each of them. Slaves were not allowed legal marriage, but the two considered themselves married, and wanted to protect their two teenage daughters. As Dred became ill, the two merged their suit. At first it was the rule that state courts could decide if African-Americans in their jurisdictions were slave or free. After many years and much hesitation, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case. The United States Supreme Court ruled 7-2 in favor of the slave master, citing precedent that found that neither Dred nor his wife could claim citizenship. As they were not citizens, they did not have a claim in Federal Court. The majority argument cited the Missouri Compromise of 1854 to state that a temporary residence outside of Missouri did not immediately emancipate them, since the owner would be unfairly deprived of property.

Ostend Manifesto
Southern slave owners had a special interest in Spanish-held Cuba. Slavery existed on the island, but a recent rebellion in Haiti had spurred some Spanish officials to consider emancipation. The Southerners did not want freed slaves so close to their shores, and other observers thought Manifest Destiny should be extended to Cuba. In 1854 three American diplomats, Pierre Soulé (the minister to Spain), James Buchanan (the minister to Great Britain), and John Y. Mason (the minister to France), met in Ostend, Belgium. They held in common the same views as many Southern Democrats. The diplomats together issued a warning to Spain that it must sell Cuba to the United States or risk having it taken by force. This statement had not been authorized by the Franklin Pierce administration and was immediately repudiated. Reaction, both at home and abroad, was extremely negative.

Declaration of Sentiments
1848 marked the year of the Declaration of Sentiments; it was a document written as a plea for the end of discrimination against women in all spheres of Society. Main credit is given to Elizabeth Cady Stanton for writing the document. The document was presented at the first women's rights convention held at Seneca Falls, New York. Though the convention was attended by 300 women and men, only 100 of them actually signed the document which included; 68 women and 32 men.

Elizabeth Blackwell
In 1849 Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to receive a medical degree. She attended Geneva College in New York and graduated on January 23, 1849. Even though she had her medical degree she was still banned from practicing in most hospitals. She then relocated to Paris, France and continued her training as a midwife instead of a physician. While in Paris she contracted an eye infection from a small baby that forced her to lose her right eye. It was replaced by a glass eye which ended her medical career.

Missouri v. Celia
This murder trial took place in Calloway County, Missouri beginning October 9, 1855. It involved a slave woman named Celia and her master Robert Newsome. After being purchased at the age of 14 in 1850 Celia bore two of her masters children. Soon after becoming intimate with another slave while still being sought after by her master Celia became pregnant. On June 23, 1855, feeling unwell from the pregnancy, Celia pleaded with her master to let her rest; when Newsome ignored her pleas she struck him twice in the head with a heavy stick. She then spent the night burning his corpse in her fireplace and grinding the smaller bones into pieces with a rock. Although Missouri statutes forbade anyone "to take any woman unlawfully against her will and by force, menace or duress, compel her to be defiled," the judge residing over the case instructed the jury that Celia, being enslaved, did not fall within the meaning of "any woman" thus since the "sexual abuser" was her master the murder was not justified on the claim of self-defense. Celia was found guilty of the crime on October 10, 1855 and was sentenced to be hanged. The case still remains significant in history because it graphically illustrates the dreadful truth that enslaved women had absolutely no recourse when it came to being raped by their masters.

Panic of 1857
The Panic of 1857 introduced the United States, at least in a small way, to the intricate dealings of the worldwide economy. On the same day that the Central America wrecked, Cincinnati's Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company ceased operation thanks to embezzlement. News of the twin disasters spread quickly, in part because of the telegraph now becoming common. Investors, including British investors, began to withdraw money from Wall Street in massive numbers. Bank failures increased, mostly in the industrial Northeast and New England states, while the West and South, still more dependent on agriculture, seemed to weather the storm better. There were many underlying causes for the Panic of 1857, and by the time the twin disasters occurred the United States was well on its way into the economic downturn. For 3 years the Crimean War had involved European and Asian countries which increase foreign dependence on American agriculture. The return of the men and land to agricultural production meant an abundance of crops in 1857 which led to falling prices for farm goods. Land speculation, too, had become rampant throughout the United States. This led to an unsustainable expansion of the railroads. As investment money dried up, the land speculation collapsed, as did many of the railroads shortly thereafter. Attempts were made by the federal government to remedy the situation. A bank holiday was declared in October, 1857 and Secretary of the Treasury Howell Cobb recommended the government selling revenue bonds and reducing the tariff (Tariff of 1857). By 1859 the country was slowly pulling out of the downturn, but the effect lasted until the opening shots of the Civil War.

