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Talk:Michael Burnham

Diversity Backlash
I have removed the "Diversity Backlash" section. There was a single, poor citation from CinemaBlend using the "some people are saying..." trick to invent a controversy into existence, while providing no evidence. No other reliable sources report this "controversy". --2600:1700:9610:83B0:35F4:5BFC:AB54:C77F (talk) 07:28, 8 January 2021 (UTC)

Michael
Isn't 'Michael' unusual as a woman's name? I've never heard it before, only 'Michaela'. Varnebank (talk) 20:54, 5 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes, that is the point. Not sure if that is discussed here, but it is at List of Star Trek: Discovery characters. - adamstom97 (talk) 21:40, 5 October 2017 (UTC)
 * This is something Bryan Fuller always does: he names female leads after male names. Sonequa Martin-Green chose her father's name. ―Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 05:46, 6 October 2017 (UTC)

Similarity to Seven of Nine
Not sure exactly what you mean. It's self-published, but Sonnenburg is a well-regarded "expert" on matters Trek-related, unlike the authors of the other opinion pieces (primary sources all) cited in the section presently, most of whom appear to be staff writers at various entertainment magazines and websites. I would not say he is the best source possible for factual claims, but since the whole section is opinion anyway, and since self-published opinion is no more or less "reliable" than third-party-published opinion, the only difference appears to be in how relevant significant and noteworthy the opiner is. Hijiri 88 ( 聖やや ) 07:43, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Self-published sources are usually out, as you can see. Do you have any references to Sonnenburg being a well-respected authority on the topic? ―Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 08:13, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
 * No, self-published sources are normally considered unreliable for factual claims unless they come from well-respected authorities, but with personal opinions (which, again, are all that are presently cited in the section) they are no more or less "reliable" than those published by third parties.
 * Anyway, apart from equally self-published well-regarded video producers like Lewis Lovhaug and other Channel Awesome producers a quick Googling did not bring up anything to support my assertion Sonnenburg is a well-regarded "expert", but if you want other less "self-published" opinion pieces that noticed the Seven of Nine similarity, would this or this do?
 * I really feel like instead of summarizing the "thumbs up/down" opinions of people who happen to have columns in popular entertainment magazines, a better approach would be to gather together critical analyses of various aspects of the character (such as the similarity to Seven of Nine) that have been noted by multiple reviewers apparently independently. Maybe not naming inline any one of the three I've cited but rather a Several commentators noted a similarity to... approach like at The Dragon and the Wolf.
 * Hijiri 88 ( 聖やや ) 08:36, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, a self-published blog is reliable just for saying what someone thinks of something but it's trivial as a source. If I publish a blog and say that I think this character is like Peter Pan, that could definitely show what I think reliably but it would be irrelevant, since I don't know anything about Star Trek and no one cares what I think. I'm with you in principle but I hope you understand my point here--you have to establish something more than just, "X says Y is like Z"—why should I care what X thinks about anything? ―Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 09:05, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Well, it's not a blog so much as a weekly review and critical analysis show, but that's beside the point. The "reception" sections of fictional character articles should be more focused on critical analysis of the character, their role in the story, literary parallels, real-world/literary inspiration than on acolades the actor received for their portrayal of the character. The literary parallel to Seven is something several critics have noted (and I'm sure a more thorough search would show up many more, especially as more academic/scholarly retrospective sources begin to be written), and I think is probably more interesting to a Wikipedia reader than most of what's already in there, which is more about the actor (who has her own article) than the character. Hijiri 88 ( 聖やや ) 09:26, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Again, agreed--we just need reliable sources. ―Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 10:26, 28 January 2018 (UTC)

Xenoanthropology
There's no such thing as "Xenoanthropology". The correct term would be "Sophontology", the study of intelligent life forms, with all the attendant sub-categories (Linguistic, Physical, Cultural, etc. etc.).
 * To the best of my knowledge that is how the discipline is commonly refered to within the ST universe. DGtal (talk) 10:30, 28 October 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Michael Burnham


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User:Josh~enwikibooks

This account is a placeholder for the "JOsH" account. I assume in the future the wikibooks software will not be case sensitive, so I made this account which will remain inactive for now.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Josh~enwikibooks


text:
Synod of Mantaille

The Synod of Mantaille was held in Mantaille, in the southwestern French region of Provence, on 15 October 879 by the bishops and nobles of the region around the rivers Rhône and Saône. They elected Boso of Provence, Count of Vienne, as successor to king Louis II of France, dead since April. The synod marks the first occurrence of a "free election" among the Franks, without regard to royal descent, inspired by the principles of ecclesiastical elections.

title: Synod of Mantaille


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User:Knucklebabies/sandbox

The term “ free refill ” is a phrase often used by restaurants for the refilling of a customer’s beverage, at no extra charge , after the original purchased amount has been consumed. The most common beverages eligible for “free refills” are coffee  and fountain soft-drinks. The practice is almost universe in restaurants in the United States, but extremely rare in the UK and rest of Europe.[1][2]

History
Although no one can trace the exact roots of the “free refill “, in 1892 author Mark Twain wrote ,“ if you ask a European visitor what in his opinion is the most noteworthy feature of American cafes, he is most likely to say, they refill your cup without charge, without asking!”(3) Another historical reference to free refills is contained in Author William H. Ukers 1922 book All About Coffee.In which he states, “Perhaps, the endless refill is symbolic of America’s special affection for coffee and its culture of largesse and informality as well.”(3) 1988 Taco Bell launched their “value initiative” which included drive thru windows, reduced price, and free refills. As Pepsi owned Taco Bell this was strategically done to increase revenue and Pepsi brand awareness. (4)

Marketing
Free refills are seen as a good way to attract customers to an establishment, especially one whose beverages are not their primary source of income.[6] Due to the extremely low cost of fountain soft drinks, often offering a profit margin of 80-82%  [5], they are commonly offered as free refills. Most of these establishments are not occupied by the same customers for long periods of time and thus customers rarely consume enough beverage to make the offering unprofitable.[6]  Some establishments, who make their primary income with beverage sales,  only offer free refills to members of rewards programs.[7]

Criticisms
In certain areas of the United States, like Massachusetts and New York, politicians have proposed banning free refills and drinks over a certain size in recent years. The Mayor of New York, Michael Bloomberg (2002-2013), so far has gone the farthest in this matter pushing a ban on sugary drinks over 16 ounces. Bloomberg had several reasons for enacting this ban stated in the ban. (8)According to New York city officials, American’s now consume 200-300 more calories a day then they did 30 years ago, sugary drinks being the leader in this increase. Now over 35% of adults are considered obese and 17% of youth in America. Susan Kansagra who is the head of the chronic-disease prevention and tobacco-control unit of the Health Department was quoted in saying that in New York obesity accounts for 5,800 deaths a year including, 1,700 from diabetes. The reasons are similarly tailored to other cities that are trying to get bans against large sugary drinks and free refills. (9)The Mayor of Cambridge, Massachusetts, Henrietta Davis (2012-2013), tried to do something similar to this ban believing that there are too many temptations in life and large sugary drinks are not a needed temptation. The ban has yet to make headway in Massachusetts. (10)In New York the ban against large soft drinks got dismissed by the New York Supreme Court because it "violated the state principle of separation of powers."

The French government is another critic on free refills ,with some French politicians and health experts trying everything possible to keep the American “drink as much as you want” mentality out of France. (11)Two global fast food chains have recently started offering free refills at their French locations and have been receiving a lot of backlash about it. Serge Hercberg, the Nation Nutrition and Health Programme, was recently quoted saying “It is in total contradiction with public health recommendations,” working to promote healthy eating her stance is, “I oppose all marketing practices that encourage people to consume excessive quantities of unhealthy products.” France is trying to deal with the problem of obesity in France as the average Frenchman has gained 3 kg since 1997.

title: User:Knucklebabies/sandbox


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User:Zoreltimes/sandbox

Women's Action Alliance
What is missing from the original article on Wikipedia?
 * What the Women's Action Alliance accomplished
 * How did they go about their political agendas and succeed where they did?
 * Who were some key players? Possibly some more about Gloria Steinem and Dorothy Pitman Hughes.
 * Why did it dissolve in 1997?

SOURCES (so far)

 * Toce, Sarah. "Gloria Steinem recounts 'Life on the Road,' legacy." Windy City Times, 14 Oct. 2015, p. 13+. Gender Studies Collection, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=PPGB&sw=w&u=northwestern&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA432273562&it=r. Accessed 9 Oct. 2017.
 * Wagner, Bernadette. "'Women's' work unnoticed, unrecognized, unpaid." Canadian Dimension, May-June 2007, p. 16+. Gender Studies Collection, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=PPGB&sw=w&u=northwestern&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA164628763&it=r. Accessed 9 Oct. 2017.
 * Whittier, Nancy. "PERSISTENCE and TRANSFORMATION Gloria Steinem, the Women's Action Alliance, and the Feminist Movement, 1971 - 1997." Journal of Women's History, vol. 14, no. 2, Summer2002, pp. 148-150. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=6969475&site=ehost-live.
 * Miller, Marla R. "Tracking the Women's Movement through the Women's Action Alliance." Journal of Women's History, vol. 14, no. 2, Summer2002, pp. 154-156. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=6969326&site=ehost-live.
 * Williamson, Jane, et al. Women's Action Almanac : A Complete Resource Guide. Women's Action Almanac : a Complete Resource Guide., 1980. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=ERI-EWRI009360&site=ehost-live.
 * Feminist Coalitions
 * Alcohol and Drugs Are Women's Issues

Women's Action Alliance
The Women's Action Alliance (WAA) was a feminist organization in the United States, founded in 1971 during the Women's Movement. It was founded by Gloria Steinem and Dorothy Pitman-Hughes. Steinem is a noted journalist, activist, and feminist leader. Upon its founding the Women's Action Alliance announced to the press its mission: "to assist women working on practical, local action projects; projects that attack the special problems of social dependence, discrimination, and limited life alternatives they face because they are women". The founders noted that the group was the "natural result of the success of the Women's Movement to date," now that both women and men had begun to see "depth and destructiveness of sex-role conditioning". By marshaling their considerable access to expertise in many fields, the founding members of the WAA sought to serve the "large numbers of women who want to change their lot in life." It made many contributions to the Women's Movement and to American women, including helping to open the first battered women's shelters.

