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General Biology/Evolution of Life

Key Terms
Evolution: Any change in allele frequency in a population, often the result of natural selection.

Natural selection: differential reproduction of genotype within a population; one genotype reproduces more successfully than another and donates more copies of itself to the next generation. This means that allele frequencies change within a population. Natural selection is the only mechanism known to produce complex adaptations in nature.

Natural selection can occur in any population that has heritable fitness differences.

Fitness: the ability of an individual to contribute its genes to the next generation. Differences in fitness are central to natural selection. Relative fitness: fitness of an individual compared to others in its species.

Hardy–Weinberg principle states that both allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant or are in equilibrium from generation to generation unless specific disturbing influences are introduced.

Natural Selection

Both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace proposed natural selection. Wallace went to Darwin for help getting published and the result was that the two presented their papers together.

Natural selection is the result of violation of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, a state of stability in a population where allele frequencies do not change. A population stays in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium when five assumptions (or prerequisites) are maintained:
 * Large population size
 * No differential immigration or emigration of alleles (no gene flow in or out of the population)
 * No mutation
 * No natural selection
 * Random mating (with respect to genotype), that is, individuals in species do not choose mating partners based on their genotype

Results of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
 * allele frequencies remain unchanged
 * genotype frequencies are in equilibrium
 * equilibrium reached in one generation of random mating

Q: What happens when we violate one of the five assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? A: Allele frequencies change.

The Hardy-Weinberg principle is named after English mathematician G. H. Hardy and German physician G. Weinberg, who independently came to similar conclusions in 1908.

Note: In our lab computer simulation lab experiment, we relax the H-W restriction against natural selection, resulting in simulated evolution. When not all phenotype fitnesses are equal, selection occurs, allele frequencies change, and evolution results.

Q: Will a dominant allele take over a recessive allele in frequency? A: No. The Hardy-Weinberg principal shows that any allele that confers greater fitness will become more frequent in the population than an allele that confers lesser fitness, and disproves the easy assumption that a dominant allele would overtake a population over time. Allele frequency is based on fitness, not whether it is dominant or recessive.

Hardy-Weinberg equation:

$$(p + q)^2	= p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1.0$$

 * Allele one: $$f(A) = p$$
 * Allele two: $$f(a) = q$$
 * Sum of the alleles: $$p + q = 1.0$$
 * Reduced fitness: $$1 - s$$

Examples of adaptation due to natural selection Skin color of the Australian Death adder: brilliant orange skin very unusual in an animal but quite similar to the local soil color. Likely that the snake moved towards this color over time as snakes with brownish and then orange coloring experienced higher survivorship than other-colored snakes.

Pesticide resistance in insects: Pesticide DDT (developed in ‘30s to combat malaria by knocking out its vector, malaria-carrying mosquitoes) had an initially high kill rate that diminished over time until it became essentially ineffective against insects. Hundreds of similar pesticide resistances have been developed in other insect species.

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria: disease-causing bacteria have followed a similar adaptive path to the insects. This is caused by incorrect use of antibiot-ics for disease treatment. An incomplete application of antibiotics kills most of the disease-carrying microbes in a patient’s body. The most antibiotic-resistant germs have then been selected. These multiply and can become increasingly uncontrollable by further antibiotic treatment. Public health officials fear that this process when repeated over time will create super-germs that will be re-sistant to all drugs. Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease currently following this path of increasing antibiotic resistance.

There are various mechanisms of acquired chemical resistance:
 * Behavioral change
 * Increased detection of chemical
 * Decreased sensitivity to chemical at target site
 * Degradation of the target

Industrial melanism in English pepper moth (Biston betularia). The moth has two naturally occurring morphs, or varieties: typical (light-colored) and carbonized (dark-colored). The more common morph has historically been the typical, but a change in its habitat led to an increase in frequency of the carbonized. (Air pollution killed off light-colored lichen on tree trunks, leaving moths exposed on dark bark instead of lighter lichen. Predatory birds acted as an agent against the more visible morph of the moth, which responded to the natural selection by increasing the frequency of the less visible morph.

Monkeys who kill others’ young: Observed by Sarah Hrdy. Langur monkeys live in social troops with one male presiding over several females and their young. Female young stay within the troop but male young are kicked out to roam the fringes of the troop and try to take over other troops. Incoming male leaders kill suckling young, as well as the babies of females with whom he hasn’t mated.

Q: Why? A: Because lactating females are in irregular estrus cycle and unavailable to become pregnant. Killing their young frees them up to become pregnant sooner with his babies. The counter adaptation in females: they mate with the new male even if already pregnant, as the new leader will not then not later kill their baby. (Similar situations have since been observed in other species, such as mice).

Selfless turkey problem: 1st generation male descendants of one female turkey set up a brotherhood, a tiny social hierarchy headed by the alpha male. The brotherhood courts females as a group. A female selects one brotherhood for mating, usually a larger one, then mates with the alpha male only.

Q: Did natural selection shape the behavior of these brother turkeys? A: No answer given, but an implied “yes”.

Q: Has natural selection tuned all characteristics of every organism? A: No. Example: The Indian rhino has 1 horn, and the African rhino has 2 horns. This difference is likely a historical accident, not an adaptation, as two horns don’t seem to give an advantage over one.

Five constraints on evolution:
 * Historical constraints
 * Formal constraints
 * You-can’t-get-there-from-here constraints
 * Time/variation constraints
 * Pleiotropic constraints

Historical constraints: “present variation biases future possibilities”. Variation comes on top of past history.

Formal constraints: Variation can’t defy laws of physics. Ex: pigs don’t fly, and insects are limited in size by their exoskeletons.

You-can’t-get-there-from-here constraints: An advantageous end result must follow many tiny advantageous steps. Ex: There are no live-bearing birds, possibly because the thin eggshell necessary for gas transfer if incubated inside the bird is so disadvantageous for a egg development outside the bird. However, flight feathers evolved from reptilian scales because each tiny change to the scales over time was advantageous, and afterwards allowed the evolution of flight.

Time/variation constraints: new alleles formed thru random mutation, which needs time and is ultimately pushed by mathematic probabilities rather than pulled to a specific end. In limited time, limited results. Ex: Human heart disease the possible result of recent changes in human diet (last 100s of years as opposed to last 100,000s of years of human evolution).

Pleiotropic constraints: (pleiotropy: when one gene has multiple phenotypic expressions) one allele may have several effects, some good & some bad. If the sum of parts is positive, the allele is favored (even if it carries along some unfavorable baggage). Ex: Cystic fibrosis allele may have been advantageous against cholera in pre-industrial Europe.

Mutation: a random process that is the “ultimate” source for natural selection. Little mutation results in advantageous change, and so is very inefficient.

Q: Why does it work at all? A: Because:
 * It has lots of time to work
 * Each individual divides burden as a source of potential mutation; lots of chances for something to go well

Sampling error: the difference between a sample and the actual population. Greater for smaller sample sizes. Unrelated to population size, based on abso-lute size of sample.

Q: What happens when the population size is limited, restricting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? A: In small populations, chance events can dramatically change allele frequencies.

Example: “A” and “a” alleles are in equal frequencies in a population:

$$p=f(A)=.50$$ $$q=f(A)=.50$$

In a sample size of four organisms from this population we would expect to find:

$$p\prime=f(A)=.50$$ $$q\prime=f(A)=.50$$

However, 30% of the time we would have the following result, with a shift favoring one allele:

$$p\prime=f(A)=.75$$ $$q\prime=f(A)=.25$$

And about 8/1000 of the time (1%):

$$p\prime=f(A)=.00$$ $$q\prime=f(A)=1.0$$

One allele is completely eliminated! (If the population size is 40, the chances of this are 1/500,000).

In this way, alleles can be eliminated from a real population.

Q: How can small sample sizes occur in real populations?
 * Genetic bottleneck: population experiences a crash in numbers (this likely occurred recently in cheetahs, who have very little genetic variation)
 * Founder effect: small group of “colonists” forms a new population
 * Genetic drift: population lingers in low numbers, as in an endangered species.

Virtual small population size: a small proportion of individuals in population cover reproductive resposibilites. Usually occurs with males, sometimes females. Ex: Mammals such as seals, where one giant male guards over and mates with harem of many females. This is because the females go to an isolated spot to birth to avoid predators, then go into heat just days after giving birth. A large male fights other males for the privilege of guarding these females and their offspring as “beach master”. The females intermittently go off to feed, coming back to feed their calves. Result in males is that they are much larger than the females; they store lots of body fat so they can stay on the beach a long time (as soon as they leave another male will come take their spot). Effective breeding population for one generation is therefore much smaller than actual number of living members.

Another example: in wolves, only the alpha male and alpha female breed, and the others just help raise their young. So a wolf population of sixty may have a breeding population of just six.

Immigration / emigration: “gene flow” – individual moves in from a different area & brings new allele frequencies. “A little bit can do a lot”. Ex: interracial marriage.

Mutation: produces variation in gene pool. Rates are low and work very slowly: just 1/100,000 to 1/1,000,000 mutations occur per locus per gamete per generation. Mutation alone is not enough to drive an allele to a higher frequency. A general rule: any allele with a frequency of 1% or more of the total population was not driven there by mutation.

Non-random mating: individuals choose mates based on genotype. (Positive) assortative mating: choosing a mate with a genotype similar to your own, leading to homozygotic offspring. Dissortative mating: choosing for dissimilar genotype, leading to heterozygotes.

Inbreeding: mating with close relatives: a way to mate with your own genotype (and produce homozygotic offspring)

Note: the average human has about thirty lethal recessive allele loci in his total chromatin. Mating with close kin increases the possibility of an offspring with double recessive lethal alleles. Many species have outbreeding behaviors to discourage inbreeding. Ex: langur society: females born in a troop remain in their troop but males are booted out, discouraging brothers mating with sisters.

Non-random mating can change genotype frequencies but NOT allele frequencies by itself, therefore not responsible for evolution. But it can expose certain alleles to selection by making them homo or heterozygous in the genotype.