John Brown
John Brown had been born in Connecticut on May 19, 1800. He grew up in Ohio, where his father worked as a tanner and a minister near Oberlin, Ohio. His father preached abolitionism, and John Brown learned from him. He married twice, his first wife dying while giving birth to their seventh child. He would ultimately father twenty children, eleven of them surviving to adulthood. He started several failed business ventures and land deals in Ohio and Massachusetts. For a while he settled in a community of both black and white settlers. He lived there peacefully until the mid-1850s. Then two of his sons who had moved to Kansas asked him for guns to defend themselves against Missouri Border Ruffians. After two failed defense efforts, Brown left the Kansas area to avoid prosecution for the Pottawatomie massacre. He was already gaining some mention in the press for his efforts. He moved back East and decided to plan a way to destroy slavery in America forever.

Brown's Raid On Harper's Ferry
After the troubles in Kansas Brown decided on a plan. A lightly-defended armory in Harper's Ferry, Northern Virginia, contained 100,000 muskets and rifles. An attacker would need some monetary investment to obtain a battalion of men, a similar number of rifles, and a thousand pikes. With the weapons seized at the armory, Brown planned on arming sympathizers and slaves freed by his personal army as it swept through the South. Harper's Ferry had no plantations, and Brown expected no resistance from the local townspeople. On October 16, 1859, Brown carried out his raid, which he planned as the beginning of his revolution. However, instead of his battalion of 450 men, he went in with a group of twenty, including two of his sons. They easily overtook the single nightwatchman and killed several townspeople on the way in, including a free African American man who discovered their plot. Brown had also underestimated the resolve of the local townspeople, who formed a militia and surrounded Brown and his raiders in the armory. After a siege of two days, the U.S. Army sent in a detachment of Marines from Washington, D.C., the closest available contingent. The marines, led by Robert E. Lee, stormed the armory, and in a three minute battle ten of Brown's men were killed. Brown and six others were taken alive and imprisoned for a swift trial. Brown and five of his raiders were hung before the end of the year. Three others were killed in early 1860.

Public Reaction
News of the rebellion spread rapidly around the country by telegraph and newspaper, though opinions differed about what it meant. The Charleston Mercury of November seven, 1859, represents one Southern view: "With five millions of negroes turned loose in the South, what would be the state of society? It would be worse than the 'Reign of Terror'. The day of compromise is passed." The reaction was most mixed and vigorous among those who called themselves Christians. Abraham Lincoln typified the response of many others when he said that, though Brown "agreed with us in thinking slavery wrong," "[t]hat cannot excuse violence, bloodshed, and treason." The Unitarian William Lloyd Garrison, already having swerved from his previously-held pacifism, on the day of Brown's death preached a sermon commemorating him. "Whenever there is a contest between the oppressed and the oppressor, -– the weapons being equal between the parties, –- God knows that my heart must be with the oppressed, and always against the oppressor. Therefore, whenever commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave insurrections." The Congregationalist Minister Henry Ward Beecher likewise supported Brown from the pulpit. In short, a faction of White people of faith both conservative and liberal began saying that only by violence could slavery be struck from America.

Election of 1860

The new-born Republican party supported Northern industry, as the Whigs had done. It also promised a tariff for the protection of industry and pledged the enactment of a law granting free homesteads to settlers who would help in the opening of the West. But by 1860, it had become the party of abolition. Many Republicans believed that Lincoln's election would prevent any further spread of slavery. It selected Abraham Lincoln of Illinois as its presidential candidate, and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine as its vice-presidential candidate.

