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US History/Reconstruction

Start of Reconstruction
Congress passed the first Reconstruction Act on 2nd March, 1867. The South was now divided into five military districts, each under a major general. New elections were to be held in each state with freed male slaves being allowed to vote. The act also included an amendment that offered readmission to the Southern states after they had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and guaranteed adult male suffrage. President Andrew Johnson immediately vetoed the bill but Congress re-passed the bill the same day.

Andrew Johnson consulted General Ulysses S. Grant before selecting the generals to administer the military districts. Eventually he appointed John Schofield (Virginia), Daniel Sickles (the Carolinas), John Pope (Georgia, Alabama and Florida), Edward Ord (Arkansas and Mississippi) and Philip Sheridan (Louisiana and Texas).

During the American Civil War, in which the nation decided how to handle the return of the seceded states and the status of the Freedmen (the newly freed slaves). Most scholars have accepted 1865-1877 as the boundaries for Reconstruction.

The era itself was controversial and pitted various segments of American society against one another. Differing conceptions on how to restore the former Confederate States into the Union collided with diverse opinions concerning the status of African-Americans.

The meaning of freedom itself was at stake in this crucial time period. The nascent Republican Party was divided between the mainstream which wanted a modicum of protection for blacks, and the Radicals, who wanted a thorough reorganization of Southern society. Conservative elements of this time period (in particular the Democrats) believed that the old order that governed relations between the states and between blacks and whites should remain intact.

The bulk of African-Americans desired equal civil and political rights, protection of their person, and in many cases a redistribution of land and the break-up of the plantation system. These diverse perspectives enabled the period from 1865 to 1877 to be, in many ways, a grand experiment in interracial democracy, but the period was also dominated by tense political relations and a preponderant violence across the South.

Definition
Reconstruction, in United States history, refers both to the period after the Civil War when the states of the breakaway Confederate States of America were reintegrated into the United States of America, and to the process by which this was accomplished.

For victory in the American Civil War to be achieved, Northern moderate Republicans and Radical Republicans concurred that the Confederacy and its system of slavery had to be destroyed, and the possibility of either being revived had to be eliminated. Controversy focused on how to achieve those goals, and who would decide when they were achieved. The Radical Republicans held that reaching those goals was essential to the destruction of the Slave Power, and necessary to guaranteeing perpetual unity of the states, as well as a solution to the many problems of Freedmen.

United States Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, a Radical Republican, held that Congress should abolish slavery along with the Confederacy, extend civil and political rights to blacks, and educate black and white students together.

The "moderates" claimed early success in achieving the goals by assurances that the former Confederates had renounced secession and abolished slavery. Most moderates, like Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, wanted suffrage for black army veterans but not other African Americans. Southern political leaders renounced secession and gave up slavery, but were angered in 1867 when their state governments were ousted by federal military forces, and replaced by Radical Republican governments made up of Freedmen, Carpetbaggers and Scalawags.

Their primary instrument was the Black Codes (1865). These restricted the rights of Blacks and limited economic and educational opportunities. For example, there was very little, if any, employment available in the south. The Yankees may have won the war to end slavery, however the reconstruction did not benefit the African Americans who searched for employment.

The Problem of Reconstruction
Reconstruction was the effort of rebuilding the South based on free labor instead of slave labor. The issue to Northern politicians was how it would be done. At the end of the Civil War, Congress proposed the Thirteenth Amendment, which sought to prohibit slavery. A state was not to gain re-admittance into the Union until it ratified the Amendment, but some states such as Mississippi were admitted despite failing to ratify. The Amendment became a part of the Constitution in December 6,1865.

During this time many Northerners moved to the South to start new lives. Sometimes carrying their belongings in briefcases made of carpet, they were known by Confederate Southerners as "carpetbaggers." Confederate Southerners also had a derogatory name for southern whites who sided with the Republicans. They called them scalawags. The period just after the war also saw the rise of black codes, which restricted the basic human rights of freed slaves. Some of the more common codes seen were: race was dependent on blood, which meant if you had any amount of black blood in your body, you were considered black, freedmen could not get together unless accompanied by a white person, public restrooms and other facilities were segregated.