Aging senescence: decline in performance in the general body of an organism with increasing age. This is a selectable trait and is not present in all organisms. Tissue does not “need” to be senescent. Some protists basically “live forever”; fruit flies can be bred for longevity.

Q: Why is this? A: Gibson does not say why, but suggests that it is a selectively favored trait. After class the professors seem to say that senescence is not necessarily an evolutionarily favored trait as much as a byproduct of the processes that led to higher development. In order to achieve delayed reproduction, more resources were put towards early survivorship at the expense of later survivorship. A related example is the difference between salmon in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Atlantic salmon live through multiple spawning seasons but Pacific salmon have been selected to put all their energy into one, difficult spawning cycle, where they die right after.

Types of selection:
 * Stabilizing selection
 * Directional selection
 * Disruptive selection

Stabilizing selection: Selection that moves organisms toward the center of their range of possible traits. Ex: human birth weight; especially large and small babies suffer greater infant mortality, favoring babies of intermediate weight. A stabilizing environment results in fossil records that are unchanged for millions of years, such as for the body plans of sharks and horseshoe crabs.

Directional selection: Selection that acts to eliminate an extreme from an array of phenotypes. Ex: Metals such as copper are usually almost lethal to some plants. A strain of copper-resistant grass has developed over many generations of growing in contaminated high-Cu soil.

Disruptive selection: Selection that tends to eliminate intermediate type. Ex: African seedcracker: has two bill sizes, one large and one small, each one best suited for a different kind of locally-abundant seed. Intermediate bill types are unfavored by selection because they are poorly suited for either kind of seed. Here, the homozygote that results in one bill type or the other is favored over the heterozygote, which produces the intermediate bill type.

Consider a population that has the following genotypic frequencies for a given locus having two alleles, “A” and “a”:

Q: What is the allele frequency for “A”? (i.e., what is p?) Q: Does the population appear to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

Steps to solve:
 * 1) Add everything together to find total
 * 77 + 14 + 49 = 140
 * 1) Divide each number by the total
 * ( Note that: .55 + .10 + .35 = 1.0 )
 * 1) Find allele frequencies for “A” and “a”.
 * A: .55 + (.10/2) = .60
 * a: .35 + (.10/2) = .40
 * ( Note again that .60 + .40 = 1.0 )
 * 1) Plug these derived genotype frequencies into the equation:
 * 2) * $$p^2 + 2pq + q^2$$
 * 3) * $$(.6)^2 + 2(.4)(.6) + (.4)^2$$
 * 4) * .36 + .48 + .16
 * ( Again, all total to 1.0 )
 * ( Again, all total to 1.0 )

We see that the genotype frequencies change from their initial values to their final vales. Therefore the population was not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Q: If the numbers are only somewhat dissimilar how do we tell if they should be considered similar or dissimilar? A: This is determined with statistical and mathematical analyses beyond the scope of this class.

Tests have been done on breeding many organisms for a certain trait by divid-ing successive generations into groups based on phenotype. Ex: Fruit flies (Drosophila) artificially selected into two groups: one with many abdominal bristles, one with few bristles. We find that neither of the two resulting groups even overlaps the bristle range found in the starting generation. This mimics the results of natural selection on a wild population under certain circumstances. This is similar to the process used for thousands of years by plant and animal breeders.

Heterozygote advantage: when heterozygote genotype confers greater fitness than a homozygote. A classic example of this is sickle-cell anemia. This human disease occurs when a person is homozygotic for the recessive allele. The recessive allele increases survivorship against malaria in the herozygotic carrier. Natural selection works in high malaria areas to increase the frequency of this allele in humans. The allele frequency is highest in central Africa, where malaria has been a big killer.

Speciation:

Q: How do we get a new species?

Q: What is a species? A: There are different definitions, but only one that we will go over in depth. Biological species concept (BSC): of Ernst Mayer. A species defined as a reproductively isolated population. If two organisms can interbreed, they are one species; if they cannot, they are not of the same species. Not a perfect definition as lions and tigers can interbreed in captivity, and this works only with sexually reproducing organisms (dandelions reproduce asexually). Phenotypic definition: species defined by phenotypic gaps in a population. Cladistic definition: populations or population groups which are members a single clade

Clade: a branch of the evolutionary tree.

Two ways to name a new species:
 * Anagenesis: an arbitrary / convenient way to name a new species after it has undergone enough change through a single evolutionary line
 * Cladogenesis: the creation of clades

Cladogenesis has three splitting models / hypotheses based on patra, “homeland”
 * Allopatric speciation (allos: “other”; aka geographic isolation model, common) Allopatric species: don’t occur together.
 * Sympatric speciation (sym: “together with”; common in plants)
 * Parapatric speciation (para: “beside”; uncommon)

Parapatric speciation: perhaps the only example we have of this is found in the copper-resistant mine grass previously discussed. Selection strongly favors the genotype homozygous for the Cu-resistant allele. This has resulted in an adaptation in the pollination time to make it different than the pollination time for the surrounding grasses, avoiding cross-fertilization. Here is speciation without geographic isolation caused by the intense selection.

Sympatric speciation: (is this info right? Book seems to conflict with lecture) a common source of new species in plants but uncommon in animals, this occurs when gametes from two different species cross and create a viable new species. This believed to be the source of ½ of the flowering plants. Polyploidization: the most important model of sympatric speciation. Or, the doubling of chromosomes that can lead to sympatric speciation. Allopolyploid: polyploidization triggered by an interspecific hybridization event.

The resulting zygote may be unviable or infertile. If viable, it may later develop fertility. This is due to the differences between cell divisions in mitosis and meiosis (and we thought that we had escaped). In mitosis, chromatids self-replicate. In meiosis, each chromatid has to “find” its homologue. If no homologue is present, the result is viable but infertile. However, with an abnormal mitotic event, cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm after nuclear division) does not occur, resulting in a cell with double the normal number of chromosomes. If this cell enters meiosis, it can be fertile. (Many examples of this). Ex: Bread wheat is the result of two successive grass hybridization events. Grass went from having 14 > 28 > 42 chromosomes.

Geographic speciation

Geographic variation: Differences in a species based on geographic location, usually genetically based. Found in humans, where genotypes from one place are different than those from another. More common in less mobile populations as it is opposed by gene flow. Ex: yarrow, a plant which is found to be shorter at higher altitudes. Q: Is this variation due to genes or to environment? A: a “common garden experiment” finds the answer. Seeds of different origins are grown in the same environment. Result is that seeds from higher altitudes grow into shorter yarrow plants, revealing an underlying genetic factor. Ex: common garter snake, Thamnophis surtalis, common throughout the US and Canada, is divided into various local sub species with local colorations. As garter snakes are not highly mobile, the populations can become locally adapted. In mallard ducks this geographic variation does not occur as each generation a male hooks up with a female in the southern “win-tering grounds”, then follows her up to her northern home, which may be very distant from his other home. This results in a genetic shuffle each generation independent of location.

One population can be broken into different, isolated populations for a time, al-lowing two distinct evolutionary pathways. Ex: a glacier advances over North America and splits a population into SW and SE groups. When the barrier is removed (the glacier retreats) the populations can come into contact again, called secondary contact. Q: Then what happens? A: If inbreeding results in fertile offspring, they are still of the same species. If not, they are now new species. Isolating mechanisms: anything that acts to prevent the production of viable zygotes between two organisms. Classified into two groups: The prezygotic mechanisms prevent the fertilization of an egg by the sperm, and hence the production of a zygote, commonly when male courtship is unrecognized by the female. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms result in a zygote which Ex: A cross between a donkey and a horse produces a mule, which is sterile.
 * prezygotic
 * post zygotic
 * isn’t viable (dies), or
 * cannot reproduce.

Geographic separation can result in two quite morphologically different popula-tions that interbreed on secondary contact and are therefore one biological species. Like, they can look all different and stuff but still breed with each other. And sometimes, a seemingly slight difference prevents interbreeding. The point: the “amount” of differences that arise during the isolation of two populations doesn’t necessarily determine whether they will successfully interbreed upon secondary contact and therefore be considered one or two species.

Ex: Eastern and western meadow larks are almost identical in appearance (morphologically similar) but are distinct biological species. This is possibly the result changes which occurred during isolation caused by glacial separation. On secondary contact these two populations apparently did not respond to each other for mating, becoming two biological (reproductive) species. (There are various examples like this one).

Peripheral isolates: a relatively common version of geographic isolation. At the edge of a species range an organism lives at the limit of its survivability. When these areas become separated from each other, allopatric speciation can occur, high rates of selection can push allele frequencies.

Habitat islands: areas where a habitat favorable to a species is surrounded by an area where the species does not survive. Ex: a volcanic island in an ocean. In this case, founder populations arrive and find ecological vacuums, or different conditions, that influence adaptation. Adaptive radiation, a series of adaptation events, occurs as various species interact and adjust through evolution. Ex: the variation found in Darwin’s finches was caused when a founder population of finches adapted to the unique conditions of each island). Note: even greater variation is found amongst the finches of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii is also the home to countless species of Drosophila (fruit flies).

Binomial nomenclature: “two-named naming” (bi: two, nomin: name) originated by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) of Sweden. Each species of organism has its own unique two-part name, made up of
 * Genus name, which is capitalized, and denotes a group of species
 * Species epithet, not capitalized, describes one species within the genus. (Epithet: “descriptor”, or according to www.m-w.com “a characterizing word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a person or thing”.) Note that not all species epithets by themselves are unique to a species; in fact some are reused frequently, such as vulgaris, used in Pinguicula vulgaris and in Sturnus vulgaris, the scientific names for the common butterwort and the European starling (vulgaris: “common”). Species epithets commonly refer to such things as color.

Homo sapiens is the binomial name for the modern human. Homo is a genus of related primates (all but mankind are now extinct) and sapiens is a descrip-tor, “wise”. When typed, this two-part name is customarily italicized, and when handwritten, underlined.

The naming system is hierarchical, with succeeding levels dividing organisms into more specific taxonomic groups. The broadest division is that of kingdom (or domain, a more basic designation now accepted by many biologists. Here is the full list from most general to most specific. (Domain) >> Kingdom >> Phylum >> Class >> Order >> Family >> Genus >> Species.