The board of directors of the Women's Action Alliance included several notable feminists such as Bella Abzug and Shirley Chisholm. Gloria Steinem chaired the board from 1971-1978.

The Women's Action Alliance was dissolved in 1997.

The WAA's Establishment
The formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW)

Women's Action Alliance's Initiatives
The Women's Action Alliance was known to many women and was a source of help to them. Women would write to them to "change their lot in life" and ask about services the feminist organization could steer them towards. A lot of early correspondence was sent to the WAA asking for referrals to women or feminist professionals of all kind (psychologists, lawyers, doctors, etc.) and some even asked about starting feminist organizations or chapters in their vicinities. A way that the WAA came up with all of these referrals and sources to send to these women who asked for such things was to gather from other women directly. Pamphlets would be sent out asking that any woman who belongs to a women's group to send their work and info so the WAA could direct other women in their areas to them when prompted. The same went for those women and feminist doctors and lawyers; women would send in names of women professionals and those specifically interested in helping women.

National Women's Agenda
One goal the Alliance had was to create a national agenda to move towards more feminist legislation. The WAA members and other women organizations were wary about the government’s control over certain aspects of women’s lives such as reproductive rights and other laws. In January of 1975, President Gerald Ford founded the National Commission on the Observance of International Women’s Year (IWY Commission). This, along with other commissions that began during the John F. Kennedy administration, issued reports that would impose change in the federal and state government but many groups including the National Organization for Women (NOW) and other independent feminist groups continued to push "hard from the outside to ensure that the government's cautious advocacy for women did not remain the only vehicle to improve women's status and expand their opportunities." This led the Women's Action Alliance to mobilize and create the National Women's Agenda.

After writing to many organizations such as the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC), the Girl Scouts, the National Conference of Puerto Rican Women and the National Council of Negro Women, they had 70 groups respond by May and 24 eventually participated in creating this agenda. The agenda they came up with advocated for a ton of different causes and problems women and marginalized people faced. It touched on fair representation in different aspects of the government and other areas, end to racial and cultural stereotyping, working women as well as homemakers as workers, women in poverty (who they deemed as the most vulnerable), women affected by the criminal justice system especially those pertaining to victimless crimes (i.e. prostitution), and bodily autonomy and integrity.

The group had issues with representation, racism and diversity within those planning the agenda as well but was able to get 94 organizations from an expansive group of women's groups and labor unions, including The NWA was eventually overshadowed by the National Plan of Action (the Plan) created by the National Women's Conference in Houston, which had gained the approval of 2,000 delegates at this federally funded national women's conference (the first of its kind). There were differences between the two; one was the language used to express their plans and expectations, with the Houston plan being more "expansive" and the NWA being more "terse." The Plan also talked more about minority women while the NWA in turn had "a clearer statement on a welfare program." The NWA had a more structured and forward stance on health care whereas the Houston plan had more specific words regarding "abortion, asserting support for the Supreme Court decisions and proposing inclusion in all plans to provide health care." The National Women's Agenda Project collapsed in 1980 while the WAA continued for almost 20 more years.
 * American Association of University Women (AAUW)
 * National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs
 * Lutheran Church Women
 * Girls Clubs
 * Planned Parenthood
 * National Association of Social Workers
 * National Association for Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors
 * Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
 * Future Homemakers of America
 * NCJW
 * National Coalition of American Nuns
 * Women Strike for Peace
 * YWCA
 * Amalgamated Clothing Workers
 * American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME)
 * NOW
 * National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL)
 * NWPC
 * National Association of Commissions for Women
 * Citizen's Advisory Council on the Status of Women
 * Feminist Press
 * Women's Legal Defense Fund
 * Federally Employed Women
 * National Gay Task Force
 * Lesbian Feminist Liberation
 * Mattachine Society
 * National Council of Negro Women
 * National Conference of Puerto Rican Women
 * National Black Feminist Organization
 * National Institute of Spanish-Speaking Women
 * Mujer Integrate Ahora (MIA)
 * National Committee on Household Employment (NCHE)
 * National Congress of Neighborhood Women

Non-Sexist Childhood Development Initiative
One initiative WAA had was to combat what they saw as the sexist way children - boys and girls - were being taught in preschools. In September of 1977, Barbara Sprung, director of the Non-Sexist Child Development Project, wrote about the initiative in Parents Magazine. This project was started because of the aforementioned letters they received from women across the United States; some expressing concerns because of the sexism in their children's school when it came to gender roles and gender conformity. The group did some digging into the "unfair sex-role-stereotyping" that went on in early childhood development and after finding problems, decided to start this project. The program received funding from different foundations.

To investigate this sex-role conditioning, WAA directors Carol Shapiro and Catherine Samuels started setting up programs to address this sexism in preschools issue. They saw that the "sex stereotypes have already been learned" by the time children got to higher grade levels, after having been fed this "sexist" ideals of life. This is when they put Sprung in charge of the project, as she used to be a teacher in early childhood development. In the fall of 1973, they launched the program in four childhood education centers in New York.

Sprung writes that they believe this gender typecasting is harmful to both genders of young children. They cite that boys are taught not to cry and don't play with certain toys like dolls, whereas girls are expected to play quietly and stay clean.

The program stood on four components. As a result of these four components, the WAA in these four preschools did many things like take the children to see different genders in "unusual" jobs, unusual just based on what society has taught them was normal up to this point (i.e. a woman in a boss-like position). As stated before, once the WAA left these facilities, they still expected the work to continue and one of the ways they helped this along was with the development of a curriculum guide called Non-Sexist Education for Young Children: A Practical Guide. This was monumental as providing the first non-sexist early education materials for the classroom.
 * "In-Service teacher training": This was a way for WAA staff could teach the current teachers and school staff on the harmful effects that were currently being taught. This allowed for them to (theoretically) keep going after the WAA left the schools.
 * "Parent education": This helped parents of the students identify what was harmful to teach children to break this cycle of sexist learning and conditioning. This would also bring these principles home and keep the education for the children going.
 * "Curriculum development": Along with teaching current, local staff about the initiative, they also came up with a curriculum to essentially teach the core lesson to children. This lesson was "to help children understand that men and women do all kinds of work both inside and outside the home, and that human beings are free to choose what the want to be regardless of their sex and race."
 * "The development of non-sexist, multi-racial materials": To combat this sex-stereotyping that was going on in preschools, the WAA wanted to include diverse, positive, non-sexist representation in the learning materials, toys and books surrounding the children.

Women's Alcohol and Drug Education Project
Established in 1987 by the Women's Action Alliance, the Women's Alcohol and Drug Education Project was intended to meet the lacking need of substance abuse help for women, especially women of color and those in poverty. Paula Roth who was director of the project in 1990, wrote a book titled "Alcohol and Drugs Are Women's Issues." It is two volumes and had a goal of expressing these two issues in a way to start a new conversation around these abused substances. Another goal of these books was to highlight the fact that these were "critical women's issues."

Much like with the preschool initiative, the project set up model programs to test at six women's centers across America. The main reach was to set up and integrate an alcohol and drug component into the work already being done with the women at these shelters. Substance abuse prevention was also a priority along with intervention activities. They put substance abuse in the context of women's issues, stating that whether it was the woman who was addicted or a person in her life, current events or news on this topic wouldn't reach the women in these shelters due to the fact that the women there wouldn't consume that media or information (due to lack of access to it).

In the 1970s, most rehabilitation and preventive programs were for men who were predominantly white with health insurance. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) awarded 40 grants for treatment programs specifically for women. Due to blocked state grants in 1981, projects such as this one weren't able to be funded until the late 80's.

The Women's Action Almanac
The Women's Action Alliance published a book in 1979 titled, "Women's Action Almanac; A Complete Resource Guide." It was partly funded by the Merit Gasoline Foundation, which fueled their research and compilation of resources. Written and put together by the WAA and edited by Jane Williamson, Diane Winston and Wanda Wooten, this guide to women's issues and programs is organized by subject and includes lists of women's organizations.

The sections in the book had a strict formula when being written: summary of the "prevailing feminist perspective," background information, importance and status and current data followed by relevant women's organizations (national and local if it applied) ending with any resources that need to be listed. It carried information on the following subjects (in the order they appear in the almanac): The aforementioned letters sent to the WAA from women across the country asking for advice or information sparked this almanac because they realized women needed this resource to find solutions for themselves.
 * Abortion
 * Affirmative Action
 * Battered Women
 * Birth Control
 * Breast Cancer
 * Career Development
 * Childbirth
 * Child Care
 * Child Support
 * Commissions on the Status of Women
 * Continuing Education for Women
 * Credit
 * Criminal Justice
 * DES
 * Disabled Women
 * Displaced Homemakers
 * Divorce
 * Earnings Gap
 * Employment Equal Pay for Equal Work
 * Equal Rights Amendment
 * Estrogen Replacement Therapy
 * Executive Order 11246/11375
 * Feminist Spirituality
 * Financial Aid for Education
 * Flexible Work Schedules
 * Health Care
 * Higher Education
 * History
 * Homemakers
 * Incest
 * Insurance
 * International Women's Day
 * International Women's Year (Includes National Plan of Action)
 * Jewish Women
 * Labor Union Women
 * Language
 * Legal Status
 * Lesbian Mothers
 * Lesbians
 * Marriage and Equality
 * Minority Women
 * Name Changes
 * Nonsexist Education
 * Nontraditional Occupations
 * Older Women
 * Ordication of Women
 * Pacifism and Feminism
 * Politics
 * Pornography
 * Pregnancy Benefits
 * Prostitution
 * Psychology and Women
 * Rape
 * research and Information
 * Right-Wing Attacks
 * Rurual Women
 * Self-Defense
 * Sex Discrimination in Education
 * Sex Roles
 * Sex-Typing of Occupations
 * Sexual Harassment on the Job
 * Sexuality
 * Socialist Feminism
 * Social Security
 * Sports
 * Sterilization Abuse
 * Substance Abuse
 * Title IX
 * Title VII
 * Veterans' Preference
 * Vocational Education
 * Volunteerism
 * Welfare and Poverty
 * Women and Poverty
 * Women and Development
 * Women and Religion
 * Women and Owners
 * Women Business Owners
 * Women's Arts and Media
 * Women's Bookstores
 * Women's Centers
 * Women's Educational Equity Act
 * Women's Movement
 * Working-class Women

This was also a place for the WAA to have a comprehensive directory of resources and services for women who need them. Their main goal with it was to "provide answers to questions on women's issues and program," and it has two parts: the above list of subjects concerning women and the second is a directory of "national women organizations and women's caucuses or divisions of national organizations."