The Democratic party split in two. The main party or the Northern Democrats could not immediately decide on a candidate, and after several votes, their nominating convention was postponed when the Southern delegates walked out. When it eventually resumed, the party decided on Stephen Douglas of Illinois as its candidate. The first vice-presidential candidate, Benjamin Fitzpatrick, dropped his name from consideration once his home state of Alabama seceded from the Union. His replacement was Herschel Johnson of Georgia. The Southern delegates from the Democratic party selected their own candidate to run for president. John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky with Joseph Lane of Oregon as their vice-presidential candidate.

Former Whigs and Southern Republicans who supported the Union in the slavery issue formed the Constitutional Union party. Tennessee senator John Bell was chosen as the Constitutional Union party presidential candidate, over former Texas governor Sam Houston. Harvard President Edward Everett was chosen as the vice-presidential candidate.

Abraham Lincoln won the election with only forty percent of the vote. But with the electorate split four ways, it led to a landslide victory in the Electoral College. Lincoln garnered 180 electoral votes without being listed on any of the ballots of any of the future secessionist states in the deep South (except for Virginia, where he received 1.1% of the vote). Stephen Douglas won just under 30% of the popular vote, but only carried 2 states for a total of 12 electoral votes. John Breckenridge carried every state in the deep South, Maryland, and Delaware, for a total of 72 electoral votes. Bell carried the border slave states of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee, for a total of 39 electoral votes. Except for the split decision in the presidential election of 1824, no President in US History has won with a smaller percentage of the popular vote.

Lincoln's election ensured South Carolina's secession, along with Southern belief that they now no longer had a political voice in Washington. Other Southern states followed suit. They claimed that they were no longer bound by the Union, because the Northern states had in effect broken a constitutional contract by not honoring the South's right to own slaves as property.

Questions For Review

 * 1) What affect did proslavery sentiments have on the Mexican War?
 * 2) Reconstruct Brown's raid in terms of what happened first, second, and so on.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Eden Mall

The result of the debate was no consensus to delete. W.marsh 15:25, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Eden Mall
non notable mall ⇒    SWAT Jester     Ready    Aim    Fire!  21:23, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

 * See also Pennrose Mall, Mayberry Mall. The creator of all these articles is the North Carolina vandal, who uses large numbers of sockpuppets. -- Curps 21:06, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