There are subdivisions that are sometimes used between these levels (for example, subphylum) but we are not responsible for knowing them.

The higher the level, the greater the difference between groups, reflecting pro-gressively earlier speciation events.

Q: Why does Linnaus’ naming system neatly fit the evolutionary tree, as he invented it outside an evolutionary context? A: The organisms are related in a genealogical way with inherently hierarchical relationships.

Taxon: a given group of organisms at some given rank. Ex: the taxon “Canis”, a group of dogs at level genus, vs. the taxon “canidae”, at level family. (Taxonomy: orderly classification of plants and animals according to their presumed natural relationships.)

Monophyletic taxon: a species set, or grouping of species, made up of Ex: great apes
 * a common ancestor
 * all its descended species.

Paraphyletic taxon: a grouping of species just like the monophyletic taxon except that it excludes species that have diverged farthest from the common ancestor. Ex: Great apes, minus humans.

Polyophyletic taxon: grouping of species that excludes the most recent common ancestor. Ex: A grouping of whales and sharks, without their common primitive ancestor (whatever that might be).

There are two taxonomic schools of thought:
 * Traditional (also poorly called “evolutionary”, poorly because the alternate is evolutionarily based as well)
 * Cladistic (or phylogenetic, or Hennigian, after founder Wm Hennig)

Both schools agree on how to draw the evolutionary tree, as well as that: However they disagree in the treatment of the middle ground, paraphyletic taxonomic groups. The traditionalists say: These groups are OK, as they reflect important evolutionary change. The cladists say, paraphyletic groups are NOT OK, as the identification of “important” changes is based on people’s opinions. Cladism prefers greater objectivity.
 * the best way to group is in monophyletic groups, and
 * the worst way to group is in polyphyletic groups.

Q: How do we estimate evolutionary sequences? A: Derived homology, or transition from [ a -> a’ ], ex: a species’ loss of a digit thru time. Synapomorphy: Gibson says that synapomorphy gives the only real idea of branching sequence
 * a “shared derived similarity”
 * derived character state, shared under two or more taxa under consideration
 * used to infer common ancestry

symplesiomorphy:
 * a “shared, ancestral similarity”
 * an ancestral character state
 * inherited from the common ancestor of the taxa

Evolutionary branching Q: How can we generate hypotheses about evolutionary branching? (How can we figure out which branching sequence is most likely the historical one?) A: There are various ways to do this. Generally, we start by considering certain characters, then arrange them into possible trees. Characters are found in either a more ancestral or more derived state, and sometimes the trait can disappear completely or even reappear. When a species goes from having one version of a trait to another version, it is called a trait change.

One way to determine the most likely branching sequences is by creating examples of all the possible sequences. Although this is a simple process, it is not feasible in many cases because the number of possible branching sequences is so great. For example, a group of just 10 species has over 34 million possible evolutionary trees. (Certain methods are used to eliminate many of these options and make the process simpler). The simplest sequence is the one that has the smallest number of trait changes, and is preferred. They are then used as a basis for further refinement that comes with more data.

Punctuated equilibrium: a hypothesis about the tempo and mode of evolution, presented by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge as a challenge to the traditional view known as phyletic gradualism.

Current thought sees evolutionary change as neither of these two extremes but rather somewhere in between, or sometimes more like the one and other times more like the other.

Evolutionary “novelties” Q: How can we explain macroevolution? Can the incremental changes of microevolution lead to the big changes of macroevolution, such as flight in birds? What other processes can lead to major changes in species?

Preaptation (co-opting)
 * A structure that serves one function and then is co-opted to serve another function
 * Ex: flight feathers from reptilian scales
 * Ex: Mammals’ mammary glands from… modified sweat glands?

Allometric growth
 * A change in proportions which comes with increasing size, or different parts grow at different rates
 * Selection for one body part may lead to development in another
 * Ex: antler size in Irish elk, where huge antlers came as a result of oversize elk (antlers were still in proportion to normal deer antlers)

Paedomorhosis (paidos: child)
 * retention of juvenile characteristics in adult, or in extreme, reproduction in larval state
 * Ex: gills retained from juvenile aquatic salamanders to normally land-habiting adult, and reproduction at aquatic, juvenile stage
 * Adult chimps have greater change in skull shape from infancy than humans experience: chimp and human babies have similar skull shape, which the human more closely maintains to adulthood than the chimp

Isometric growth: all parts grow at the same rate and stay in proportion, as in a growing salamander and in most organisms

Algometric growth: different parts grow at different rates, resulting in changing proportions thru growth cycle, as in human, and in the godwit, a bird whose beak grows exponentially faster than its head does

Analogous structures: two structures that serve a similar function but have different origins. Examples: wings of a butterfly and a bird, leglessness in snakes and in certain lizards, white eggs in various diverse bird species

Antennapedia: mutant fruitfly has small legs on head in place of normal antennae, caused by inappropriate development of cells into homologous part

Bithorax: ancestors to modern insects had two full pairs of wings but today some of these have evolved the second pair into small balancing structures called halteres. (Some extant insects, such as the dragonfly, retain all four wings, one pair on the second and third segments of the thorax). Insects with only two wings are called dipthera, meaning “two wings”. In the bithorax mutant, halteres develop into a second full set of wings.

Homeodomain: series of 60 amino acids (180 nucleotides) which encodes development and has remained similar throughout the evolution of very different organisms, spanning the animals and apparently extending into parts of the plant kingdom as well. Reveals the strong conservation of genes thru evolution.

title: General Biology/Evolution of Life


text:
boxroom

Noun

 * 1) A storeroom, usually upstairs, for boxes and other items.
 * Upstairs, the house had five bedrooms, four bathrooms and a boxroom.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: boxroom


text:
Ericeia elongata

Ericeia elongata is a moth in the family Erebidae. It is found from the Indo-Australian tropics to New Guinea and Australia (Queensland). The habitat consists of lowland forests, including heath and alluvial forests.

The larvae possibly feed on Acacia species.

Taxonomy
The species was formerly included in Ericeia inangulata as a synonym.

title: Ericeia elongata


text:
Hyundai Automotive South Africa

Hyundai Automotive South Africa (Pty) Ltd. is a dealer network and automobile manufacturer based in Bedfordview, South Africa and a subsidiary of Hyundai.

History
The company was formed in 1999 as a collaboration between the holding company Associated Motor Holdings and Hyundai. It succeeded the dealer network Hyundai Motor Distributors (HMD).

The HMD network founded by Billy Rautenbach, with 52 branches, was able to offer vehicles that were inexpensively assembled by the Motor Company of Botswana and an extended warranty of three years. With these and other aggressive methods, it had achieved a ten percent market share in South Africa.

Hyundai has been assembling trucks in Gauteng since July 2014. In March 2015, the assembly of the H100 was added.

title: Hyundai Automotive South Africa


text:
Daniel Parker (silversmith)

Daniel Parker (November 20, 1726 - December 31, 1785) was an American silversmith, active in Boston.

Life
Parker was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts to Isaac and Grace (Hall) Parker, where he married Margaret Jarvis on October 8, 1751. From 1748-1775 he worked as a gold- and silversmith in Boston, where he advertised 1750-1770 in the Boston Gazette as a goldsmith. He also advertised a theft in the Gazette, 1759, of " "Three large Silver Spoons stamp'd D.Parker, 12 Tea Spoons, most of them stamp'd D.P., 3 pair Silver Tea Tongs, not stamp'd, one large Gold Locket ... 14 pair large open-work'd Silver Shoe Buckles with Steel Chapes....". He subsequently advertised in 1761 that he was robbed again, and reported the availability of jewelry and goldsmiths' tools from "his Shop near the Golden Ball." From 1763-1767 he advertised his Union Street address and that his tools included "Forging & raising anvils for tankards, canns & creampots," and "Death head & heart in hand ring swages." Apparently he also worked around 1775 as a gold- and silversmith in Salem, Massachusetts.

Parker's works are collected in the Harvard University Art Museums, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and Yale University Art Gallery.

title: Daniel Parker (silversmith)


text:
Σίβυλλα

Etymology
Possibly from Doric Greek, akin to Attic , derived from +.

Proper noun

 * 1) Sibyl

title: Σίβυλλα


text:
Puzzles/Action sequences/Three Bottles

Puzzles | Action sequences | Three Bottles

Suppose you have a full bottle containing twenty-four ounces of liquid. You also have three empty bottles: one of five ounces, one of eleven ounces, and one of thirteen ounces. How could you divide the twenty-four ounces of liquid into three equal parts, so that you have three bottles containing eight ounces of liquid each?

Solution

title: Puzzles/Action sequences/Three Bottles


text:
User:KelvSYC

Hi there and welcome to kelvSYC's little corner of Wikibooks!

I'm a contributor to the various game guides here at Wikibooks. Among my significant projects include the Wikibooks Pokémon Guide, which tries to be the companion to the English Wikipedia's w:Wikipedia:WikiProject Pokédex, and Mega Man Battle Network, a book dedicated to the video game series.

I am also an administrator here at Wikibooks (and in no other Wikimedia wiki). If you have some important Wikibooks-related admining to do, then you should leave a message at my talk page. I will try to check VFD and speedy weekly and delete all the filth there, as a continued commitment to an admin. I also intend to strictly enforce the intention of Wikibooks as a repository of instructional material.

My admin philosophy
Many people (wikipedians especially) are in the belief that Wikibooks is just a repository of book-length material, and thus believe that Wikibooks can be a place to expand Wikipedia articles in the hopes of making it an in-depth encyclopedia. This is contrary to WB:WIN. I do aggresively seek out article forks and nominate them for VFD, but I do this infrequently due to the possibility of organic growth and the fact that I have better things to do.

I am also a proponent for enforcing the Wikibooks naming conventions, but I rarely do so due to other commitments and the acknowledgement that it is a gradual process (MediaWiki, however, is very weak in regards to managing how books are organized - tree-like subpage or graph-like namespace conventions are still very arbitrary and have weak back-end support).