This time in history was really volatile. Many racially motivated riots broke out all over the country. The hostilities the south held toward the north and the African Americans grew stronger and stronger.

Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of several past and present organizations in the United States that have advocated white supremacy, anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, racism, homophobia, anti-Communism and nativism. These organizations have often used terrorism, violence, and acts of intimidation, such as cross burning and lynching, to oppress African Americans and other social or ethnic groups.

The first branch of the Ku Klux Klan was established in Pulaski, Tennessee, in May, 1866. A year later, a general organization of local Klans was established in Nashville in April, 1867. Most of the leaders were former members of the Confederate Army and the first Grand Wizard was Nathan Forrest, an outstanding general during the American Civil War. During the next two years Klansmen wearing masks, white cardboard hats and draped in white sheets, tortured and killed black Americans and sympathetic whites. Immigrants, who they blamed for the election of Radical Republicans, were also targets of their hatred. Between 1868 and 1870, the Ku Klux Klan played an important role in restoring white rule in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia.

The Klan's first incarnation was in 1866. Founded by veterans of the Confederate Army, its main purpose was to resist Reconstruction. It focused as much on intimidating "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags" as on putting down the freed slaves. The KKK quickly adopted violent methods. A rapid reaction set in. The Klan's leadership disowned violence as Southern elites saw the Klan as an excuse for federal troops to continue their activities in the South. The organization declined from 1868 to 1870 and was destroyed in the early 1870s by President Ulysses S. Grant's vigorous action under the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act).

At the end of the American Civil War, members of Congress attempted to destroy the white power structure of the Rebel states. The Freeman’s Bureau was established by Congress on March 3rd, 1865. The bureau was designed to protect the interests of former slaves. This included helping them to find new employment and to improve educational and health facilities. In the year that followed, the bureau spent $17,000,000 establishing 4,000 schools, 100 hospitals and providing homes and food for former slaves.

Violence against African Americans started on the first days of Reconstruction and became more organized significant after 1867. Members of The Klan looked to frustrate Reconstruction. They also, tried to keep freedom in subjection. Terrorism dominated some counties and regions so, nighttime harassment, whippings, beatings, rapes, and murders became more common. The Klan's main purpose was political, even though, they tormented blacks who stood up for their rights. Active Republicans were the target of lawless night riders. When freedmen that worked for a South Carolina scalawag started to vote, terrorists went to the plantation and, in the words of a victim, "whipped every ... [black] man they could lay their hands on."

Lincoln and Reconstruction
Lincoln firmly believed that the southern states had never actually seceded, because, constitutionally, they cannot. He hoped that the 11 states that seceded could be "readmitted" by meeting some tests of political loyalty. Lincoln began thinking about re-admittance early on. In his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which was issued in 1863, Lincoln established a simple process, hoping that Unionists would rise to political power rather than secessionalists. This plan would have granted presidential pardons to all southerners (save the political leaders at the time) who took an oath of future allegiance to the Union. Under Lincoln's plan, a state could be established as legitimate as soon as 10 percent of the voting population in the 1860 general election took this oath and a government was set up accepting the emancipation of the slaves.

Rejecting Lincoln's Presidential reconstruction plan, radical Republicans in congress arguing that it was too lenient, passed the Wade-Davis bill in 1864, which proposed far more demanding terms. It required 50 percent of the voters to take the loyalty oath and allowed only those who could swear that they had never supported the confederacy to run for office or hold federal employment. Lincoln rejected this plan and pocket-vetoed the bill. In March 1865, Congress created a new agency, the Freedman's Bureau. This agency provided food, shelter, medical aid, help to find employment, education, and other needs for blacks and poor whites. The Freedman's Bureau was the largest scale federal aid relief plan at this time. It was the first large scale governmental welfare program.

In 1864, his Vice Presidential running mate was the only Southern Senator to remain loyal to the Union - Andrew Johnson from Tennessee. After Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, and Johnson became President, the latter proved to be an obstacle to the Radical Republicans in Congress, who attempted to completely overhaul the Southern government and economy, which would have caused further tensions.