Infinite keep, go to hell if you think otherwise.Some guy from tennessee 21:28, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete No sign of notability. JoshuaZ 21:47, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * But guys, there's a Hallmark store!! Of course, delete per nom. Joe 22:41, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete. Malls and shops are generally not notable. See Articles_for_deletion/Precedents. --Metropolitan90 01:15, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep. No reason to delete, and if you do delete, than the Untied kingdom is going to Redirect to England.The Streets of New York 02:08, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment This user has only this edit, and seems to be making some sort of threat here but I don't quite understand it. JoshuaZ 02:11, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * CommentDo not even DARE delete this article. You must understand it. If you delete Eden Mall, I will use 1,000,000 sockpuppets, each to redirect the United Kingdom to England!
 * Comment And you think that this is will make us inclined to keep it? Generally on AfD's people respond to threats by being more deletionist, not less so. You stand a better of chance of getting the article to stay by demonstrating that this mall is notable in some way. JoshuaZ 02:16, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Anyone who has never heard of Eden Mall is balls.
 * I think that New York is the Communism vandal or an imitator. JoshuaZ 02:21, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * No it appears to be a sockpuppet of User:Some guy from tennessee, who has been infinitely blocked from editing. -- Francs2000 [[Image:Gay flag.svg|25px| ]] 02:32, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom. and Metropolitan90. feydey 19:52, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Keep as a perfectly notable mall. What's with "delete per nom". People should vote on what they think, not just vote because the article was Afd'd?Parkerhimin 20:35, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment: the above is yet another sockpuppet of the North Carolina vandal, no other contributions. -- Curps 21:08, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom, despite compelling defense by Parkerhimin. Slowmover 22:10, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Strong keep the recent spate of mall AfD's is an example of an anti-mall cultural bias, as are any anti-mall precedents in deletion policy. I strongly feel that Wikipedia is being kept from covering many massive, notable, quasi-permanent commercial institutions (many of which are important features in the lives of hundreds of thousands or even millions of people - entire communities!) simply because of cultural bias. I am not a huge mall-lover myself, but most large malls are more notable than many of the small museums that wikipedia covers, and are treated differently mainly because they are seen as distasteful or dislikeable. Wikipedia should not censor or delete an entire category of information (we already cover a number of malls), information that is relevant and important to an electronic encyclopedia, simply because some people find that subject a bit crass. Covering individual malls is not comparable to, say, covering individual Wal-Mart stores (which should not be done), because each mall is different. The layout, location, and composition of a mall is important geographic and cultural information. Bobby P. Smith Sr. Jr. 22:32, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment Bobby, if you want to propose a standard for what malls should be kept, we might listen. Note that I take slight issue with the comparison to wallmart, many malls have roughly the same level of notability (especially compared to a wallmart in a small town). JoshuaZ 22:37, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I'd agree that Wal-Marts often have the same notability as a smallish-medium mall, but having articles on individual Wal-Marts would be hard, given how they're all so alike. Malls may superficially seem to be alike but they often have different store compositions based on the size and affluence of the community, and they also sometimes have interesting quirks in architecture and layout.  A provisional proposal for a notability standard might run along the lines of: 1.) Must be of sufficient size and stability (relative to the surrounding community) to be a major and central commercial institution in a given geographical area, 2.) Must have 20+ stores (a somewhat arbitrary number; we can obviously work on that), 3.) Must have some possibility for documenting the composition of the mall, in terms of constituent stores (as this is the heart of the usefulness of an article), 4.) Must have the possibility for some description of the layout, architecture, and type of the mall. Bobby P. Smith Sr. Jr. 22:43, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep or merge Like Mayberry Mall, and unlike Pennrose Mall, this might be merged.Reidkins 02:51, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment This user has no edits other than edits to the malls currently under review. Is most likely a sockpuppet of the NC vandal. JoshuaZ 05:02, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep. All malls should have articles here because they are the local landmarks of our times, often replacing Main Street or town square. They have as much influence on towns as highways, schools, or stadiums. They are substantial economic enterprises and raise major issues involving land use, taxation, and globalization. Too many people love to talk, read or write about them for us to play silly games and try to exclude them. This may be hard for people to believe, but in the real world, they are far more important than the latest Virtual community, Pokemon card, or webcomic. -- JJay 11:56, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Why do all malls need artciles? Some are quite simply not notable.  Vegaswikian 01:42, 23 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment: see Wikipedia_talk:Notability for an attempt at discussion of notability of buildings (including malls) in general. Friday (talk) 15:20, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete. No showing of why this is encylopedic.  Vegaswikian 01:42, 23 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep. Very useful and informative.--Primetime 21:12, 23 March 2006 (UTC)


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Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/User:Walk of Legends Green Bay WI USA

 __NOINDEX__

The result of the discussion was delete. JohnCD (talk) 12:50, 28 February 2015 (UTC)

User:Walk of Legends Green Bay WI USA

WP:FAKEARTICLE Magioladitis (talk) 23:21, 7 February 2015 (UTC)
 * At most, move to draft space. Hobit (talk) 06:19, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete. Stale for nearly three years. Googled briefly--doesn't seem to be even close to notable, so don't see any reason to try to salvage. --Hobbes Goodyear (talk) 02:52, 27 February 2015 (UTC)


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The Red Cape

The Red Cape, also sometimes known as Madame Monet or The Red Kerchief, is an oil-on-canvas snowscape by French impressionist Claude Monet, from c. 1868-1873. The painting depicts Claude Monet's first wife, Camille, dressed in a red cape, passing outside of a window.