Let me remind you that Wikibooks is a place for instructional material. VFD precedents have shown that an encyclopedia article or a long biography is not instuctional material in and of itself.

My projects
Here are the big books I've been working on lately:

Mega Man Battle Network
I'm the founder of this book, which attempts to be a complete strategy guide to the game. Currently I am working on the walkthrough of BN5, others may come later.

The following is my BN5 to-do list

To do

 * Team ProtoMan dialog
 * finish price lists in Higsby's chip order
 * finish patch code list for infinite chips in folder
 * how do I fit in Number Trader codes, NCP compress codes, etc...?

Pokémon
Pokémon is another book that I have created, among which Wikibooks Pokédex is the big part (and constitutes one of the larger Wikibooks). Since WB Pokédex is the largest part of Pokémon, currently a lot of it is data (and thus not very instructional in nature). I hope that contributors can help put more emphasis on teaching others how to finish the game.

The following is my WB Pokédex to-do list

To do list

 * Update all move lists for Emerald
 * FL/E move tutor moves
 * Links to Wikipedia's Pokédex (although I'd have to deal with some merge talk there)
 * Perhaps go over the level-up movelists for each series and check if the evolution section needs to be updated (eg. a lower form learns a move but the higher form does not) — or perhaps just eliminate the evolution section altogether...
 * More Japanese/English parity - eg. only the English cards are listed here so far...
 * EX Emerald card lists...

When WP started, MediaWiki was in its early 1.3 stages, and templates containing links didn't work as most people planned it to work (eg. had two template parameters and not one, so you could never use piped links). But now that it works, I may want to redo the evolution templates.

The major obstacle to making templates out of the move tables is the 5 inclusion limit currently in MW 1.3. I'd like to standardize widths and mess with the look with CSS a bit later on, so that there is more uniformity in each entry. Now that it's resolved in 1.4, the conversion process can get under way, although it will take a while as I try to perfect my styles.

Other plans for Wikibooks Pokédex include:
 * Attack index for the RPGs (I'm currently considering whether to include them in the Pokédex or put them elsewhere)
 * Super Smash Bros movelists for the relevant Pokémon (or at least a link to the appropriate book...)
 * Petitioning for a separate namespace, or alternatively, moving to use the standard subpage convention?

Related Pages

 * For my work in Wikipedia, check out w:User:kelvSYC (talk)
 * For my work in Wiktionary, check out wikt:User:kelvSYC (talk)

title: User:KelvSYC


text:
Historical Introduction to Philosophy/Arguments for God

Home Back Forward

If we are going to argue that something exists, such as "God", it would make sense, in the logical form, to first define what God is. Naturally, depending on who you ask, you could acquire more than one definition. The debate concerning the existence of God raises many philosophical issues. One basic problem is there's no universally accepted definition of God. Many of the definitions of God in existence are so vague, it is certain that something exists that meets the definition, but in a striking difference, many are self-contradicting. So for the sake of argument, I will provide the dictionary based definition just to provide a basis from which to begin.

Views on God

 * 1) The Supreme Being, creator and master of all
 * 2) Any being considered as divine
 * 3) An Idol
 * 4) A person or thing made the object of supreme devotion

Common Questions
While pursuing the answer to the questions, "does God exist?" or, "can we prove that God exists?", it might help to clear some confusion by answering some common questions that are sometimes asked when debating these arguments.

First, there is the question of whether something does exist or not. In answering this question, it could be understood that something can exist and us not know it. In other words, a thing can exist whether we know it or not.

Second, there is the question of whether we know that it exists. To be affirmative in answering this question, we must presuppose that the first question is answered affirmatively. For example, we can say something does exist without knowing it, but we cannot know it exists until we know it exists.

Third, we have to question whether there is a reason for our knowledge? We may not be able to convince others of knowledge we feel we have, even by using reason. God's existence in many Christian environments is viewed as like this.

Fourth, "If this reason does exist, can this reason amount to a proof? In many cases, what we believe and the reasons for believing it, can be based in probabilities, not the existence of proof.  An example of this may be in the case of O.J. Simpson.  It is commonly believed his actions were what led to the demise of his ex-wife and her boyfriend, based on the use of reason, BUT we do not really know.  We were not there when it happened, there was no eye-witness account, and even if there was, how would you know that they were being truthful?  They could have disliked Mr. Simpson and would have said they saw him do it whether he did or not.  To observe things from this requires a great willingness to avoid bias, and not be driven to decision based on your emotional thought, or what you believe to be true.

Finally, if a proof does exists, is it based on a scientific proof, such as measurement, observation, etc.? Sound or valid proofs can exist in philosophy, but these proofs are not necessarily scientific proofs.

Arguments
In the course of asking to present arguments for the existence of God, one must presuppose that in return, for the sake of objectivity, there will be a need to present arguments that also argue against the existence of God. In this course we will present the arguments for both. There are many different arguments both for the existence of God, as well as the arguments against the existence of God. Now, there are many different arguments for the existence of God, and most of them seem to follow the same logical structure. This structure is the basic structure of a deductive argument. First, there is a major premise (P1) or a general principle. Next, a minor premise (P2) will state infomation particular to our experience that comes under that principle. Finally, the (C) conclusion will follow by applying the general principle to a particular case. Although in these arguments the conclusion states that God does exist, the premises of the different arguments are different. The arguments are like roads, from different starting points, all leading to reach the same goal, God.

Due to the overwhelming number of these arguments we will limit this study to many of the most substantial. These arguments will be based and described in the following context.

Metaphysical Arguments (For the existence)
 * 1) Cosmological
 * 2) Ontological
 * 3) Pantheistic

Empirical Arguments (For the existence)
 * 1) Teleological
 * 2) Moral
 * 3) Trancendental

David Hume was one of the great empiricists, especially in the area of the philosophy of religion. The ability for empiricism to produce sceptic conclusions that concern our knowledge of God was greatly apparent in the work of Hobbes in which he holds on to similar empiricist principles concerning the foundations of human knowledge. One of the most apparent aspects of the position that Hobbes takes on this subject is his claim that we have no idea of God and this can make our comprehension of him difficult. In his writing "Leviathan" he states: "Whatever we imagine is finite. Therefore there is no idea or conception of anything we call infinite. No man can have in his mind an image of infinite magnitude, nor concieve infinite swiftness, infinitie time, or infinite force, or infinite power... And therefore the name of God is used, not to make us concieve him (for he is incomprehensible, and his greatness and power are inconcievable)but that we may honor him. Also because whatsoever... we concieve has been percieved first by sense, either all at once or by parts, a man can have no thought representing anything not subject to sense"... (Hobbes Leviathan, 3.12) center text

What is fundamental to Hume's entire empircist idea in "A Treatise of Human Nature" is his "copy principle", or the claim that"all our ideas, or weak perceptions, are derived from our impressions, or strong perceptions, and that we can never think of any thing which we have not seen without us, or felt in our minds" Hume goes on to observe that this discovery is one of considerable importance for "deciding all controversies concerning ideas""whenever any idea is ambiguious, he continues" we always have "recourse to the impression, which must render it clear and precise" Humes goes on to say that if any philosophical term has no idea annexed to it, Hume suggests that we can always ask "from what impression that pretended idea is derived? If no impression can be produced, we must conclude that the term altogether is therefore deemed insignificant. Given the significance of the "copy-principle" in the phylosophical system that Hume presents, and it clear revelance to the debate of the idea of God that we have, it is suprising to find that in the Treatise, Hume rarely mentions our idea of God, or even provides any kind of a detailed account of the nature and the origin of this idea. It would be a grave mistake though, to assume that that these problems of theology as they concern our idea of God, are not in Humes mind, but to neglect this topic in the face of the continuing debate and the clear revelance to Hume's philosophy in the writing of the Treatise, which clearly conveeys a sceptical idea or message. It may be argued that Hume's delivery or presentation of his theory of ideas in his writings of the Enquiry shows that the sceptical reading is not as obvious maybe as it appears. In this context Hume seems to use the idea of God to describe or illustrate his copy- principle. Hume states:

...When we analyze our thoughts or ideas, however compounded or sublime, we always find that they resolve themselves into such simple ideas as were copied from precedent feeling or sentiment. Even those ideas, which at first view, seem the most wide of this origin, are found, upon a nearer scrutinty to be derived from it. The idea of God, as meaning an infinitely intelligent, wise, and Good Being, arises from the reflecting on the operations of our own mind, and augmenting, without limit, those qualities of goodness and wisdom.(EU 2.6/19).

Hume feels the account of our idea of God, as has been presented in this passage, follws simply Locke's line of reasoning. Our idea of the existence of God is very complex and comes from very simple ideas steeped in the reflections on the way of operations of our own mind which upon we argue without limit. These remarks given in the Enguiry about the very nature and the origins of our ideas of God could be construed to show that the theory of ideas that Hume presents, such as the ideas in the Treatise, has no clear sceptical implications( this seems to follow alog Hobbeisan lines)but contrary to these views, there is a good reasonto conclude that Hume's Lockean description of our idea of God appears to really be less that sincere.

Hume continues on to show that the "optimists" of God in trying to deal with these difficulties actually are degrading God with the implication that God resembles them in any way to strive to make him more understandable or "comprehensible". What is more important than this, is that in the Enquiry XI Hume presents a critique of our conjectures about the nature of God and the attribute he may have, based in the evidence of design in the world. Hume stresses the point that God's being is "so different, and so much superior" to our human nature that we are not capable to form a distinct or precise idea of his nature and/or his attributes, much less in any way one based in our own percieved qualities or our characteristics. Hume states:

...The Diety is known to us only by his productions, and is a single being in the universe, not comprehended under any species or genus, from whose experienced attributes or qualities, we can, by analogy, infer any attribute or quality in him...(EU, 11.26) Hume later on goes on to remark that God is "a Being, so remote and incomprehencible, who bears such less analogy to any other being in the universe that the sun to a waxen paper, and who discovers himself only by some faint traces of outlines, beyond which we have no authority to ascribe to him any attribute or perfection"(EU11.27)If no impression can be produced, then we must conclude " the term altogether insignificant". Clearly then, there is a closely knit connection between the sceptical implications of Hume's empiricists theory of ideas, as based in his copy-principle, and then with his related critique of of the argument for God's existence from design. A basic or fundamental point trhat seems to emerge from all of this, is that Hume seems to agree with Hobbes that in our idea of God tends to follow the same path of that of a blind man trying to obtain the idea of fire.