Other Initiatives
Women didn't just write to the WAA about sexism in their schools. Due to all these inquiries and issues sent in by their followers, the WAA had many, many programs going on. "Beginning Equal," for example, was similar to the above project about gender roles in preschool in that it also started at this early development level. This one however doesn't really have as explicit a cause; it just was an observation of preschoolers, their teachers and parents, most likely a preliminary stage to the bigger project above. A couple other projects were Women With Non-Traditional Occupations and Children of Single Parents in the Schools. "Computer Equity" focused its attention on computer use by boys and girls in six states. After their research on this, they went on to use it to encourage girls to become more comfortable with technology, which is something that may not have been imposed on them as much as it was to boys. Later on, other programs like the Teenage Pregnancy Prevention project became more centralized around healthcare. This particular program mainly revolved around gathering data and information about teen pregnancy by surveying a vast number of agencies that served this demographic.

The Sophia Smith Collection of Women's Action Alliance Archives
The Women's Action Alliance, due to the extensive amount of letters it received and consistent notes taken members of the organization, there is currently a 117.25 feet of records (taking up 318 boxes) located at the Sophia Smith Collection in Northampton, Massachusetts. It is the Sophia Smith Collection's "largest processed collection" to date. Everything from the group's inception in 1971 to its disbandment in 1997 is in these files and can be viewed at the facility today.

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Procedures and functions

Course Navigation

Overview
Programming can be a repetitive task. While we have structures like loops to help us do the exact same thing many times, there are times when we need to do something different with only slight variation each time. Rather than write the same code with only minor differences over and over, we group the code together and use a mechanism to allow slight variations each time we use it. A function (also called procedure or method) is a smaller program with a specific job. In most languages, functions can be "passed" data, called parameters, which allow us to change the values they deal with. For instance, a function which adds one to a number would take the number as an argument. Languages usually have a way to return information from a function, and this is called the return data. In our example, the function would return one plus the number which was passed as an argument.

The programmer uses a function by calling it. An example is given in the C language. Lines beginning with // are comments that do not represent any actual code.

// first we declare the function, and tell the compiler that it takes one // argument named x, which is an integer, and returns one integer value int add_one(int x) { // now, inside of the function, we return the new value return x + 1; }

// this is the main part of the program, which calls the function we declared earlier main {   int n;    n = add_one(2);

// this line will simply print the value of n to the screen. In our case this is 3 printf("%i", n); }

Parameters are often referred to as arguments. A fine distinction between parameters and arguments can be made, however. A parameter (or formal parameter) is a characteristic of a function while an argument (or actual parameter) is a characteristic of a function call. A parameter exists for a function, even without enclosing source code while the argument exists only in a running program when a call to the function is made.

Parameters can be passed into a function with different semantics. The different ways to pass parameters are called call-by-value, call-by-strict-value, call-by-reference, call-by-name, call-by-result and call-by-value-and-result. The first three are the more common forms.

 * Call-by-value : Call-by-value describes passing a parameter to a function as its value. A variable that is passed call-by-value is duplicated and exists both in the calling code and as an argument value inside the function. A call-by-value argument doesn't have to be a variable; it can also be the result of an expression, in which case the only accessible form is the argument value. The call-by-value argument ceases to exist with the end of the function call, unless assigned to a parameter that survives the end of the function call or returned as the return value of the function call. Examples: C, VB's ByVal.

 * Call-by-strict-value : Call-by-strict-value is a variant of call-by-value where the function cannot assign a new value to the parameter.

 * Call-by-reference : Call-by-reference means that a reference to the argument value is passed into a function. The function is told the location of the value instead of the value itself. The most noteworthy difference to call-by-value is that the calling code will continue to work with the argument value as it was last modified by the function call. While a variable passed call-by-value is duplicated, a variable passed call-by-reference is not duplicated and the algorithm works with the original variable. A call-by-reference argument has to be a variable and cannot be the result of an expression. Examples: C with pointer, VB's ByRef.

 * Call-by-name : Call-by-name refers to passing a parameter as the name of a variable. The function resolves the name to a value while executing.

 * Call-by-result : Call-by-result is rather a different way to pass a result value than a way to pass argument values. The argument must be a variable that can, at the end of the function call, receive the value that was assigned to the parameter by the function.

 * Call-by-value-and-result : Call-by-value-and-result combines call-by-value and call-by-result.

 * Call-by-Sharing : Call-by-Sharing means that the argument within the caller and the callee is a shared object. Example: Python.

 * Next Lesson
 * Previous Lesson
 * Course Home Page

title: Procedures and functions


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The Crazy Ray

Paris Qui Dort (literally "Paris which sleeps") is a 1924 French science fiction comedy silent feature film (65 minutes) directed by René Clair. Also released as Le rayon de la mort (55 minutes), its international English-language titles were The Crazy Ray and Paris Asleep (usually 55 minutes). It has also been released in the USA as a 35 minute short subject called At 3:25. by Red Seal Pictures.

Plot summary
The film is about a mad doctor who uses a magic ray on citizens which causes them to freeze in strange and often embarrassing positions. People who are unaffected by the ray begin to loot Paris.

Cast

 * Henri Rollan as Albert
 * Charles Martinelli as The scientist
 * Louis Pré Fils as the detective
 * Albert Préjean as The pilot
 * Madeleine Rodrigue as Hesta, the airline passenger
 * Myla Seller as The niece / daughter of the scientist
 * Antoine Stacquet as The rich man
 * Marcel Vallée as the thief

Home media
The film is available on the Region 1 Criterion DVD release of another Clair film, Under the Roofs of Paris (1930). It is also available for free at the Internet Archive.

title: The Crazy Ray


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User:Frankie Mendoza Sr.

Frankie Mendoza aka FrankDaDank aka Mendozia, a chill dude who was born and raised in East Los Angeles Ca. Has many friends everywhere, and is a very well rounded writer, loves comic books and SciFi books. Goes to Rio Hondo College.

title: User:Frankie Mendoza Sr.


text:
Scarlet and Other Stories

Scarlet and Other Stories is the second studio album by All About Eve. It was held to be considerably darker both in tone and lyrics than their first album, All About Eve. The relationship between lead singer Julianne Regan and guitarist Tim Bricheno broke down during the album's recording and production, and Regan later said that she hadn't wept as much in her life as she had during the making of this album.

Scarlet and Other Stories reached No. 9 in the UK charts with three Top 40 singles resulting from it. The album spent 4 weeks in the UK top 100 album charts, and is certified Gold with in excess of 100,000 units being sold.

Track listing
Bold indicates a single release (with UK chart position). All songs written and composed by Tim Bricheno, Andy Cousin, Mark Price and Julianne Regan except where noted.

 * 1) "Road to Your Soul" (37)
 * 2) "Dream Now" (Bricheno, Cousin, Regan)
 * 3) "Gold and Silver"
 * 4) "Scarlet" (34) (Bricheno, Cousin, Regan)
 * 5) "December" (34)
 * 6) "Blind Lemon Sam" (Bricheno, Cousin, Regan)
 * 7) "More Than the Blues"
 * 8) "Tuesday's Child"
 * 9) "Pieces of Our Heart" (Bricheno, Cousin, Regan)
 * 10) "Hard Spaniard"
 * 11) "The Empty Dancehall"
 * 12) "Only One Reason"
 * 13) "The Pearl Fishermen" (Bricheno, Cousin, Regan)

Re-issue
Scarlet and Other Stories was re-released in 2015 as a two disc format and audio download, as part of Universal UMC "Re-Presents" series.