In May, 1865, Johnson made his own proclamation, one that was very similar to Lincoln's. Offering amnesty to almost all Confederates who took an oath of allegiance to the Union, Johnson also reversed General Sherman's decision to set aside land for the express use of freed slaves. Not long after Johnson took office, all of the ex-Confederate states were able to be readmitted under President Johnson's plan. In 1866, Johnson vetoed two important bills, one that bolstered the protection that the Freedmen's Bureau gave to blacks and a civil rights bill that gave full citizenship to blacks.

After realizing that if all of the Republicans, moderate and radical alike, united, they could overcome Johnson's vetoes, they soon passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment declared citizenship for all persons born in the United States and required the states to respect the rights of all US citizens. The Civil Rights Act outlawed the black codes that had been prevalent throughout the South.

Over Johnson's vetoes, Congress passed three Reconstruction acts in 1867. They divided the southern states into five military districts under the control of the Union army. The military commander in charge of each district was to ensure that the state fulfilled the requirements of Reconstruction by ratifying the Fourteenth Amendment and by providing voting rights without a race qualification. Tennessee was not included in the districts because it had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866 and was quickly readmitted to the Union.

In 1868, the House of Representatives impeached Andrew Johnson. Earlier, Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act (over Johnson's veto), which required the President to dismiss officers only with the advice and consent of the Senate if he appointed them with the same advice and consent. Johnson believed that the Act was unconstitutional (and the Supreme Court, years after his Presidency, agreed in 1926), and intentionally violated it, to "test the waters." Radical Republicans used this violation as an excuse to impeach Johnson, who was acquitted by one vote in the Senate.

In the election of 1868, Ulysses Grant was nominated for the Republican ticket and won on an incredibly small margin. Republicans noticed that if they did not act swiftly to protect the voting rights of blacks, they might soon lose a majority. Thus, Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment in 1869, which enforced that the suffrage of male citizens shall not be denied on account of race. This was a major blow to the women's movement, as it was the first time gender was deliberately placed into the Constitution. Republicans claimed that if the amendment had included both race and gender discrimination clauses, it would have never had a chance to pass in Congress.

African-Americans in Congress
A number of African-Americans were elected for the first time in American history during this period. With the Reconstruction Acts sending federal troops in the southern states where African-Americans held majorities in South Carolina and Mississippi, and nearly equal numbers with whites in Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, Blacks were elected to Congress from these states.

John Willis Menard was elected in the 2nd District of Louisiana in 1868. His challenger, Caleb Hunt, filed an objection with the election result and the House of Representatives, upon hearing arguments from both candidates, decided to seat neither of them.

Hiram Revels was elected by the Mississippi Senate by an 81-15 margin to finish the term of Mississippi Senator Albert G. Brown, who vacated the seat during the Civil War. Revels served from February 23, 1870 to March 3, 1871.

Joseph Rainey was elected to the US House of Representatives from South Carolina's 1st District in the elections of 1870. He was the longest serving African-American member of congress prior to William L. Dawson in the 1950's.

Blanche Bruce was elected to serve a full term in the US Senate by the Mississippi state senate in 1871. Bruce was the only former slave to ever serve in the US Senate.

Alaskan Purchase
Beginning in the 1770's the Russian Empire began colonizing Alaska. On March 30, 1867 the American Government purchased Alaska from the Russian empire for 7.2 million dollars. The decision was widely ridiculed at the time, but the purchase was later proven to be a bargain when gold and oil were discovered there. The few Russian settlers in the territory were given three years to return to Russia, with the option of staying and becoming American citizens.