Hume continues his critques of arguments for God's existence. One of Hume's more explicit assaults is in his writings in the Dialogues Part IX, in these writings he mentions Clarke and reduces his argument to a mere few sentences.

...Whatever exists must have a cause or reason of its existence, it being absolutely impossible for anything to produce itself, or to be the cause of its own existence. In mounting up, therefore, from effects to causes, we must either go on in tracing an infinite sucession, without any ultimate cause at all, or must have recourse to some ultimate cause, that is necessarily existent...(D,90) It is also essential to his argument to prove that the necessarily-existen being cannot be of unintelligent inactive matter matter. Clarke's argument that is being expressed by Hume, is rooted on the contingency for the existence of matter and a particular form of the world.

Clarke writes: Ant particle of matter, it is said, "may be concieved to be annihilated; and any form may be concieve to be altered. Such an annihilation or alteration, therefore is not impossible.(D91)

Clarke provides another argument that is not mentioned by Hume in the Dialogues to show that it is quite impossible for matter to truly be"the final and original being" it states that we cannot explain the origin of motion and intelligence in the world if matter is the first, original self existing being. The basic principle idea that Clarke is relying on to come to this conclusionis,once again that "nothing can come from nothing". The principle in this case is seems to be interpreted that it is inplying "in order of causes and effects, the cause must always be more excellent that the effect"(Demonstrations,38) On this account, it is virtually impossible that "any effect could have such perfection, which was not in the cause" Clarke and other like-minded thinkers, using the basis of this principle(described as the causal-adequacy principle) these thinkers attempt to maintain that it is possible to demonstrate for certain that matter and motion are not able to produce thought and intelligence. So therefore, the self-existent being must be intellectually, immaterial being, they claimed that to suppose the contrary would be just plain contradiction.

Hume on Miracles- Miracles are an essential and even a fundamental part of many of the monotheistic religions (i.e. Judaism, Christianity, Islam etc.) The observance or the account of miracles as presented in the scriptures of elsewhere in religious writings, are supposed to confirm the authenticity and even the authority of scripture and the prophets, but most importantly, establish that God has revealed himself to humans beings through the demonstration of these special acts or events. From Christianity's point of view there is one miracle that is particulary of significance, and that being the resurrection of Christ. To doubt or question the validity or truth of this event is fundamentally to doubt the very core and distinct meaning and the doctrine of the Christian religion. It would be to cast doubt on the claim that Christ is God and the saviour of human kind. A major concern that Hume has, as is presented in SectionX of the first Enquiry, was to discredit these miracle claims if this kind. According to Hume's description "a miracle is a violation of a law of nature"(EU,11.12/114)More specifically Hume states it is "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Diety, or by the interposition of some invisible agent(EU, 11.12) As defined, amiracle may occur without any person observing it, in other words, it may be completely unknown. Hume adds that a miracle is not only a violation law of nature,but also requires the direct activity of God or some "invisible agent" is a significant requirement.Nevertheless, the key issuefor Hume's critique of miracles, is whether or not we ever have reason to believe on the basis of testimony that a law of nature has been violated. Hume's arguments lead to the conclusion that we never have reason to believe miracle reports are passed on to us.

Hume seems to interpret a law of nature must involve a uniform regularity of events. We discover or "experience" laws of nature on the basis of our "experience on constant conjunctions of events or objects.

Empirical Arguments (Against the existence)

 * 1) The problem of evil.
 * 2) Argument from Inconsistent Revelations
 * 3) Argument from Poor Design
 * 4) Argument from Non Belief

Deductive Arguments (Against the existence)

 * 1) The Omnipotence Paradox
 * 2) Argument from free-will
 * 3) Transcendental argument for non-existence
 * 4) Theological Non-Cognition

Inductive Arguments (Against the existence)

 * 1) Atheist- Existentialist

Let us first look at the Metaphysical arguments. Metaphysics(Metaphysical) by definition is the branch of philosophy that investigates questions concerning the nature of reality and that moves beyond scientific inquiry to exploring questions about self, God, free will, and the origins of the universe. Named after a book by Aristotle for the study of questions left over after the study of this world, "physica" or nature.

The Cosmological Argument (for existence of God)
The Cosmological Argument is an argument that uses reason (logos) to make an inference of alleged facts about the world (cosmos) to imply the existence of a unique or "Supreme Being", particularly, God. One adherent to the cosmological argument was Leibniz, who argued that the world was filled with beings that depended on another being for their existence, and that the necessary being for all other being's existence was God.(1)

The Ontological Argument (for existence of God)
This argument attempts to support God's existence from a source based other than the mere observation or existence of the world. Basically, these basis come from a priori, analytical premises that reach a conclusion that God exists. Leibniz also employed an ontological argument for God's existence: He argued that God existed because it was possible for God to exist. In Leibniz's words, "Since nothing can prevent the possibility of what is without limits, without negation, and consequently without contradiction, this by itself is sufficient for us to know the existence of God a priori."(1)

The Pantheistic Argument
This view broadly defines God's existence by making the claim, "God is everything, and everything is God". It bases that everything purports a certian unity, and that unity is all inclusive and in some sense "divine" and exists from only one "Being" (God).

Now we will cover empirical arguments for the existence of God. The word "empirical" by textbook definition is "that which can be proven or disproved by sensory experience".

Teleological Argument
Teleological, from the Greek word "telos" meaning "purpose" or "goal". There are a few classical versions of the design argument. One is those of St. Thomas Aquinas and his "five ways". The fifth argument is the argument from design, the other four are first-cause arguments. The argument starts with a major premise; there must be a designer, The minor premise is the existence of design throughout the universe. The conclusion is that there must be a "universal designer".

The Moral Argument for God's existence
Moral arguments for the existence of God may be defined as a group of arguments in the history of western philosophical theology that possess ideas of the character of moral thought. They tend to cite facts that are evident to the human experience, and they will argue that such facts are best explained by the hypothesis that there is a God with the attributes ascribed to him by tradition.

Transcendental Argument
This argument attempts to prove that the Christian God is the precondition of all human experience and knowledge, by trying to demonstrate the impossibility of the contrary. Robert Lewis Dabney attempts to explain the impossibility of the contrary stating, "A truth is not necessary, because we negatively are not able to conceive the actual existence of the opposite thereof;but a truth is necessary when we positively are able to apprehend that the negation thereof includes an inevitable contradiction. It is not that that we can see how the opposite comes to be true, but it is that the opposite can not possibly be true(Systematic Theology).

Conclusion
Assignments:

 * Read Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways
 * Define how the concept of faith relates to the ideas of the Christian philosophers and how they use it to affirm their arguments for the existence of God.
 * To the best of your ability, write a 3-5 page paper outlining the development of the idea of God from the Greeks to the early Christians, and how the arguments for his existence developed and changed over the centuries.

Bonus Question: Based on your current knowledge concerning arguments for and against the existence of God, develop your own argument for God's existence; Then develop an argument against it. Good Luck!


text:
Free the Bees

Free the Bees is the second album from British band The Bees in 2004. Their first release for Virgin Records, it is also the first album to feature the current sextet that evolved during the tour that promoted debut album Sunshine Hit Me.

The album was originally planned to be recorded in Butler's shed (the same one where Sunshine Hit Me was produced). However, the band decided to record it at the famous Abbey Road Studios, bringing a more slick and uptempo sound than their debut.

"Chicken Payback" was released as a single in April 2005 and reached No. 28 in the UK Singles Chart. It was used in a UK television advert for Sure Deodorant For Men during the 2006 World Cup and was subsequently used in adverts for Age UK.

Track listing

 * 1) "These Are the Ghosts" (The Bees) – 3:08
 * 2) "Wash in the Rain" (The Bees, Julian Batley) – 3:38
 * 3) "No Atmosphere" (The Bees) – 3:48
 * 4) "Horsemen" (The Bees) – 3:27
 * 5) "Chicken Payback" (The Bees) – 3:12
 * 6) "The Russian" (The Bees) – 5:36
 * 7) "I Love You" (The Bees) – 4:35
 * 8) "The Start" (The Bees) – 2:19
 * 9) "Hourglass" (The Bees, Julian Batley) – 4:45
 * 10) "Go Karts" (The Bees) – 3:43
 * 11) "One Glass of Water" (The Bees) – 2:41
 * 12) "This Is the Land" (The Bees) – 3:01

US version bonus tracks
 * 1) "It Isn't Exact" (Demo)
 * 2) "These Are The Ghosts" (Undead Version)

Japanese version bonus track
 * 1) "Nothin" (Live)

Personnel

 * Kris Birkin – guitar, vocals
 * Paul Butler – lead vocals, guitar, piano, saxophone, trumpet, clarinet, mandolin, drums, percussion, producer
 * Michael Clevett – drums, percussion, bass, Hammond organ, vocals
 * Warren Hampshire – Hammond organ, piano, celeste, acoustic guitar, percussion, vocals
 * Aaron Fletcher – bass, guitar, piano, drums, percussion, vocals
 * Tim Parkin – vocals, trumpet, bass, piano, Rhodes piano, percussion

title: Free the Bees


text:
Beaumettes

Beaumettes (Lei Baumetas) is a commune in the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France.

Geography
The village lies on the right bank of the Calavon, which forms all of the commune's southern border.

title: Beaumettes


text:
Matt Simon

Matthew Blake Simon (born 22 January 1986) is a retired Australian international football (soccer) player who played as a striker. Simon attended St Edward's College, East Gosford, where he was influenced to play soccer.

Simon started his senior career with Central Coast Lightning before joining Central Coast Mariners in 2006. In 2012, Simon signed with K-League club Chunnam Dragons, however, his opportunities at the club were limited by persistent injuries. In 2013, Simon rejoined the Mariners. He moved to Sydney FC after being released by the Mariners in 2015, before again returning to the Mariners in 2018. Simon remains the Mariners' all-time leading goal scorer, as well as a 7-time Mariners’ Golden Boot winner, record holder for the most substitute appearances in Australian league history, and scorer of the latest goal recorded in an A-League regular season match.