Disc One
Re-issues notes for disc one: tracks 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15 & 16 by Bricheno, Cousin, Regan, Price (as on song listing [i.e. not alphabetical]); tracks 2, 4, 6, 9, 13 & 18 by Bricheno, Cousin, Regan; track 17 by Ian Anderson is a Jethro Tull cover.
 * 1) Road to Your Soul
 * 2) Dream Now
 * 3) Gold and Silver
 * 4) Scarlet
 * 5) December
 * 6) Blind Lemon Sam
 * 7) More Than the Blues
 * 8) Tuesday's Child
 * 9) Pieces of Our Heart
 * 10) Hard Spaniard
 * 11) The Empty Dancehall
 * 12) Only One Reason
 * 13) The Pearl Fishermen
 * 14) Road to Your Soul (extended version)
 * 15) December (Narnia Mix)
 * 16) Drowning
 * 17) The Witch's Promise
 * 18) Paradise (89 Remix)

Disc two
Re-issue notes for disc two: tracks 1 & 2 by All About Eve. Tracks 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, & 16 by Bricheno, Cousin, Regan; tracks 10, 11, 14 & 15 by Bricheno, Cousin, Regan, Price; track 3 by Cousin, Regan, Price, Willson-Piper; track 3 first appeared on the third All About Eve album, Touched by Jesus.
 * 1) Theft (If I Had You)
 * 2) Different Sky
 * 3) The Dreamer
 * 4) Our Summer (live in Hammersmith, 1989)
 * 5) Candy Tree (live in Hammersmith, 1989)
 * 6) Tuesday's Child (live in Hammersmith, 1989)
 * 7) In the Clouds (live in Glasgow, 1991)
 * 8) Never Promise (Anyone Forever) (live in Glasgow, 1991)
 * 9) Scarlet (live in Glasgow, 1991)
 * 10) More Than the Blues (live in Glasgow, 1991)
 * 11) Road to Your Soul (live in Glasgow, 1991)
 * 12) The Pearl Fishermen (live on BBC Saturday Sequence, 14 September 1989)
 * 13) Blind Lemon Sam (live BBC Saturday Sequence, 14 September 1989)
 * 14) The Empty Dancehall (live on the BBC's Richard Skinner Show, 1 October 1989)
 * 15) December (live on the BBC's Richard Skinner Show, 1 October 1989)
 * 16) The Pearl Fishermen (live on the BBC's Richard Skinner Show, 1 October 1989)
 * 17) Only One Reason (live at Glastonbury, 1989)

Personnel

 * All About Eve
 * Julianne Regan – vocals, keyboards (tracks 1, 4)
 * Tim Bricheno – guitars, keyboards (1), banjo (7)
 * Andy Cousin – bass, keyboards (5)
 * Mark Price – drums, percussion
 * Additional personnel
 * Caroline Lavelle – cello (3, 8)
 * Paul Samwell-Smith – keyboards (5, 10), backing vocals (6)
 * Ric Sanders – violin (7, 11)

title: Scarlet and Other Stories


text:
Talk:68000 Assembly

Is this book over PowerPC assembly or 68K assembly. The introduction would have you think that the 68K and the PPC are compatable. So, if this book wants to hold true to its title, then all the material should be removed. Otherwise the title of the book should be changed to 68K Assembly.

 * Fixed. The title is now 68000 Assembly, the PowerPC Assembly is a completely separate book, and the confusion between them in the text has now been fixed to point out that they are, in fact, completely different assembly languages. --DavidCary (talk) 14:59, 9 September 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:68000 Assembly


text:
Southeast Asian Languages/Philippine Languages/Filipino One

Learning Project Summary

 * Project code:
 * Suggested Prerequisites:
 * Introduction to Southeast Asian Languages

 * Time investment: 1 month
 * Assessment suggestions:
 * Portal: Humanities
 * School: Language and Literature
 * Division: Southeast Asian Languages
 * Department: Philippine Languages
 * Level: Beginner

Content summary
This learning project will provide an introduction to Filipino.

Goals
This learning project offers learning activities to enable you to:
 * Learn the pronunciation of Filipino

Lessons

 * Overview: Filipino
 * Lesson 1: Filipino/Background
 * Lesson 2: Filipino/Pronunciation
 * Lesson 3: Filipino/Numbers


text:
High school physics

Fundamental Concepts

 * /Introduction/
 * /Basics/
 * Scientific Method (also Experiment, Observation and Testing Hypotheses)
 * Units and dimensions/Dimensional Analysis
 * Metric system
 * Precision, Accuracy, Rounding, and Significant figures
 * Scientific notation
 * Trigonometry
 * Vectors

Mechanics

 * Motion - Mechanics
 * Motion - Kinematics
 * Motion - Dynamics
 * Energy

Translational Motion

 * Motion in a straight line
 * Newton's Laws of Motion
 * Work, Power, and Energy
 * Gravity
 * Motion in two dimensions

Rotational Motion

 * Circular Motion
 * Angular Velocity
 * Centripetal acceleration
 * Center of mass
 * Torque and Angular Acceleration
 * Moment of Inertia

Fluid Mechanics

 * Hydrostatics: Fluids at Rest
 * Hydrodynamics: Fluids in Motion

Thermodynamics

 * Basic Definitions
 * Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 * First Law of Thermodynamics
 * Second Law of Thermodynamics
 * Third Law of Thermodynamics

Electricity and Magnetism

 * Electric charge
 * Coulomb's Law
 * /Electric Fields/ and Forces
 * Electric Circuits
 * Electric flux and Gauss's law
 * Magnetic Fields and Forces
 * Electromagnets
 * Permanent Magnets
 * Magnetism
 * Kirchhoff's current law, and Kirchhoff's loop law

Oscillations and Waves

 * Simple Harmonic Motion
 * Pendulums
 * Waves
 * Sound
 * Light and Optics

Atomic, Nuclear, and Particle Physics

 * The Atom
 * Basic atomic physics
 * Particle Physics

Advanced Topics for Exploration

 * Special Relativity
 * General Relativity
 * Cosmology
 * Quantum Mechanics

Physics Study Guide
Also look at the Physics Study Guide

ja:Topic:高校の物理学 pt:Portal:Formação Intermediária/Física

title: High school physics


text:
Anna Rüh

Anna Rüh (born 17 June 1993 in Greifswald) is a German athlete who specialises in the discus throw.

Rüh represented Germany at the 2012 European Athletics Championships where she finished 4th in the discus event with a throw of 62.65 metres.

title: Anna Rüh


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mario Rabinowitz

The result was delete. The only keep !vote notes that the subject almost meets notability guidelines or that a case could be made, but the consensus is that such a case has not been made. Rlendog (talk) 16:33, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

Mario Rabinowitz

 * – ( View AfD View log  •  Stats )

This article may not satisfy the criteria of Notability (academics). Rabinowitz has published many papers and holds many patents, but it's not clear that his impact rises to the level of notability required. I am not voting for deletion of the page at present, but would like to start a solid debate on whether it qualifies. The article appears to have been created by Rabinowitz himself, or someone closely associated with him, using several sockpuppet accounts. Srleffler (talk) 02:17, 10 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Weak keep He has published numerous papers which are documented online and he exists. I think we can assume he's notable enough in his field of study and a wikipedia article on him is merited....although he does have a low profile. But one should judge a scholar by the number of quality papers which he publishes. --Artene50 (talk) 08:37, 10 July 2012 (UTC)
 * In academia, one judges a scholar by the number of papers he publishes, and where they are published. That is, however, not Wikipedia's standard. We care about how many people are reading (and citing) a scholar's papers. Notability is determined by the influence a scholar's work has on others, not on the volume of that work.--Srleffler (talk) 03:31, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Weak delete At the moment I don't see any evidence that he meets WP:SCHOLAR or WP:WRITER. A lot of papers, but none with >50 citations according to Google Scholar. One self-published book, which has got a little coverage but not enough for notability requirements.  Adjunct professor. Lack of discussion in 3rd-party sources, with most web hits being articles/papers by him. It can be hard to tell if someone's made a major contribution to a small field of study, which might make them meet notability requirements, and I've no specific knowledge of his field, but more proof is required. --Colapeninsula (talk) 10:18, 10 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Science-related deletion discussions.  • Gene93k (talk) 00:51, 11 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Academics and educators-related deletion discussions.  • Gene93k (talk) 00:51, 11 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Authors-related deletion discussions.  • Gene93k (talk) 00:52, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Keep. With h-index of circa 18 and top cites of 94 satisfies WP:Prof for this field of scholarship. However article is overly promotional and could do with being cut to 20% of present length. Xxanthippe (talk) 01:25, 11 July 2012 (UTC).
 * If you want to count citations, you have to exclude patents. The publication with 94 citations is a patent, not a scientific paper. I don't have access to a proper scientific citations database, but the Google Scholar results (excluding patents) indicate an h-number of 10, which is certainly too low to qualify as notable on that basis alone. Microsoft Academic Search, gives him an h-index of 4. --Srleffler (talk) 03:29, 11 July 2012 (UTC)
 * That is a fair comment and I change my vote. Patents probably ought to be given some weight but there is not enough here. Xxanthippe (talk) 04:00, 11 July 2012 (UTC).

 * Delete not notable, shotgun spray of papers and patents on the cause de jour is not notability. Greglocock (talk) 03:44, 11 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Weak delete I change my vote. Perhaps it is better to delete his article given the low number of citations this person gets in the scholarly community. --Artene50 (talk) 08:28, 11 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Keep. This is an interesting case. If you consider the patents, the subject has an h-index of 17 on GS. I would argue that the subject almost meets WP:PROF criterion #7 (substantial impact outside academia in academic capacity). The problem is that he is not an academic, strictly speaking, even though his involvement with the IEEE Trans. is typical of an academic. One could also make a case for meeting WP:PROF criterion #1 (significant impact in scholarly discipline, broadly construed), as many of the patent citations are from researchers.--Eric Yurken (talk) 20:13, 14 July 2012 (UTC)
 * I'm very interested in the question of whether he has made a notable impact outside academia. This is part of why I hesitated a long time before bringing the article to AfD. He has published a lot, and it is hard to judge from the material available whether that has had any impact. I don't think it is justifiable, though, to look at an h-index that includes patents. Patents are not reliable sources (except as evidence that something was patented), nor are they peer-reviewed publications. Patents cite each other for reasons not related to a researcher/engineer/inventor having read and been influenced by the cited work. The patent lawyer's job includes citing all other relevant patents. The person applying for the patent frequently will not have read the cited works in advance.
 * Skimming through the list of citations to the patent with the most of them, I don't see any citations on the first ten pages of listings which are not either other patents, or articles by Rabinowitz. This is not unexpected. It's not all that common for academics to cite patents other than their own.--Srleffler (talk) 22:21, 14 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Thanks for this explanation of the citing practices of patents. However, looking at the patent with 94 cites, I find that most of the cites are from persons other than the subject. Xxanthippe (talk) 22:38, 14 July 2012 (UTC).
 * Yes, but every one (in the first ten pages) that is a cite from someone other than the subject is a citation from another patent. This is not evidence that Rabinowitz' work has had any influence on anyone. There is no reason to think, for example, that the other inventors whose patents cite Rabinowitz's actually read or even were aware of his work. The citations are put in by the lawyers.--Srleffler (talk) 01:11, 15 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Another fair comment. Xxanthippe (talk) 02:12, 21 July 2012 (UTC).

 * Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion so a clearer consensus may be reached.

 * Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, — Crisco 1492 (talk) 03:15, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Delete article shows no evidence of subject meeting WP:GNG. It doesn't matter how much one has written, only what is published about one in reliable independent sources. Stuartyeates (talk) 00:42, 21 July 2012 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Jan Kodeš

Discussion concerning this article
A discussion that may affect the name or title of this article is ongoing here. Please voice any opinions or concerns on that page. After the discussion concludes, this article may be moved to a different title, in accordance with Wikipedia's Naming Conventions. Thank you. Tennis expert (talk) 18:58, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jan Kodeš


text:
Yekaterinovka, Kulundinsky District, Altai Krai

Yekaterinovka (Екатериновка) is a rural locality (a selo) in Ananyevsky Selsoviet, Kulundinsky District, Altai Krai, Russia. The population was 179 as of 2013. There are 2 streets.

Geography
Yekaterinovka is located 59 km east of Kulunda (the district's administrative centre) by road. Ananyevka is the nearest rural locality.


text:
React, Include, Recycle

React–Include–Recycle (Reagir–Incluir–Reciclar, R.I.R.) is a centrist Portuguese political party led by Vitorino Silva, better known as Tino de Rans. The RIR presents itself as a humanist, pacifist, environmentalist, pro-European and universalist party with the purpose of bringing voters and elected officials closer, seeking to return the emphasis on public service to politics.

title: React, Include, Recycle


text:
1989 Girabola

The 1989 Girabola was the 11th season of top-tier football competition in Angola. Atlético Petróleos de Luanda were the defending champions.

The league comprised 14 teams, none of which were relegated.

Petro de Luanda were crowned champions, winning their 6th title, and fourth in a row, while there were no relegations.

André Miguel Ernesto of Desportivo da Cuca finished as the top scorer with 18 goals.

Vieira Dias of Primeiro de Agosto set an all-time championship's record of most goals scored in a single match by one player, by scoring six goals in D'Agosto's 7-0 home win over Sassamba.

Changes from the 1989 season
Relegated: Desportivo de Benguela, Dínamos do Kwanza Sul, Fabril do Uíge, Inter do Namibe Promoted: Desportivo da Cuca, Desportivo da EKA, Sassamba da Lunda Sul, Sporting de Benguela

Top scorer

 * André Miguel Ernesto

Champions
Squad: Adinho, Bolingó, Carlos Pedro, Felito, Janguelito, Lúcio, Luisinho, Mona, Nejó, Norberto, Paulão, Paulito, Quim Sebas, Ralph, Rasgado, Wilson Head coach: Carlos Queirós

title: 1989 Girabola


text:
Category:University of Montevideo

Universidad de Montevideo (UM, established 1986).

Note: the denomination "Universidad de Montevideo" was previously used for the current University of the Republic.

title: Category:University of Montevideo


text:
Martin Müller (wrestler)

Martin Müller (born 25 July 1966) is a Swiss former wrestler who competed in the 1992 Summer Olympics and in the 1996 Summer Olympics.

title: Martin Müller (wrestler)


text:
Talk:טבח

The Hebrew word for the verb "to slaughter" is לִטְבּוֹחַ (lit'boakh). טֶבַח (t'evakh) is a noun for "slaughter" or "massacre". טָבַח (t'avakh) is a verb, but in past tense, third person (male). טַבָּח (t'abakh) is a noun for a cook (who prepares meals). The Hebrew word for butcher is קַצָב (qatzav). Liso 14:58, 29 October 2007 (UTC)
 * But another regular Hebrew-language contributor here, user:Ruakh, insists that all verbs have their main entry at the past-tense (singular masculine third-person) form, which would put this verb here.—msh210 ℠ 19:09, 19 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Does קַצָב stem from قصاب? They sound pretty similar... Or common ancestor? Phoenician? The uſer hight Bogorm converſation 20:05, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:טבח


text:
Ardesman

Ardesman (, also Romanized as Ardesmān) is a village in Rivand Rural District, in the Central District of Nishapur County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 251, in 65 families.

title: Ardesman


text:
2020 QG

2020 QG, also known by its internal designation ZTF0DxQ, is an Earth-crossing asteroid, a few meters in diameter. It belongs to the Apollo group, and passed above the surface of Earth approximately 2950 km away (less than half an Earth radius) on 16 August 2020 at 04:09 UT. It was first imaged by the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) at the Palomar Observatory about 6 hours after this closest approach, and was later identified by Kunal Deshmukh, a student at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, along with colleagues Kritti Sharma, Chen-Yen Hsu and Bryce T. Bolin analyzing images from the ZTF.

At the time, 2020 QG passed closer to Earth than any known asteroid, except for those that became meteors. It passed closer than and 2020 JJ. Given an absolute magnitude of 29.8, it is estimated to be around 3 - 6 m in diameter so similar to Earth-impactors, 2014 AA, 2018 LA, and 2019 MO.

Orbit and classification
2020 QG orbits the Sun at approximately 1.0–2.9 AU every 964.2 days (2.64 years) after its 2020 orbital perturbation by its close approach with Earth. Before perturbation, it orbited every 990.5 days (with a semi-major axis of 1.9 AU).

Before its perturbation, flying by Earth, the asteroid's orbit had an eccentricity of 0.49 and an inclination of 5.5° (with respect to the ecliptic). The asteroid came to perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) on 1 August, and then on 16 August 2020 the close approach to Earth reduced its orbital period. From the encounter with the larger gravity field, the orbital eccentricity became 0.48 and the inclination stands at 4.7°.

In May 2020, before any perturbation, the asteroid had an Earth-MOID (Minimum orbit intersection distance) of 0.00027 AU. Hours before the close approach the Earth-MOID was 0.0001 AU, the close-approach perturbation (change to orbit) bringing it closer.

Detectability
Asteroids that are similar in size to 2020 QG are difficult to detect because they are small and therefore dim. Between 2010–2020, the asteroid was never brighter than about apparent magnitude 31 making it about 10 thousand times fainter than a typical discovery magnitude of 21. The Hubble Space Telescope needs 3 weeks of exposure time to image magnitude 31 objects and has an extremely small field of view, making serendipitous discoveries essentially impossible at those magnitudes. During the 2020 approach, the asteroid appeared dimmer than magnitude 24 until it had a solar elongation of only 60 degrees. The asteroid was imaged when it had a solar elongation of 125 degrees and was around magnitude 19.

Future approaches
2020 QG will make several close approaches with Earth in the future, albeit at larger distances compared to the August 2020 encounter. The next close approach by 2020 QG will be in May 2028, which it will pass by Earth from a nominal distance of 0.31 AU.

title: 2020 QG


text:
Hermann Wronker AG

Hermann Wronker AG was a German department store chain. Its holdings included the largest department store in Frankfurt before World War II.

Company founder Hermann Wronker was born on 5 August 1867 in eastern Prussia. He started businesses at a young age, opening stores in Bamberg and Coburg, and in 1887 in Mannheim founded  S. Wronker & Co. with his elder brother Simon. Hermann left Mannheim in 1891 to found a branch of the business in Frankfurt am Main. Branches later opened in Baden, Hessen, and Alsace. The Frankfurt site was expanded in 1896, but had to be rebuilt following a fire in 1897. In 1921, the business was incorporated as Hermann Wronker AG, which by the end of the decade had become one of the largest businesses in southern Germany after expanding to Nuremberg and within Frankfurt. Its flagship Frankfurt store was known as Kaufhaus Wronker.

In 1934 the company was "aryanized" and the Wronker family was forced to sell. While some members of the family emigrated out of Germany, Hermann Wronker was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942.

title: Hermann Wronker AG


text:
User:Abby josie

Josephine is born in Endola, the eldest of three siblings of Absalom. She attended Business Information System and then, in 20017, majoring in computing and mathematics in Ongwediva,She taught computer at various schools in Ongwediva and Villages surrounded and during her vacations worked at NAMCOL as a Assistant of Learner Support Officer.

title: User:Abby josie


text:
Black Wolf (novel)

Black Wolf is a fantasy novel by Dave Gross, set in the world of the Forgotten Realms, and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game. It is the fourth novel in the "Sembia: Gateway To The Realms" series. It was published in paperback in November 2001.

Plot summary
Talbot Uskevren will need to use his sword fighting and acting skills to survive against the Black Brotherhood.

Reception
In a mostly positive review, Don D'Ammassa opined that Gross's "prose is above average for this publisher, and his evocation of the culture of the imagined land is also quite well done."

title: Black Wolf (novel)


text:
User:SynaWX

Heya! I'm Syna.

You will mostly see me patrolling Recent Changes, reverting any sign of Vandalism

Outside of that, I'm a Certified SkyWarn Spotter. I'm also a Music Lover, love listening to almost any genre! -- However, known to really enjoy KPOP

If you have any questions or concerns about my edits/reverts -- Let me know on my Talk Page

title: User:SynaWX


text:
Portal:Linux

This page is for organizing the development of Linux content on Wikiversity. If you are knowledgeable in any area Linux, feel free to improve upon what you see, we would greatly appreciate your contributions.