The Panic of 1873
The Panic of 1873 was the first depression experienced by America and Europe following the Civil War. The depression was a result of the fall for an international demand for silver. Germany stopped using the silver standard after the Franco-Prussia war. The United States enacted the Coinage Act of 1873 which shifted the backing of our monetary system with gold and silver to just gold. The act immediately depreciated the value of silver and hurt western mining operations. Another factor that influenced the Panic of 1873 was the risky over investment into railroad companies that would not bring quick returns. The Jay Cook and Company was a United States bank that declared bankruptcy on September 18, 1873. The bank went under as a result of over investment in the railroad business. As a result, the New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days starting September 20, 1873. 89 of 364 railroad companies failed during the depression. Real estate values, wages, and profits by corporations decreased over the course of the panic. Thousands of businesses fell during the depression as well. The depression was a major highlight in President Grant's second term.

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877
The strike started on July 14, 1877 in Martinsburg, West Virginia. The strike was caused by wage cuts from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company. The workers refused to let the railroad operate. State militia was sent in to quell the strike but would not fire upon the strikers. Governor Henry Mathews called upon federal troops to put down the strike and resume operations of the railroad. The strike spread to Cumberland, Maryland. Troops in Maryland fired upon the mob of strikers and killed ten rioters. The strike occurred in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and even spread to St. Louis. The strikes resulted in millions of dollars of property damage the casualties of many. The great strike lasted 45 days, after finally being put down by federal troops from city to city.

Republicans fall from power
Grant's presidency would bring about the decline of the Republican Party. He appointed a great number of corrupt officials to federal positions and to his cabinet. Many split with the party over that issue. Others grew tired of Reconstruction and proposed reconciliation with the South in a peaceful manner. These people called themselves Liberal Republicans, and nominated Horace Greeley to run against Grant in 1872. The Democrats also endorsed Greeley. Despite wide support, Grant won the election of 1872 decisively.

During the election season, Liberal Republicans were busy pushing the Amnesty Act through Congress, and in May 1872, it passed. The Amnesty Act pardoned most former Confederate citizens, and allowed them to run for office. The act restored the rights to the Democratic majorities in the South. Soon, Democrats had control of the Virginia and North Carolina governments. In states with black Republican majorities, the Ku Klux Klan (formed after the civil war as a white supremacist group) terrorized Republicans and forced them to vote Democratic or not at all. By 1876, Republicans controlled only three states in the South: Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina-- all of which were still occupied by Union troops.

Republicans continued to decline during Grant's second term, after many high level political scandals came to light. Most shocking to the public was that a scandal involved the Vice President, and another involved the Secretary of War. The Northern population's confidence in the party was shaken even more when the nation slipped into a Depression that same year.

In the congressional elections of 1874, Republicans would suffer huge losses in both houses, and for the first time since before the start of the Civil War, Democrats were able to gain control of a part of Congress (the House). Congress no longer was able to be committed strongly to Reconstruction.

In the election of 1876, Democrats nominated New York governor S.J. Tilden to run, and the Republicans nominated Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes. On election day, it seemed that Tilden would win by more than 250,000 votes. But the seven, four, and eight electoral votes from South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, respectively, were disputed (Northern troops still occupied these states). Also, one of Oregon's three electoral votes was disputed. If Hayes won all 20 votes, he would win the election. Congress created a special commission of seven Democrats, seven Republicans, and one independent to review the election and decide a winner. But the independent resigned, and a Republican was appointed to take his place. The commission voted along party lines to award Hayes the election, but Democrats warned that they would fight the decision.

Republican and Democratic leaders secretly met up to draw up a compromise, and the result of the meeting was the Compromise of 1877. Proclaiming that Hayes would win the election, troops left the South and more aid was given to the South; it marked the end of Reconstruction. Ultimately, Reconstruction and the Compromise itself would be failures, as Democrats refused to hold up their end of the compromise, which was to protect the rights of African Americans in the South.

The period after Reconstruction saw the rise of the Democratic "Redeemers" in the South. The Redeemers vowed to take back the South from Republican rule, which had been ousted after the 1876 election. They passed Jim Crow laws, which segregated blacks and whites, and put voting restrictions on blacks that wouldn't be outlawed until the next century. Jim Crow laws were challenged in Plessy v. Ferguson, when the Supreme Court voted to uphold the laws if and only if segregated facilities remained "separate but equal."