Simon has made two appearances for the Australia national team. He also appeared for Australia U23 at the 2008 Summer Olympics.

Central Coast Mariners
He was added to the Mariners' squad in the week leading up to their 2006 Pre-Season Cup play-off against Newcastle Jets. Simon was then brought back to the squad after Nik Mrdja suffered a heel injury before the round 19 clash against Newcastle. He starred for the Central Coast Lightning during their 2006 NSW Winter Super League campaign. Simon had a solid 07–08 season with the Mariners despite not scoring any goals. In the first league game for the 08–09 season Simon immediately broke his duck and scored off a header that would prove to be the start of his wonderful season.

After a successful 08–09 season, in January 2009, he was offered a 2-year contract by Major League Soccer club Colorado Rapids but turned it down citing his preference to remain in Australia with the possibility of playing in Europe in the future. Later in the year, he extended his contract with Central Coast Mariners, staying with the club until 2012.

Move to South Korea
On 30 December 2011 it was announced that he had signed a three-year contract worth $400,000 per year to play for K-League side Jeonnam Dragons. It was later announced that Jeonnam Dragons paid a transfer fee of $170,000 to acquire the player.

Return to Central Coast Mariners
On 16 May 2013 it was announced that he had re-signed with the Mariners.

Sydney FC
On 3 August 2015 it was announced that Matt Simon had signed with Sydney FC, reuniting with his former coach Graham Arnold after he penned a one-year deal with the club. Arnold said the capture of Simon would add a new dimension to his squad. In Round 4 of the 2015–16 A-League, Simon scored twice as they beat his old club 3–1, after coming on as a substitute.

On 20 July 2016, Simon signed a one-year extension to his contract.

Despite coming off the bench for all of his 25 league games of the 2016–2017 season, Simon signed a one-year contract extension with the Sky Blue until the end of the 2017–2018 season. Simon was part of the title winning squad, winning the double in 2016–17.

On 24 March 2018, Simon came off the bench for Sydney FC in a match against his former club, and scored the winning goal in 90+3, which ultimately would set Sydney FC up to winning the A-League Premiership for the 2017–2018 season.

Second return to Central Coast Mariners
On 10 May 2018, Simon left Sydney FC and signed once again with the Central Coast Mariners, on a two-year contract. On 26 October 2018, he was announced as the Mariners new club captain.

On 3 October 2022, Simon announced his retirement from football, following a neck injury sustained in the 2021 FFA Cup, which had ruled him out of the entire 2021–22 A-League Men season.

International career
Simon played frequently for Australia under-23 (the Olyroos) in 2008. In May of that year he scored a hat-trick for the side in a 3–1 win over Republic of Ireland in Malaysia. Simon was originally named as an alternate player for the Olyroos at the 2008 Olympic Games in China. However, when Archie Thompson was injured mid-tournament, Simon was added to the playing squad. He played as a second-half substitute in the team's final match, a loss to Ivory Coast.

In May 2008, following strong form for the Olyroos, Simon was called up by Pim Verbeek to the Australian senior side for the first time for a 2010 World Cup qualifier against Iraq. He eventually made his Socceroos debut in January 2009 in a 2011 Asian Cup qualifier against Indonesia in Jakarta, in an Australian team of primarily A-League players. The game finished as a scoreless draw, although Simon did have a goal ruled out for offside. He made a second appearance for Australia in the same competition five weeks later against Kuwait. In what was Simon's first and only start for the side, the Socceroos lost 1–0 in Canberra.

Honours
Central Coast Mariners
 * A-League Premiership: 2007–08

Sydney FC
 * A-League Premiership: 2016–17, 2017–18
 * A-League Championship: 2016–17
 * FFA Cup: 2017

Individual
 * Mariners Medal (Player of the Year): 2008–09
 * PFA A-League Team of the Season: 2020–21
 * Number 19 retired by Central Coast Mariners: 2022

Records
 * Top goalscorer in Central Coast Mariners history: 59 goals

title: Matt Simon


text:
зълъ

Etymology
From, from , from.

Adjective

 * 1) evil
 * 2) bad
 * 3) * from the Homily against the Bogumils, 248:
 * "cu"

- нъ зълѣишѧ сѫтъ и бѣсовъ

title: зълъ


text:
Eoptolamna

Eoptolamna is an extinct genus of mackerel sharks that lived during the Cretaceous. It contains two valid species, E. eccentrolopha and E. supracretacea, which have been found in Europe and North Africa.

title: Eoptolamna


text:
Tourism/International

This course will help you in the consideration of generic subjects which relate to the global tourism industry. It is designed to help those already skilled in the travel and tourism sector to develop management capability for international tourism operations.

Tourism industry
This Tourism industry topic will assist you in developing an understanding of the many aspects of the tourism industry, and an appreciation of its place in the global and local economies.

Tourism Marketing

 * Market planning
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment
 * 4) Skills
 * 5) Needs

Geography

 * Global
 * 1) teaching and learning support resources
 * 2) presentation, reading and discussion point
 * 3) multi-choice test

Customer Services

 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

Human Resource Management

 * Developing staff
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

 * Managing staff
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

Destinations

 * Development
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

 * Planning (local)
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

Operations Management

 * Design
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

 * Operations and Information
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

Finance and Tourism

 * Business
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

 * Control
 * 1) Resources
 * 2) Presentation
 * 3) Assessment

title: Tourism/International


text:
User:Alai/Rus-battle

 * Action_of_20_June_1774
 * Action_of_22_July_1713
 * Action_of_3_September_1773
 * Action_of_4_July_1773
 * Action_of_4_July_1805
 * Battle_of_Bergen_(1799)
 * Battle_of_Brienne
 * Battle_of_Berezina
 * Battle_of_Chernaya_River
 * Battle_of_Cape_Kaliakra
 * Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)
 * Battle_of_Craonne
 * Battle_of_Dalian
 * Battle_of_Fraustadt
 * Battle_of_Gorni-Dubnik
 * Battle_of_Gross-Jägersdorf
 * Battle_of_Jutas
 * Battle_of_Kars
 * Battle_of_Kauhajoki
 * Battle_of_Kay
 * Battle_of_Kerch_Strait
 * Battle_of_Lapua
 * Battle_of_Lemnos
 * Battle_of_Malakoff
 * Battle_of_Maloyaroslavets
 * Battle_of_Mormans
 * Siege_of_Troitse-Sergiyeva_Lavra
 * Battle_of_Nikopol
 * Battle_of_Novi_(1799)
 * Battle_of_Ochakov
 * Battle_of_Ostrowo
 * Battle_of_Plovdiv
 * Battle_of_Połonka
 * Battle_of_Pulkkila
 * Battle_of_Pułtusk
 * Battle_of_Racławice
 * Battle_of_Revolax
 * Battle_of_Sehested
 * Battle_of_St-Dizier
 * Battle_of_Trebia_(1799)
 * Battle_of_Valutino
 * Battle_of_Virta_bro
 * Battle_of_Vedrosha
 * Battle_of_Zorndorf
 * Siege_of_Pskov
 * Battle_of_Te-li-Ssu
 * Warsaw_Uprising_(1794)
 * Wilno_Uprising_(1794)
 * Battle_of_Szczekociny
 * Battle_of_Chełm
 * Battle_of_Maciejowice
 * Battle_of_Białołęka
 * Battle_of_Landshut_(1760)
 * Battle_of_Eupatoria
 * Battle_of_Kizil-Tepe
 * First_Battle_of_Shipka_Pass
 * Second_Battle_of_Shipka_Pass
 * Third_Battle_of_Shipka_Pass
 * Fourth_Battle_of_Shipka_Pass
 * First_Battle_of_Wawer
 * Battle_of_Dębe_Wielkie

title: User:Alai/Rus-battle


text:
Cookbook talk:Cuisine of California

This module uses test adapted from the Wikipedia article Cuisine of California. The page history at the time the text was first adapted is included below.

* (cur) (last). . m 00:57, 28 Apr 2004. . Sfdan (em dashes, sp) * (cur) (last). . 17:15, 27 Apr 2004. . Gentgeen (+ Puck) * (cur) (last). . 04:12, 26 Feb 2004. . Sfdan * (cur) (last). . 20:20, 25 Jan 2004. . Cody666 * (cur) (last). . 14:09, 10 Jan 2004. . WhisperToMe * (cur) (last). . m 20:04, 20 Nov 2003. . Jengod * (cur) (last). . 00:45, 19 Nov 2003. . Seglea (note on Alice Waters and Chez Panisse) * (cur) (last). . m 02:25, 9 Nov 2003. . Jengod (link fusion) * (cur) (last). . 14:12, 16 Oct 2003. . <IP_ADDRESS> (intial article)

title: Cookbook talk:Cuisine of California


text:
2012 Singapore League Cup

The 2012 Singapore League Cup (known as the StarHub League Cup for sponsorship purposes) was held between 26 July to 11 August 2012. Traditionally held as a knockout competition, the 2012 edition saw a new format where four groups of three teams battled it out for a place in the semi-finals. In addition, the four teams that finished third in their respective groups played in a separate Plate Competition consisting of two semi-finals and a final.

The winner of the StarHub League Cup, DPMM FC, walked away with SGD$30,000 in prize money, while the runner up of the competition, Geylang United received SGD$15,000 in prize money. The winner of the Plate competition, Balestier Khalsa, also walked away with SGD$5,000 in prize money.

The draw for the Cup was held on Thursday, 12 July 2012 at the Football Association of Singapore's headquarters in Jalan Besar Stadium, Singapore. While 12 teams from the S.League will playing in the StarHub League Cup, Malaysia’s Harimau Muda A did not be participating in this competition. This was because the Young Tigers had earlier served notice that they were invited for another tournament in Austria scheduled for the same Muslim fasting month period.

StarHub broadcast both semi-finals and the final ‘live’ on its sports channel, SuperSports Arena.