Monet painted the painting while living in Argenteuil. The solitary setting at his home there allowed him to paint in relative peace, as well as spend time with his family. It is Monet's only known snowscape painting that features Camille Monet. Since 1958, it has been in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art in Cleveland, Ohio.

title: The Red Cape


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Sagkeeng's Finest

Sagkeeng's Finest is an Indigenous Canadian dance troupe that won the first season of Canada's Got Talent in 2012 The trio consists of Brandon Courchene (born 1993 or 1994), Dallas Courchene (born 1995 or 1996), and Vince O'Laney (born 1994), three teenagers from the Sagkeeng First Nation in Manitoba,  who perform a blend of traditional Métis jigging with contemporary dance. In their winning performance, the trio danced to a medley of Raghav's "Fire" and Metro Station's "Shake It".

In June 2013, two of the members were arrested by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police for speeding. When the police searched the car, they found 15 grams of cannabis. The police also found brass knuckles. O'Laney was charged with possession of a controlled substance and possession of a prohibited weapon, while Brandon Courchene was charged with possession of a controlled substance. They later apologized to fans in a Facebook post.

title: Sagkeeng's Finest


text:
Dynasty season 3

Dynasty season 3 may refer to:

 * Dynasty (1981 TV series) season 3
 * Dynasty (2017 TV series) season 3

title: Dynasty season 3


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Biochemistry/pKa values

Biochemistry

<< Metabolism and energy

It is difficult to discuss the subject of biochemistry without a firm foundation in general chemistry and organic chemistry, but if one doesn't remember the concept of the Acid Dissociation Constant (pKa) from Organic Chemistry, one can read up on the topic below.

Buffers are essential to biochemical reactions, as they provide a (more or less) stable pH value for reactions to take place under constantly changing circumstances. The pH value in living cells tends to fall between 7.2 and 7.4, and this pH level is generally maintained by weak acids. (The pH values in lysosomes and peroxisomes differ from this value, as do the pH measurements of the stomach and other organs found in various types of plants and animals.)

An acid is here defined simply as any molecule that can release a proton (H+) into a solution. Stronger acids are more likely to release a proton, due to their atomic and molecular properties. The tendency of an acid to release a proton is called the dissociation constant (Ka) of that substance, with
 * $${K}_{a} = {[{H}^{+}][{A}^{-}] \over [HA]}$$

for HA <-> H+ + A-.

A larger Ka value means a greater tendency to dissociate a proton, and thus it means the substance is a stronger acid. The pH at which 50% of the protons are dissociated can therefore be calculated as:
 * pKa = -log ( Ka )

This equation is known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

 * $${pH} = {pK}_{a} + \log{[\text{base}] \over [\text{acid}]}$$

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is derived from the adjacent Ka expression. By taking the logarithm of base ten to both sides, the next part of the equation is obtained. Using the logarithmic property of multiplication, the [H+] breaks from the expression. Since log Ka is equal to -pKa and log [H+] is equal to -pH, they are then substituted. To obtain what is known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, -pKa and -pH are subtracted from their respective sides to yield a positive equation.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation interestingly enough predicts the behavior of buffer solutions. A solution of 1 M ethanoic (acetic) acid [HA] and 1 M sodium ethanoate [A-] will have a pH equal to the pKa of ethanoic acid: 4.76.

If we added acid to pure water up to a concentration of 0.1 M, the pH would become 1. If we add the same concentration of acid to the buffer solution, it will react with the ethanoate to form ethanoic acid. The ethanoate concentration would drop to 0.9 M and the ethanoic acid concentration should rise to 1.1 M. The pH becomes 4.67 - very different from the pH=1 without a buffer.

Similarly, adding 0.1 M alkali changes the pH of the buffer to 4.85, instead of pH=13 without buffer. Due to the amphipathic nature of amino acids - which are the monomer building blocks of all proteins, physiological conditions are always considered to be buffered, which plays a major role in the conformations and reactivities of substrates in the cell's liquid interior, its cytosol.

A very small (which would include a large negative value) pKa indicates a very strong acid. A pKa value between 4 and 5 is the most common range for organic acid compounds.

<< Metabolism and energy

title: Biochemistry/pKa values