Sinmiyangyo
The United States expedition to Korea in 1871, also known as Sinmiyangyo (Western Disturbance of the Year Sinmi year) was the first American military action in Korea. It took place predominantly on and around the Korean island of Ganghwa. America sent a military expeditionary force to Korea to support an American diplomatic delegation sent to establish trade and diplomatic relations with Korea, to ascertain the fate of the General Sherman merchant ship, and to establish a treaty assuring aid for shipwrecked sailors. The isolationist Joseon Dynasty government and the assertive Americans led to a misunderstanding between the two parties that changed a diplomatic expedition into an armed conflict. The United States won a minor military victory, but the Koreans refused to open up the country to them. As the U.S. forces in Korea did not have the authority or strength to press the issue, the United States failed to secure their diplomatic objectives.

The New Wave of Jewish Immigration
Between the years of 1820 and 1880, about 250,000 Jews came to the U.S. The immigration was not only based in a troubled European economy but also in the 1848 failure of liberal revolutions in the German states.

Railways and the great steamer ships opened up immigration to America in the later 1800s and early 1900s. Yet the trip was dirty, uncomfortable, and dangerous. While prosperous families in upper-class compartments had private cabins, most of the immigrants went across in steerage class: three hundred tightly-packed men, women and children, sleeping on double- or even triple-bunk beds. The beds were about six feet long and two feet wide, with only two-and-a-half feet separating each bunk. Their goods, such as they were, rested on the bunk. The people had little or no running water, the stench was incredible, and there was little recourse against vermin. One witness, a Sophia Kreitzberg, said, "When you scratched your head [. . .] you got lice on your hands." This close environment joined with the background of privation and the strain of long travel to cause break-outs of diseases. The Jews were served unkosher meat and soup, which many refused to eat. Instead they nibbled on what they had brought with them, mostly dried fruit, hard bread, or stale cheese.

At the other end of the passage was often a few ports of entry to the United States. From 1855 to 1890 this was predominantly Castle Garden (also called Castle Clinton), a point at the tip of Manhattan Island in what would later be called New York City. From 1890 onward a vast number of immigrants came through the new reception area at Ellis Island. In these places human beings were duly categorized by ship, country of origin, past employment, and other relevant information. (This next footnote shows one such document from Castle Garden.)

Catholic Immigration
A massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian Empire (most notably Poland) caused a dramatic increase in the U.S. Catholic population during the latter half of the 19th century. From 1840 to 1851 Ireland suffered famine and oppression. The other immigration was caused by nationalization and national upheavals. By 1850 Catholicism had become the United States' largest religious denomination: between 1860 and 1890 the Catholic population tripled, mostly because of immigration. This massive influx of Catholics to the United States eventually led to a significant increase of power for the Catholic church.

Persecution
American Protestants often feared the increasing power and prominence of American Catholics. In pre-Civil War America anti-Catholic prejudice was shown through the "Know Nothings" and the American branch of the Orange Institution. After the war the American Protective Association, and the Ku Klux Klan regularly persecuted and discriminated against Catholics with such acts as The Philadelphia Nativist Riot, "Bloody Monday", and the Orange Riots of New York City in 1871 and 1872.

Nativism
The severe anti-Catholic activities revealed the sentiments of Nativism, which encouraged all "native-born American men" to rise up against foreigners. (This appeal went out to European-descended Protestants, of course, rather than the actual Native Americans who lived there before the had settled here.)

The first Nativist publication was called The Protestant; its first edition sold on January 2nd, 1830. Its editor was George Bourne, and as he wrote, "the goal of the paper is centered around the denunciation of the Catholic faith" Anti-Catholic rhetoric was occasionally met with violence; yet the Nativists produced one of the greatest violent acts of the 1830's. On August 10, 1834, forty to fifty people gathered outside the Ursuline Convent school and burned it to the ground. In 1834 F. B. Morse, a nativist leader who was a professor of sculpture and painting at New York University, wrote "The Foreign Conspiracies Against the Liberties of the United States", in which his basic message is centered around protecting the American birth right of liberty.