Preliminary stage
Group A: Singapore Armed Forces FC, Tanjong Pagar United FC, DPMM FC

Group B: Albirex Niigata (S), Balestier Khalsa FC, Geylang United FC

Group C: Home United FC, Young Lions FC, Hougang United FC

Group D: Tampines Rovers FC, Woodlands Wellington FC, Gombak United FC

Plate Competition
The Plate competition will be made up of the four teams that finish third in their respective groups. Balestier Khalsa became the winners of the inaugural Plate Competition when they beat the Young Lions FC by a single goal scored in the dying minutes of the plate final by Prime League striker, Kim Min-ho.

title: 2012 Singapore League Cup


text:
Cookbook:Grilled Cheese Sandwich

| Sandwiches | US Cuisine

A grilled cheese sandwich is a simple hot sandwich filled with melted cheese. The key variable is the ratio of cheese to bread; this depends on the thickness and density of the bread, and the amount of cheese used, and varies according to taste; generally more cheese is preferred, so that the bread doesn't overwhelm the cheese. The goal is to get a nicely browned sandwich with melted cheese in the middle.

Grated cheese is recommended for more even melting. If mixing the grated cheese with chopped onions or other ingredients, it is easiest to grate the cheese into a bowl, mix with additional ingredients, and then spoon onto sandwiches; otherwise it can be messy.

Grilled cheese sandwiches are often served with soups, such as tomato soup.

Ingredients

 * 2 slices of bread
 * Butter
 * 1–3 slices of easy-to-melt cheese, such as cheddar, gouda, Limberger, American (or shredded cheese to taste)
 * Other ingredients as necessary (see variations below)

Stove-top method

 * 1) Heat a skillet, frying pan or griddle over medium heat.
 * 2) Spread butter on the bread, and place both pieces of bread, butter side down, in the skillet.
 * 3) When the butter sides of both have browned (check periodically), flip one over and place cheese on top, then place the other slice of bread on top of the cheese (again, butter side down).
 * 4) Compress the sandwich by pressing on it with a spatula.
 * 5) Once the bottom side of the sandwich is browned sufficiently, flip the sandwich over. When both sides are browned, take off heat, cut, and serve.

Oven method

 * 1) Preheat oven to 150°C (300°F).
 * 2) Spread butter on both sides of the bread slices.
 * 3) Sandwich the cheese and fillings between the bread slices, and transfer the sandwiches to a baking sheet.
 * 4) Bake for 10–15 minutes, flip, and bake another 5–10 minutes or to taste.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Try spreading both sides of the bread with mayonnaise, mustard, barbecue sauce, ketchup, and/or aioli.
 * Try layering other ingredients with sliced cheese, such as ham, tomato, shredded cooked pork, salami, etc.
 * If using shredded cheese, try mixing in various ingredients such as diced onion, garlic, leeks, shallots, pickles, crumbled bacon, pepper, thyme, cumin, etc.
 * Kappacasein of Borough Market uses cheddar cheese and sourdough bread, and mixes in onions, leek, and garlic. The bread is sliced ~6–8 mm thick and cooked in a flat sandwich press until the entire surface is crisp.
 * It is common practice at the Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan Scout Reservation in Pearson, WI to substitute a garlic-flavored spread for the butter.
 * You can also make open-faced baked sandwiches; in these, the exposed cheese tends to puff and bubble. If you only heat from above (via radiant heat), you will melt the cheese and leave the bread untoasted or lightly toasted, which may be desired; however, you should generally heat from both sides.
 * To get evenly melted cheese, and avoid burnt bread, cook over low heat on the stove—this gives the cheese time to warm up and melt, rather than scorching the bread before the cheese warms up.
 * Margarine can be used instead of butter, but it is not recommended, as direct heating tends to negatively affect the taste of margarine.
 * Using a specialized sandwich maker is useful as it circumvents the need to flip, provides attractive browning marks, and seals in the sandwich.
 * If you prefer soggy bread, melt the butter in a pan, and grill or roast in that. If you prefer crisp bread, spread butter on the bread, and toast on a grate or cook in a ridged indoor grill, so the fat runs away.

title: Cookbook:Grilled Cheese Sandwich


text:
Talk:David Campese

Path to Victory
I own the book "Path to Victory" and I can reference it for this Wikipedia entry. However, I don't know how to reference, Harvard style, two authors. For example, this is how I would reference something Bob Dwyer wrote,

{sfn|Harris|1984|p=122-123}

But how do you reference when there are two authors? — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 04:30, 26 November 2016 (UTC)

Untitled
Surely you have to mention for the uninitiated that most (all?) of his tries came against far tougher opposition than the Japanese guy's did! Other than that, a lot of interesting stuff I never knew.

Also, the article remarks that 1984 was the only time the Wallabies have completed a grand slam. Have they had a chance since? I'm not so sure....

I put the legacy in. Discuss???? ir5ac.

Hi, The section about the Grand Slam make reference to Matthew (Matt) Burke playing on the wing; I don't think that this is correct; Matt burke was born in 1973 and would have been 11 at the time. Could it have been Paul Carozza or Marty Roebuck?

No, it was another Matt Burke who played on the wing during that tour. See http://www.sporting-heroes.net/rugby-heroes/displayhero.asp?HeroID=1943.

Carozza debuted in 1990 against France and Roebuck in the massacre of the Welsh in 1991.

Ian

Adding his Sharks Coaching content
I am going to add a short section about Campo's time with the Sharks. Campo married a Durban lady and he is spending a lot of time in Durban. He is helping out the Sharks Academy. He seems to have emigrated to SA http://www.rugbyheaven.smh.com.au/articles/2005/10/10/1128796467966.html http://www.rugbyheaven.smh.com.au/articles/2005/10/19/1129401305005.html --Tiucsib 07:25, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

Too close to a narrative and too much detail
Okay this isn’t encyclopedic; this is a long story.Illuminatingvision 04:11, 11 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Surely most of it has been C&P from somewhere.

Mention of Jonah Lomu
"His propensity to make mistakes often made him the central feature of controversial moments, but his brilliance during some of Australian rugby’s most vital moments have often led him to be called Australia’s greatest rugby player and possibly one of the greatest rugby wingers in the history of the game, only second to Jonah Lomu."

This shows some bias. While some consider Jonah the best winger ever, not all do. In fact, those who may not find Campese to be the best winger ever may find somebody else the best winger ever. There are many New Zealanders I've talked to who find John Kirwan the best All Black winger ever. By stating conclusively that he's "only second to Jonah Lomu", one isn't giving a balanced examination. Based on one criteria or another, I think Gerald Davies, David Campese, Jonah Lomu, John Kirwan, Ieuan Evans, David Duckham, Jeff Wilson, Tom Kiernan etc could all be considered the best winger ever.

I move that part be edited to say: "...Australia's greatest rugby player and possibly the greatest rugby winger in the history of the game." "Possibly" allows the reader to understand that some think he's the best winger ever, as the likes of Bill McLaren and Tony Ward certainly do, while some don't. No mention of Lomu should be made, as there's plenty of wingers who could claim to be the best winger ever. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Francis7669 (talk • contribs) 05:28, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Completely unsourced article
Gentlemen, this article is completely unsourced (not to mention written in unadequate standard for an enciclopedy) : there's no reference plus it looks like an historic essay rather than an article. I wrote the David Campese article in Italian language and found a lot of references, both in Italian and English (for example: the English article completely omits the 9 years Campese spent playing in Italy at Petrarca and Amatori Milan, winning 5 Italian titles). You can use the references I found as a good base for rewriting - sourcing this article. Hope this helps. -- SERGIO  aka the Black Cat 19:34, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree, it's extremely disappointing that such a major player would have such a poor article. I disagree, though, that it is unreferenced. It is actually badly referenced. There are a list of references at the end, but no inline citations/footnotes.--MacRusgail (talk) 16:53, 24 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes, you're right, indeed is badly referenced. But is so badly referenced that it ends up to be, by paradox, not referenced at all, 'cause I wouldn't be able to assign any cited source to either statement in the article, if you know what I mean. -- SERGIO  aka the Black Cat 18:37, 24 January 2011 (UTC)

Use of "the genius" Ella? — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 00:58, 23 December 2014 (UTC)

Useful links
-- SERGIO  aka the Black Cat 22:32, 24 January 2011 (UTC)
 * http://www.rfu.com/microsites/museum/wofpage.aspx?section=47&wofpageid=53
 * http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10662199
 * http://www.smh.com.au/sport/motorsport/cash-and-campo-how-rugby-put-webber-on-track-for-f1-greatness-20101110-17nqg.html
 * http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/campese-parts-on-low-note-1312592.html
 * http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-union/why-campo-wants-the-shirt-on-your-back-636814.html
 * http://www.rugbyhalloffame.com/pages/campese2001.htm
 * http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/SportingTraditions/1992/st0802/st0802l.pdf (PDF)
 * http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1986/04/26/quando-sant-antonio-benedice-la-mischia.html (in Italian)
 * http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1996/ottobre/23/Campese_mister_100_contro_Italia_co_0_9610231797.shtm (in Italian)
 * http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1988/09/17/tutti-insieme-dietro-rovigo.html (in Italian)
 * http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1993/maggio/30/Berlusconi_consola_meta_co_0_93053012024.shtml (in Italian)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 12:55, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 01:36, 30 November 2019 (UTC)
 * David Campese 1988.jpg

title: Talk:David Campese


text:
Talk:Dieter Nuhr

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 11:14, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://archive.is/20141205083755/http://www.rbb-online.de/fernsehen/beitrag/nuhr-mit-respekt.html to http://www.rbb-online.de/fernsehen/beitrag/nuhr-mit-respekt.html

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title: Talk:Dieter Nuhr


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Louis Byrd

The result was delete. Jo-Jo Eumerus (talk, contributions) 18:54, 27 September 2019 (UTC)