Learning projects and resources

 * Linux
 * Basic commands in Linux
 * GNU/Linux @ Operating systems
 * Linux server administration
 * Linux/Directories
 * Linux Documentation Project
 * Search for Linux at Wikiversity

Distribution specific
Linux distributions:
 * Fedora
 * Debian
 * Ubuntu
 * Ubuntu x86 vs. Ubuntu AMD64
 * Tiny Core Linux

Installing Linux
Installing Linux:
 * Wubi - dual-boot installer for windows operating systems

Wikimedia

 * Linux

title: Portal:Linux


text:
User:Paradoxolotling/sandbox

Origin
It is generally believed that Tim is the long lost son of Hitler and Thor. His gleaming blonde hair points to Norse, while it combined with his blue eyes lead us to believe he is a descendant of the long dead (or so we think) Nazi Ruler, Adolph Hitler.

Daily Life
Lance has the same routine every weekday, with little variance on weekends. Get up, play videogames, go to school, get home, play videogames, or go to football practice if it is football season. If so, when he gets back from practice, it is believed that he either plays more videogames, secretly runs MinePlex, or works on designing/building the world's most amazing gaming computer. Most likely the third. On weekends, it is the same routine, sans the school. He also occasionally rides ATV's with the P. Twins.

title: User:Paradoxolotling/sandbox


text:
Jewish views on lying

In Jewish tradition, lying is generally forbidden but is required in certain exceptional cases, such as to save a life.

Hebrew Bible
The Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) forbids perjury in at least three verses: "You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor" (Exodus 20:12, part of the Ten Commandments), also phrased "Neither shall you bear false witness against  your  neighbor" (Deuteronomy 5, see ), and another verse "Keep  yourself  far  from a  false  matter;  and  the  innocent  and  righteous  do  not  kill;  for  I  will  not  justify  the  wicked" (Exodus 23, see ). According to Deuteronomy 19 (see ), false witnesses should receive the same punishment that they sought to mete out on the unjustly accused. A similar  prohibition,  "You shall not steal; neither shall you deal falsely, nor lie one to another" (Leviticus 19, see ) relates to business dealings. There are also passages which condemn lying in general: "He that does deceit shall not dwell within My house; he that speaks false-hood shall not be established before My eyes" (Psalm 101:7), "There are six things which the Lord hates, indeed, seven which are an abomination unto Him: Haughty eyes, a  lying  tongue,  and  hands  that  shed  innocent  blood" (Proverbs 6, see ) and "Lying lips are  an  abomination  to  the  Lord;  but  they  who  deal  truly  are  His  delight" (Proverbs 12, see ), "The remnant of Israel shall not do iniquity, nor speak lies, neither shall a deceitful tongue be found in their mouth" (Zephaniah 3, see ), "And if any prophets appear again, their fathers and mothers who bore them will say to them, “You shall not live, for you speak lies in the name of the Lord”; and their fathers and their mothers who bore them shall pierce them through when they prophesy." (Zechariah 13, see ) "They have taught their tongue to speak lies, they weary themselves to commit iniquity" (Jeremiah 9, see ).

However, in various biblical stories, those who lie and mislead are not necessarily condemned, and in some cases are praised. Biblical figures that engaged in deception include Abraham, Isaac, Simeon, and Levi. The Torah does not prohibit lying if no one is harmed.

Talmud
The Talmud forbids lying or deceiving others: "The Holy One, blessed be He, hates a person which says one thing with his mouth and another in his heart" (Pesahim 113b) and also forbids fraud in business dealings: "As there is wronging in buying and selling, there is wronging with words. A man must not ask: ‘How much is this thing?” if he has no intention of buying it" (Bava Metzia 4:10).

Bava Metzia 23b-24a lists three exceptions where lying is permitted:
 * 1) It is permissible for a scholar to state he is unfamiliar with part of the Talmud, even if he is familiar (out of humility)
 * 2) It is permissible to lie in response to intimate questions regarding one's marital life (as such things should be kept private)
 * 3) Lying about hospitality received (to protect the host)

Yevamot 65b states that "It is permitted to stray from the truth in order to promote peace", and Rabbi Natan further argues that this is obligatory.

Later views
Due to the principle of saving a life, in Jewish law it is required to lie to save a life, such as withholding a diagnosis from a seriously ill patient or concealing one's Jewish faith in a time of persecution of Jews. It may also be required to lie in other cases where a positive commandment would be violated by telling the truth, as positive commandments in Judaism usually take precedence against negative ones. Even in the cases where lying is acceptable, it is preferable to tell a technically true but deceptive statement or employ half-truth. It is also completely forbidden to lie habitually, to lie to a child (which would teach them that it was acceptable), and to lie in the court system.

Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler redefined "truth" to mean any statement which serves God and "falsehood" to mean any statement that harms God's interests. This would radically change Jewish views on lying.

According to Conservative rabbi Louis Jacobs, "the main thrust in the appeals for Jews to be truthful is in the direction of moral truth and integrity" although there is also "great significance to intellectual honesty". Reconstructionist rabbi Fred Scherlinder Dobb stated in an interview, "There is no justification whatsoever in Jewish tradition for lies which are either sloppy, systemic or self-serving... every word we utter should reflect our values, and one of the highest of those values is truth."

title: Jewish views on lying


text:
Botswana Central Bank Staff Union

The Botswana Central Bank Staff Union (BCBSU) is a trade union affiliate of the Botswana Federation of Trade Unions in Botswana.

title: Botswana Central Bank Staff Union


text:
Template:GB18030/BMP/doc

Internal use template for encoding a non-ASCII Basic Multilingual Plane code point to GB 18030. Unlike the other UCS planes (or most other UTFs), this has to use a large look-up table for at least part of it. Other UCS planes are handled by Template:GB18030/astral instead.

Makes use of Template:GB18030/pointer.

Usage
Takes one argument: a Unicode code point in decimal. Outputs a GB 18030 byte sequence in hexadecimal, with bytes delimited by spaces.

title: Template:GB18030/BMP/doc


text:
Jan Górny (field hockey)

Jan Górny (17 January 1933 – 13 July 2018) was a Polish field hockey player. He competed in the men's tournament at the 1960 Summer Olympics.

title: Jan Górny (field hockey)


text:
1885–86 in Scottish football

The 1885–86 season was the 13th season of competitive football in Scotland.

title: 1885–86 in Scottish football


text:
Christian Lindner (journalist)

Christian Lindner (born 20 September 1959) is a German journalist. From 2004 to 2017, he was chief editor of the Rhein-Zeitung.

Life
Lindner was born on 20 September 1959 in Kaufbeuren, Bavaria, Germany. After his Abitur at the, he completed a  at the Rhein-Zeitung. He then went through several positions in the local editions and in the central editorial office of this newspaper. From 1992 to 1998, Lindner was the local manager of the ''Rhein-Zeitungs edition '. In 1997, he became deputy chief editor and since 2004, he has been chief editor of the Rhein-Zeitung. The alleged reason given was the orientation of the Rhein-Zeitung on the Internet. Lindner became deputy chief editor at Bild am Sonntag on 1 April 2018. In a tweet from 18 July 2019, Lindner announced that he would leave Bild am Sonntag, but remain true to journalism.

Honorary offices
In 2013, Lindner was appointed by the Theodor Wolff Prize Board of Trustees to the jury of the Journalistenpreises der deutschen Zeitungen (German Newspapers' Journalism Prize).

Awards
In 1997, Deutscher Jagdverband (German hunting protection association) awarded Lindner the Journalistenpreis by Deutscher Journalisten-Verband (DJW) for its long-term series Das Jahr eines Jägers (The year of a hunter), which was published in the Westerwälder Zeitung.

In 2011 and 2013, Lindner was voted Chefredakteur des Jahres (chief editor of the year) in the category Regional/Lokal (Regional/Local) by a specialist jury from the trade journal Medium Magazin.

title: Christian Lindner (journalist)


text:
Shallowford, Tennessee

Shallowford is an unincorporated community in Unicoi County, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.

History
The community was likely named from the ford on a nearby shallow stream.

title: Shallowford, Tennessee


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2020 Malian coup d'état

On 18 August 2020, elements of the Malian Armed Forces began a mutiny, and subsequently undertook a coup d'état. Soldiers on pick-up trucks stormed the Soundiata military base in the town of Kati, where gunfire was exchanged before weapons were distributed from the armory and senior officers arrested. Tanks and armoured vehicles were seen on the town's streets, as well as military trucks heading for the capital, Bamako. The soldiers detained several government officials including President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta, who resigned and dissolved the government. This was the country's second coup in less than 10 years, following the 2012 coup d'état. On a subregional level, the coup also marked an end to a period of nearly six years, since the 2014 Burkina Faso uprising and the ousting of Burkina Faso's President Blaise Compaoré, during which there was not a single undemocratic change of government in West Africa. For this subregion, where many countries have a history of civil war and violent conflict, this was a period of remarkable stability, during which ECOWAS even managed to find a peaceful resolution to the 2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis.

Background
Protests in Mali had been ongoing since 5 June, with protesters calling for the resignation of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta. Protesters were displeased with the government's management of the ongoing insurgency, alleged government corruption, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and a floundering economy. Eleven deaths and 124 injuries were reported during the protests.

Coup d'état
On the morning of 18 August 2020, soldiers began firing bullets into the air at a military base in Kati, a town 15 km from Bamako, the capital of Mali. After moving into the capital, the mutineers arrested Minister of Finance Abdoulaye Daffe, the Chief of Staff of the National Guard Mahamane Touré, and Moussa Timbiné, speaker of the National Assembly. The Prime Minister, Boubou Cissé, appealed for dialogue with the mutineers, acknowledging they held "legitimate frustrations". A mutiny leader later claimed that Keïta and Cissé had been arrested at the former's residence in Bamako; African Union Commission chairman Moussa Faki confirmed that Keïta, Cissé, and other officials had been arrested and called for their release. A spokesman for the M5-RFP opposition coalition welcomed their detention, describing it as a "popular insurrection".