The concern, and fear of the foreign and Catholic communities grew out of the Protestant fear of the monarchial tendencies of Catholicism, during this time urban areas were also starting to grow rapidly with the massive influx of immigrants who all congregated and lived in the same areas. Nativists saw this as an act of "clannishness", and an attempt to avoid or resist "Americanization." With the success of Morse, and his contemporary Lyman Beecher, the nativist movement reached a point where the public did not care whether the stories they heard were true or false, but began to accept works of fiction as truth as well.

In 1836 Maria Monk authored a worked called "Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Dieu Nunnery of Montreal." In her book she tells of her experiences with Catholicism, which involved forced sexual intercourse with priests and the murdering of nuns and children, the book concludes with her [Maria] escaping to save her unborn child. Monk's mother denies her work, and said that Maria was never in a nunnery, and that a brain injury Maria received as a child may have been the cause of her stories. In the Midwest and northern sections of the country Catholics were seen as incapable of free thought and were said to be "anti-American Papists" because it was thought that they took every direction from the Pope in Rome.

During the Mexican-American war Mexican Catholics were displayed in the media as silly or stupid due to their "Papist superstition". It was because of the general attitude in America about Catholics that about 100 American Catholics, mostly recently immigrated Irish, fought against the United States in the Mexican-American war. These men fought for the Mexicans and were known as "Saint Patrick's Battalion . In 1850, Franklin Pierce presented several resolutions that would remove the restrictions on Catholics from holding public office in New Hampshire, these resolutions that were, at the time, considered "pro-Catholic' were defeated (Battle of Religious Tolerance," The World Almanac, 1950, 53). However as the 19th century passed, hostilities between Catholics and Protestants eased due to the fact that many Irish Catholics fought alongside Protestants during the Civil War, for both the North and the South.

Education
Ex-slaves everywhere across the nation reached out for education. Blacks of all ages really wanted to know what was in the books that had been only permitted to whites. With freedom they started their own schools and the classes were packed days and nights. They sat on log seats or the dirt floors. They would study their letters in old almanacs and in discarded dictionaries. Because the desire to escape slavery's ignorance was so great, ignoring their poverty, many blacks would pay tuition, sometimes $1 or $1.50 a month. Blacks and their white allies also saw a need for colleges and universities, in this case to train teachers, ministers, and professionals for leadership. There were seven colleges founded by the American Missionary Association, Fisk and Atlanta Universities, between 1866 and 1869. The Freedoms Bureau helped to establish Howard University in Washington D.C. As well as Northern religious groups, such as the Methodists, Baptists, and Congregationalists, supported dozens of seminaries and teachers’ colleges. The earliest forms of education that blacks received was from the missionaries to convert them to Christianity. The education of blacks was very low during the civil war, until Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The Department of Education was developed in 1867 to help start more effective schools systems. Howard University was developed in Washington D.C. for black youth “in the liberal arts and sciences.” The first public school day was in Boston in 1869.

Technology
Just before the Civil War a vast source of petroleum was discovered in and around Titusville, Pennsylvania, and after the War this began to be exploited. At first oil was used for medicinal purposes alone. However, as the supply increased, it also began to be used for industrial purposes, and instead of whale oil. The dangerous and expensive whaling industry collapsed. While some cities used coal gas for night illumination, others began to use oil lamps, and major cities were lit at night. Petroleum, lamp oil (for the great engine lamp), and machine oil increased the usefulness of railways. Information could be transmitted across great distances via the telegraph. In the 1870s and 1880s inventors vied to transmit a human voice. The two major competitors were the Scots-born Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray. In the year 1875, Alexander Graham Bell used an electromagnetic machine to transmit the sound of a steel reed. On February 14, 1876, a partner of Bell presented his patent to the patent office in Washington, D.C., on the same day as his rival Elisha Gray. Three weeks later, on March Seventh, Bell’s patent won out and was granted.