Louis Byrd

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

WP:BLP of a person notable primarily as mayor of a city that is not large enough to hand its mayors an automatic inclusion freebie in the absence of much better sourcing than this. There are also WP:PERP overtones here, because this basically elides any substantive content about his mayoralty and instead concentrates entirely on corruption allegations. And of the five footnotes here, one is a primary source table of election results that is not support for notability at all, one is a user-generated discussion forum reposting the primary source text of a court ruling that isn't really about Byrd at all but just mentions his name a single time by way of background context, and two are just glancing namechecks of his existence in newspaper articles about other things -- and the one source here that is actually about Byrd in any non-trivial way is not enough to get him over WP:GNG all by itself as the only substantive source in play. A mayor's article has to be a lot more substantial and a lot better sourced than this to get him over WP:NPOL #2. Bearcat (talk) 14:56, 20 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of Politicians-related deletion discussions. Bearcat (talk) 14:56, 20 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Note: This discussion has been included in the list of California-related deletion discussions. Bearcat (talk) 14:56, 20 September 2019 (UTC)

 * Delete, fails WP:POLITICIAN. Kudpung กุดผึ้ง (talk) 01:45, 21 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Delete fails notability guidelines for politicians.John Pack Lambert (talk) 06:40, 22 September 2019 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Desmond Swayne

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110928061818/http://www.thisisdorset.net/news/tidnews/4370313.What_is_the_cost_of_our_MPs_/ to http://www.thisisdorset.net/news/tidnews/4370313.What_is_the_cost_of_our_MPs_/

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 11:24, 25 July 2017 (UTC)

Response to allegations
Swayne has responded to the allegations i. on sky, ii. on talk radio, iii. on small youtube channels. It would be good if we included this material. Talpedia (talk) 17:09, 28 January 2021 (UTC)

From the sky piece: "There is no evidence of data being manipulated, and at the time of the MP's comments, deaths were 14% above the five-year average - according to the Office for National Statistics."

It's quite unclear whether these are the views of ONS themselves, or whether they are the views of sky, combined data that sky has collected from the ONS. I think sky would have quoted the ONS directly if this was actually the view of ONS. I have changed the quote accordingly Talpedia (talk) 20:10, 28 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Desmond Swayne


text:
Talk:Mystery Science Theater 3000: The Movie

References needed
This article is in sore need of references, especially the Commentary section, where many unsourced statements are made about how the popularity and quality of the original film, and how the MST3K version was planned and made. ~ Jeff Q (talk) 20:38, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

Mystery Science Theater 3000 - The Movie - The Humdinger Edition
Does anyone know what will be on the Humdinger Edition? — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 16:30, 15 March 2012 (UTC)


text:
User:Zchahe7

Me
Frequent reader, occasional editor

Specialities
My main area of expertise is Medicine, with some knowledge of biological sciences and an interest in entomology.

title: User:Zchahe7


text:
bardagaár

Etymology
Compound of.

Noun

 * 1) year of war
 * bardagaárini
 * the years of war (1940-45 in the Faroe Islands)

title: bardagaár


text:
Talk:Intelligence Intensification/General Tips For Practicing

I don't get the Info-Ecosystem, how does it connects to the book? I think it is very unrelated.

please tell me what you think, especialy the one who added it.

 * It seems to me there are some good ideas in the section but much is undefined. I've read quite a lot of college mathematics and much of it doesn't make sense to me (even as a metaphor). The author is welcomed to give some concrete practical examples. Maybe we are only seeing the tip of the iceberg? You must know the whole iceberg in order to make sense of the tip, and most readers don't. --DanielJanzon 10:01, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * For instance: Be mindful that multiplication with zero is zero. Fine. This might be interpreted as "the effort of copying information to k new pieces of the same information is zero", which in turn might be interpreted as "it's free to give away a digital picture to everyone who wants it". But what has that to do with increasing the intelligence? Are you refering to the intelligence on a larger scale, the intelligence of humanity? Maybe that should be more clearly stated. Maybe it should be placed in another section like Systems engineering or something like that. --DanielJanzon 10:20, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * And what is meant by exponentiating information? Of course exp(0) = 1 if 0 is a number, matrix or something else we have a theory for, but what is the definition of exp(x) where x is information? Information is not a clearly defined word. If we had a preciese mathematical definition of the word, we could make a digital filter filtering out information from a random source. That would clearly be amazing. Observe that Shannon's definition of information is not what we usually mean by information. --DanielJanzon 10:20, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)


text:
Mikey Day

Michael William Day (born March 20, 1980) is an American actor and comedian. He was hired as a writer for the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live before its 39th season in 2013. He was then promoted to on-air cast status and became a featured player during the show's 42nd season in 2016, later being promoted to repertory status beginning with the 44th season in 2018. Day is also the host of the Netflix show Is It Cake? He previously was an on-air correspondent for The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Jay Leno Show.

Early life and education
Michael William Day was born March 20, 1980, in Orange, California. He attended Panorama Elementary School and later graduated from El Modena High School. There, he was involved in the drama program and the student government. He wrote comedic sketches for monthly assemblies and made the theme for his homecoming "Batman". Day graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles with a degree in theater in 2002.

Career
Day began his career with the Groundlings, a Los Angeles–based improvisational theater group. With the Groundlings, Day and Michael Naughton wrote and co-starred in David Blaine Street Magic, a parody of magician David Blaine, portrayed by Mitch Silpa. The video, posted to YouTube, was once one of the most-viewed videos on the site.

Day was an original cast member on the improvisational comedy series Wild 'n Out on MTV. He played various characters in the Groundling stage show Groundlings, In The Study, With The Candlestick in early 2009 and directed Groundlings Space Camp. Day wrote for Showtime's The Underground in 2006.

Day starred in NBC's Kath & Kim remake (2009), wrote for and co-produced the Cartoon Network show Incredible Crew (2013), and wrote for Adult Swim's Robot Chicken in 2014. Day hosted a recurring segment parodying TMZ from 2010 to 2013 on The Jay Leno Show and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Day was a featured cast member of NBC variety show Maya & Marty, alongside Maya Rudolph, Martin Short, and Kenan Thompson. He also served as one of the show's co-head writers.

2013–present: Saturday Night Live
Day was hired as a writer for Saturday Night Live in 2013 for its 39th season. He was recommended for the job by Nasim Pedrad, who had worked with him before and was a cast member of SNL at the time, appearing in her fifth and final season on the show. On SNL he wrote many sketches featuring cast member & former Wild 'n Out co-star Taran Killam, with whom he wrote the screenplay to Brother Nature (2016).

He was promoted to featured player for season 42 and was promoted to a repertory player in the beginning of season 44. For his audition, he impersonated Donald Trump Jr. and SNL actor Kyle Mooney. His debut appearance was in season 42's first episode, October 1, 2016, hosted by Margot Robbie. Bobby Moynihan, Streeter Seidell, and Day wrote the sketch "Haunted Elevator" for the October 22, 2016 episode of SNL. Starring Tom Hanks as David S. Pumpkins, Day played one of two dancing skeletons in the sketch. The sketch went viral, and he reprised the role for The David S. Pumpkins Halloween Special (2017).

On the April 13, 2024 episode of Saturday Night Live, Day and guest host Ryan Gosling, appeared in a sketch as live-action versions of Beavis and Butt-Head. The sketch went viral and received large media coverage and critical acclaim. The pair reprised the roles on the red carpet at The Fall Guy movie premiere, of which Gosling played the starring role.

 * Celebrity impressions on Saturday Night Live

 * Steve Bannon (dressed as the Grim Reaper)
 * Travis Barker
 * David Beckham
 * Joe Biden
 * Richard Blumenthal
 * Butt-Head
 * Bruce Castor
 * John Cornyn
 * Bill Cowher
 * Steve Doocy
 * Jack Dorsey
 * Matt Duffer
 * Joseph Dunford
 * Rob Dyrdek
 * Sean Evans
 * Colin Farrell
 * Michael Flynn
 * Dan Frischman
 * Merrick Garland
 * Willie Geist
 * Matt Hall
 * Prince Harry
 * Pee-wee Herman
 * Rian Johnson
 * Jim Jordan
 * Tim Kaine
 * Brian Kilmeade
 * Steve King
 * Greg Lee
 * Adam Levine
 * Howie Long
 * Kevin Love
 * Joe Manchin III
 * Roy Moore
 * Elon Musk
 * John Oliver
 * Mehmet Oz
 * Pitbull
 * Jamie Raskin
 * Jim Risch
 * Franklin D. Roosevelt
 * Paul Ryan
 * Bruce Schroeder
 * Nate Silver
 * Phil Simms
 * Steve-O
 * Donald Trump Jr.
 * Sam Worthington (as Jake Sully from the Avatar film series)

 * Recurring characters on Saturday Night Live
 * Greg Duncan, one half of a couple whose forays into spicing up their sex life leave Greg seriously and comically injured by his shy, yet intimidating wife Shelley Duncan (Leslie Jones)
 * Mort Fellner, a supercentenarian who reports on the achievements and experiences of fellow supercentenarians; however, each report culminates in revealing that the achievement is due to the subject dying.
 * Nico Slobkin, one half a shallow couple always on the brink of an argument, who runs a relationship-themed Instagram account with his girlfriend Brie Bacardi (Heidi Gardner).
 * Matt Schatt, one half of a couple, who is so disproportionately unexceptional compared to his exceptionally attractive partner that others can't help but question how their relationship exists.
 * Josh, one of the two unintelligent kids (the other being Lonnie, played by Cecily Strong) in the Science Room sketches.

Disney
Day and his writing partner Streeter Seidell have completed one project and have two projects in development for Disney. The first of these, Home Sweet Home Alone, the sixth film in the Home Alone franchise, was released on Disney+ on November 12, 2021. A live-action Inspector Gadget film is in pre-production. Walt Disney Pictures is also planning to produce a remake of SpaceCamp.

Personal life
Day dated Selma Blair, whom he met on the set of Kath and Kim, from 2008 to 2010.

Day is currently in a relationship with actress Paula Christensen. Their son was born in August 2012.

title: Mikey Day


text:
User:Gproyd/sandbox

The cat sat on the mat. The dog lay in its basket Napoleon City of York Council website Gproyd (talk) 14:15, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User:Gproyd/sandbox