The officials were taken to the military camp in Kati where the uprising began. As news of the mutiny spread, hundreds of protesters gathered at Bamako's Independence Monument to demand Keïta's resignation. Protesters also set a building belonging to the Ministry of Justice ablaze.

At the time, it was not clear how many soldiers took part in the coup, who initiated it or who would now take charge.

Aftermath
President Keïta resigned around midnight, while also dissolving the government and parliament. "I want no blood to be spilled to keep me in power," he added. Five colonels appeared in the TV broadcast to the nation, led by Colonel Assimi Goïta. They called themselves the National Committee for the Salvation of the People. The bodies of four people killed by gunfire and about 15 wounded, all likely hit by stray bullets, were brought into one of the city's main hospitals, said Elhadj Djimé Kanté, a spokesman for the hospital union. The coup leaders denied that anyone had been killed, but soldiers were constantly firing in the air, cheered on by crowds of young people.

Military leaders had ordered closure of all border crossings and imposed a night-time curfew. "As of today, 19 August 2020, all air and land borders are closed until further notice. A curfew is in place from 21:00 to 05:00 until further notice," Col-Major Ismaël Wagué, Deputy Chief of Staff of the Malian Air Force, said in a televised address. He also invited opposition groups to talks for fresh elections.

Opposition member Mahmoud Dicko announced that he is leaving politics as a result of a meeting between him and some of the soldiers that took part in the mutiny.

Coup leaders promised new elections within a "reasonable timeline," without specifying what that meant.

Keïta left the country in September for medical treatment in the United Arab Emirates. Keïta, 75 years old, was originally hospitalised in the capital a few days before leaving. Experts chosen by Mali's new military leaders have proposed a two-year interim government led by a president chosen by them, despite calls by Mali's neighbors for elections within a year. They suggest that the soldiers behind the coup nominate the interim president and vice president and propose the interim president choose the prime minister. Under the draft, the president would be from the civil or military sectors. The nominee must be between the ages of 35 and 75 and would not be allowed to run for election at the end of the transition. Right after the coup, military leaders promised to reinstate a civilian government and hold elections within a relatively short timeframe.

On 12 September 2020, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule.

On 21 September 2020 Bah Ndaw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government is supposed to preside over an interim period of 18 months. A spokesperson for political-religious leader Mahmoud Dicko praised his nomination as president. Leaders of the M5-RFP, active since the 2020 Malian protests, also signalled support. On 25 September the government was inaugurated.

On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded. Although the initial agreement in September 2020 had stated that the CNSP junta would be dissolved as soon as the transitional government came to power, this had not yet taken place.

International reaction
Representatives of several countries condemned the coup, as did representatives of the African Union, European Union, and United Nations. Emmanuel Macron, the President of France, a country which has been involved in fighting an Islamist insurgency in its former colony since 2013, called for power to be returned to civilians and for arrested leaders to be freed. The United States cut off military aid to Mali on 21 August 2020.

The United Nations Security Council unanimously approved a resolution condemning the coup and calling on the soldiers to return to their barracks and release all detainees without delay. Amnesty International also called for the release of the detainees. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) imposed sanctions on Mali and called on neighbouring states to close their land and air borders.

On 25 August 2020, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie suspended Mali from membership and called for the immediate release of Keïta.

On 7 September 2020 at a summit in Niamey, Niger, regional bloc ECOWAS gave the Malian military rulers a deadline of 15 September to appoint a new civilian President and Prime Minister.

title: 2020 Malian coup d'état


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Talk:brachyology

History of Transwiki noted: (cur) (last) 07:48, 31 August 2007 Connel MacKenzieBot (Talk | contribs) m (249 bytes) (Robot: Automated text replacement (-^(.) +Category:Move to Wiktionary 2005 \1)) (undo) (cur) (last) 06:49, 16 May 2007 Jimp (Talk | contribs) (212 bytes) (undo) (cur) (last) 06:48, 16 May 2007 Jimp (Talk | contribs) (243 bytes) (undo) (cur) (last) 01:20, 1 February 2007 Connel MacKenzieBot (Talk | contribs) m (Robot: Automated text replacement (-\{\{[vV]ocab-stub}} + Category:Move to Wiktionary 2007-10 )) (undo) (cur) (last) 01:19, 1 February 2007 Connel MacKenzie (Talk | contribs) m (10 revision(s) from w:Brachyology) (undo) (cur) (last) 20:28, 13 January 2007 SmackBot (Talk) m (Date/fix the maintenance tags using AWB) (undo) (cur) (last) 09:11, 22 September 2006 Storkk (Talk) m (+expand) (undo) (cur) (last) 19:44, 20 August 2006 Kappa (Talk | contribs) (deprod encylopedic topic) (undo) (cur) (last) 18:06, 19 August 2006 Xyzzyplugh (Talk | contribs) (prod) (undo) (cur) (last) 18:42, 14 April 2006 Dangherous (Talk | contribs) (wiktlink) (undo) (cur) (last) 07:06, 6 March 2006 Rewster (Talk) (added stub; consider moving to Wiktionary) (undo) (cur) (last) 05:02, 15 February 2006 Android79 (Talk | contribs) m (Reverted edits by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) to last version by Sandman30s) (undo) (cur) (last) 04:56, 15 February 2006 <IP_ADDRESS> (Talk) (SQUIDWARD!) (undo) (cur) (last) 08:36, 19 July 2005 Sandman30s (Talk | contribs) (undo) (cur) (last) 22:00, 18 July 2005 <IP_ADDRESS> (Talk)

RFV
"A figure of speech that is an abbreviated expression, for example, the omission of "good" in "good morning."

Rhetorical terms are not used consistently, but I haven't found use in this sense. Compare brachylogia, defined at Silva Rhetoricae as "The absence of conjunctions between single words. Compare asyndeton. The effect of brachylogia is a broken, hurried delivery.". Both senses may be correct. DCDuring TALK 01:41, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

 * In OED online the main entry is brachylogy, brachyology being an alternative form. Encyclopedia of Identity defines brachyology as the "intentional shortening of spoken or written statements where full understanding is still assumed." — Pingkudimmi 04:39, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Charles Bennett in his New Latin Grammar gives as a defining example (of 'brachylogy'):
 * ut ager sine cultura fructuosus esse non potest, sic sine doctrina animus.
 * as a field cannot be productive without cultivation, so the mind (cannot be productive) without learning.
 * He also identifies zeugma and compendiary comparison as varieties. — Pingkudimmi 10:21, 22 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I wonder when the last time is that someone used the word in these senses. So many rhetorical terms seem to have fallen into disuse. I think I have found a source that has all the senses of this and all of its hyponyms. It will not be so easy to find usable citations for all the meanings. DCDuring TALK 11:30, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Cited, IMO. - -sche (discuss) 19:13, 29 January 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:brachyology


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Gunship 2000 (wargame)

Gunship 2000 is a set of rules published by Stan Johansen Miniatures in 1978 for wargaming using science fiction miniatures.

Description
In 1977, Stan Johansen started to play the new board wargame Ogre with his wargaming friends. However, they were used to wargaming with metal miniatures rather than the game's cardboard counters. Johansen, who had produced miniatures for his company Stan Johansen Miniatures for nearly a decade, agreed to create some 1/300 scale miniatures of the science fiction vehicles. Since the miniatures no longer fit on the hex grid map provided with the game, Johansen also wrote new rules for combat. He also included a point-buy system so that players could create balanced scenarios.

Johansen published those rules in 1978 as Gunship 2000, a single piece of cardstock with the title printed on one side and the rules printed on the other. He also produced a line of miniatures for Gunship 2000 called Star Armour that included VTOL fighter bombers, transports, and missile tanks.

In 1991, Microprose released an identically named DOS computer game, Gunship 2000, but the titling was coincidental, and not related to the Stan Johansen wargame rules.

Reception
Nevin J. Templin reviewed Gunship 2000 in two different issues of The Space Gamer, saying, "Gunship 2000 is a simple, fast playing set of rules covering ground and limited air combat in the year 2000." He noted the connection to Ogre and its sister game G.E.V.: "What makes the game of special interest is that many of the miniatures are adaptable to Ogre/GEV, the game giving the feeling of a 3-D version of Ogre, but with a faster pace and more dangerous battlefield than found in Ogre. He concluded, "These rules maintain the flavor of the Ogre/G.E.V.'' originals and allow for fast action with ease of playability."

title: Gunship 2000 (wargame)


text:
Talk:Nana Twum Barimah

New Page Reviewer comment
The sourcing for this article is very weak and I was going to send it to draft. However one if the sources mentions that the subject is a Ghanaian member of Parliament. He is automatically notable on this basis so I’m passing it. For the future it would be useful to have more sources confirming his political role. Mccapra (talk) 07:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nana Twum Barimah


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User:Alisonmarybaxter/sandbox

The Internalizing and Externalizing Pathways to Addictive Behaviours

An addiction is a maladaptive pattern of behaviour characterised by preoccupation, increasing tolerance, using for effect, using alone, using more than planned, withdrawal and inability to reduce the behaviour which can lead to functional impairment and distress. It is now widely accepted that the use of the term addiction is not merely restricted to drugs and alcohol but can also apply to food, sex, gambling, shopping and internet usage. These addictions frequently occur together in the same individual. There are many biological, social and psychological factors that are associated with addictive behaviours and personality has a large role to play. Personality can be described as how we differ individually “in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving” consistently over time and personality disorders are when these thoughts, feelings and behaviours “significantly and adversely affect how an individual functions in many aspects of life”.

Both personality disorders and non-clinical traits tend to co-occur in certain patterns and as early as 1945 Horney described the two most common domains of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Horney described children who “move away from the world” (internalizing) and “move against the world” (externalizing) and these two dimensions have long been suggested as a possible model for understanding this comorbidity pattern. These dimensions of internalizing and externalizing disorders have been replicated in numerous studies and research has also suggested that there is a strong genetic component underlying these dimensions. Chan, Dennis and Funk also suggest that these disorder types tend to share aetiology, consequences, treatments and outcomes.

Internalizing disorders usually involve negative affect (anxiety, depression etc.) and inhibition and are associated with difficulties in controlling emotions. These disorders usually have a later onset in life and their prevalence increases with age however, some research has found that they do exist in childhood and adolescence. Externalizing disorders usually involve disinhibited personality such as low constraint and conscientiousness and elevated impulsivity and sensation-seeking. The externalizing disorders are associated with difficulties in controlling behaviour and tend to have an onset in childhood or adolescence with their prevalence usually, but not always, decreasing with age. Both internalizing and externalizing disorders can be associated with negative affect however it seems that only externalizing disorders include disinhibition.

Research suggests a close association between personality disorders and addictions and therefore, on the basis of the dimensional model of personality disorders it can be expected that there is also an association between subclinical levels of maladaptive personality and addictions. For example, Carlotta et al. found strong associations between Gambling Disorder and low scores on the Five Factor Model scales of Openness and Conscientiousness which are non-clinical personality traits. The relationship between personality disorders/traits and addictions is a complex one and it has even been suggested that personality disorders/traits may come about as a result of the stresses of addictions such as poor quality of life and repeatedly needing to conceal the problem.

Particular patterns of personality disorders and subclinical maladaptive personality traits can form the internalizing and externalizing disorders, as discussed above, and these two domains can then, in turn, form pathways to different types of behaviours. Internalizing disorders are typically associated with behaviours such as addictions, self-harm and eating disorders and these behaviours are usually directed at the self. Externalizing disorders tend to be associated with disinhibited behaviours such as aggression, delinquency and addictions and these behaviours are typically aimed at others. The two disorder domains are both highly correlated with addictions but they each form a unique pathway and the addiction “types” differ in manifestation, aetiology and prognosis. The strong association of internalizing and externalizing disorders with addictive behaviours is supported by the findings of Chan and colleagues that 78-90% of adults and adolescents with substance use problems also had an internalizing or externalizing disorder and 42-61% had both.

The internalizing pathway to addictions typically involves emotion dysregulation which means that the individual is unable to effectively manage their emotions. The individual may begin using a substance or activity in order to alleviate psychological distress which is known as experiential avoidance. Emotion dysregulation in daily life could eventually bring about the heightened stress and anxiety of internalizing disorders which in turn could lead to addictions. Alternatively, these internalizing disorders may arise for other reasons and in turn poor emotion regulation abilities may then lead to addictions as an alternative method of regulating and coping. It has also been suggested that internalizing disorders may lead to addictions via rumination which is repetitively thinking about one’s distress and their negative situation without considering how to solve the problem. Adrian, McCarty, King, McCauley and Stoep's study supports the suggestion that the pathway from internalizing disorders to addictive behaviours may be mediated by rumination. The relationship between internalizing disorders and addictions is not simply a linear one as there are some studies which indicate that affective disorders sometimes follow addictions as opposed to precede them. There has also been research proposing that internalizing disorders do not contribute at all to the risk for addictions both in adolescents and adults.

Zucker’s review of the literature revealed that the externalizing pathway to addiction is underlined by the core construct of disinhibition which is the inability or failure to inhibit impulsive behaviour even when the negative consequences are known. McCormick and Smith found a significant association between aggression/hostility and substance use disorders which supports the theory of disinhibited behaviour as an important construct. The researchers also found that individuals with externalizing disorders typically used aggressive confrontational coping styles to deal with problems. Interestingly, some of those with externalizing disorders seemed to use avoidant coping styles, similar to those with internalizing disorders, and adopted disinhibited behaviours to avoid experiencing negative affect. Zucker and colleagues propose that there are essentially two main neural systems that make up disinhibition. Effortful Control involves controlling behaviour and attention in order to work towards a goal that is distal in time. Incentive Reactivity is an automatic and fast response to potential immediate reward or loss. The development of both of these neural systems can be seriously disrupted by exposure to negative early life experiences. Also, exploring the natural undisrupted development of these two systems demonstrates that the brain structures associated with Effortful Control do not mature fully until early adulthood whereas the structures associated with Incentive Reactivity are mature and active throughout childhood and adolescence. This may help to explain why adolescents tend to display higher levels of externalizing disorders i.e. why they are more disinhibited. Although there is research suggesting that childhood or adolescent externalizing disorders can lead to addictive behaviours later in life there is also research which argues that externalizing behaviours such as aggression may come about as a result of the effects of substances and alcohol.

To summarise, the literature supports the existence of the domains of the internalizing and externalizing disorders and the relationships between these domains and addictive behaviours, although not always causal relationships. These two pathways to addictions are unique and understanding them can have great implications for treatment planning and success. Comorbidity of addictions with mental health problems such as internalizing and externalizing disorders can lead to more severe forms of addictive behaviours in both adults and adolescents therefore, this clearly needs to be taken into account for treatment planning. Individuals with externalizing addictions had poorer treatment and behaviour outcomes and relapsed sooner and more frequently and only those with internalizing addictions experienced any significant treatment benefits. Although there has been research into how addictions can vary in aetiology, prognosis and manifestation depending on internalizing or externalizing disorders, further research is needed to investigate the particular types of addictive behaviours associated with each domain. Currently, there appears to be little to no literature on this topic.

title: User:Alisonmarybaxter/sandbox


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General Relativity/Rigorous Definition of Tensors

< General Relativity

We have seen that a 1-form ("covariant vector") can be thought of an operator with one slot in which we insert a vector ("contravariant vector") and get the scalar $$\mathbf{\sigma} \left( \mathbf{v} \right)$$. Similarly, a vector can be thought of as an operator with one slot in which we can insert a 1-form to obtain the scalar $$\mathbf{v} \left( \mathbf{\sigma} \right)$$. As operators, they are linear, i.e., $$\mathbf{\sigma} \left( \alpha \mathbf{u} +\beta \mathbf{v} \right) = \alpha \mathbf{\sigma} \left( \mathbf{u} \right) + \beta \mathbf{\sigma} \left( \mathbf{v} \right)$$.

A tensor of rank n is an operator with n slots for inserting vectors or 1-forms, which, when all n slots are filled, returns a scalar. In order for such an operator to be a tensor, it must be linear in each slot and obey certain transformation rules (more on this later). An example of a rank 2 tensor is $$\mathbf{T} = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\nu$$. The symbol $$\otimes$$ (pronounced "tensor") tells you which slot each index acts on. This tensor $$\mathbf{T}$$ is said to be of type $$(1,1)$$ because it has one contravariant slot and one covariant slot. Since $$\mathbf{e}_\mu$$ acts on the first slot and $$\mathbf{d}x^\nu$$ acts on the second slot, we must insert a 1-form in the first slot and a vector in the second slot (remember, 1-forms act on vectors and vice-versa). Filling both of these slots, say with $$\mathbf{\sigma}$$ and $$\mathbf{u}$$, will return the scalar $$\mathbf{T} \left( \mathbf{\sigma}, \mathbf{u} \right)$$. We can use linearity (remember, the tensor is linear in each slot) to evaluate this number:

$$\mathbf{T} \left( \mathbf{\sigma}, \mathbf{u} \right) = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\nu \left( \sigma_\alpha \mathbf{d}x^\alpha, u^\beta \mathbf{e}_\beta \right) = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu \left( \sigma_\alpha \mathbf{d}x^\alpha \right) \mathbf{d}x^\nu \left( u^\beta \mathbf{e}_\beta \right) = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \sigma_\alpha u^\beta \delta^\alpha_\mu \delta^\nu_\beta = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \sigma_\mu u^\nu $$

We don't have to fill all of the slots. This will of course not produce a scalar, but it will lower the rank of the tensor. For example, if we fill the second slot of $$\mathbf{T}$$, but not the first, we get a rank 1 tensor of type $$(1,0)$$ (which is a contravariant vector):

$$ \mathbf{T} \left( \cdot \, \mathbf{u} \right) = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\nu \left( \cdot \, u^\gamma \mathbf{e}_\gamma \right) = T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu \left( \cdot \right) \mathbf{d}x^\nu \left( u^\gamma \mathbf{e}_\gamma \right) =T^\mu_{\ \nu} \mathbf{e}_\mu u^\gamma \delta^\nu_\gamma = T^\mu_{\ \nu} u^\nu \mathbf{e}_\mu $$

For another example, consider the rank 5 tensor $$\mathbf{S}=S^{\alpha \ \ \mu \nu} _{\ \beta \gamma} \mathbf{e}_\alpha \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\beta \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\gamma \otimes \mathbf{e}_\mu \otimes \mathbf{e}_\nu$$. This is a tensor of type $$(3,2)$$. We can fill all of its slots to get a scalar:

$$\mathbf{S} \left( \mathbf{\sigma}, \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{\rho}, \mathbf{\xi} \right) = S^{\alpha \ \ \mu \nu} _{\ \beta \gamma} \sigma_\alpha u^\beta v^\gamma \rho_\mu \xi_\nu $$

Filling only the 3rd and 4th slots, we get a rank 3 tensor of type $$(2,1)$$:

$$\mathbf{S} \left( \cdot \, \cdot \ , \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{\rho}, \cdot \right) = S^{\alpha \ \ \mu \nu} _{\ \beta \gamma} v^\gamma \rho_\mu \mathbf{e}_\alpha \otimes \mathbf{d}x^\beta \otimes \mathbf{e}_\nu $$

As a final note, it should be mentioned that in General Relativity we will always have a special tensor called the "metric tensor" which will allow us to convert contravariant indices to covariant indices and vice-versa. This way, we can change the tensor type $$(n,m)$$ and be able to insert either 1-forms or vectors into any slot of a given tensor.