Native Americans After The War
The injustices that Native Americans dealt with during the Civil War did not go away at War's end. The U. S. National government made it clear that though these people were indigenous to the continent, they were not going to be citizens of the country. The Native Americans were forced to live out in the west on reservations. Their travel was restricted and scrutinized by government agents who monitored them. Traveling off the reservations to hunt, fish or even visit the neighboring reservations was frowned upon by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Subsequently, the Bureau instituted a pass system in order keep them under control. This system required the Natives to get a pass from the agents before they were allowed off the reservation.

White settlers also took issue with Indians traveling on trains. However, the Central Pacific Railroad in Nevada granted the Native Americans permission to ride on top of the trains in exchange for their railroads being allowed to cross through the reservations. Many Indian agents were unhappy with this free travel arrangement. They began writing letters to the Bureau to stop it. One of the agents commented that "The injurious effects of this freedom from restraint, and continual change of place, on the Indian, can not be overestimated."

With the 14th amendment the civil rights acts were contrived. For the Indians however, their positioning was made clear. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 states “That all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States."

Battle at Little Bighorn

In 1876, after a few uneventful confrontations, Col. George A. Custer and his small cavalry came across the Sioux and some of their allies at the Little Bighorn River. To force the large Indian army back to the reservations, the Army dispatched three columns to attack. One of these groups contained Lt. Custer and the Seventh Cavalry. They spotted the Sioux village about fifteen miles away just along the Rosebud River, Custer also found a nearby group of about forty men. He ignored orders to wait, and decided to attack before they could alert the main party. He was unaware of how much he was outnumbered. The Sioux and their allies had three times as much force. Custer divided his forces in three, He sent troops under control of Captain Frederick Benteen to try to stop them from escaping through the upper valley of the Little Bighorn River. Major Marcus Reno job was to pursue the group, then cross the river, and attack the Indian village in a conjunction with the remaining troops under his command. He Intended to strike the Indian camp from the north and south, but he had no idea that he would have to cross a rough terrain in order to achieve this. As the Indians descended Custer ordered his men to shoot their horses and stack the carcasses in front of them in order to form a wall. But this did not protect them against bullets. In less than an hour, Custer and all his men were killed in one of the worst American military disasters of all time. After one more day of fighting, Reno and Benteen's now unified forces fled when the Indians stopped fighting. They [who?] knew two more columns of soldiers were coming towards them, so they escaped toward them.

The massacre of Custer's final battle eclipsed any success he had had in the Civil War. Custer was defeated and killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn on June 25, 1876, while fighting Native American tribes in a battle that has come to be known as "Custer's Last Stand".

Victoria Woodhull
In 1872 Victoria Woodhull became the first woman to run for President of the United States. She was nominated by the Equal Rights Party on May 10. Though it is undisputed that she was the first female to run for president, the legality of her petition is questioned; her name didn't actually appear on the ballot and she was under the age of 35 which is the required age for a presidential candidate according to the constitution. Woodhull did not receive any electoral votes, but evidence supports that she received popular votes that were never counted.

Woman's Christian Temperance Union
The Woman's Christian Temperance Union was formed on December 22, 1873. Fredonia, New York is credited as being the birthplace of the group. The temperance movement was a social movement that pushed for the reduction of alcohol consumption. The movement spread all over the country, and women would go to bars and drug stores to sing and pray. The National Woman's Christian Temperance Union was established in 1874 in Cleveland, Ohio. The women demonstrated use of non violent protestation of the consumption of alcohol by praying in saloons. Often, they were denied entrance and yelled at by patrons. The movement ultimately contributed to prohibition in America's future.

title: US History/Reconstruction


text:
Talk:John Barnard

Comments
The article for John Barnard said he "left" Benetton, but the article for Flavio said that he was "fired." Two different stories. - FunKeh, 20/3/06 — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk • contribs) 02:50, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

Two corrections
The followings are pointed out on the note of Japanese edition;
 * Barnard moved to Ferrari at the end of 1986, not 1987.
 * Benetton B192 was not his work, but Ross Brawn and Rory Byrne.--K.F. 09:05, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

Requested move (2010)

The result of the move request was: No consensus to move. Jafeluv (talk) 13:22, 16 December 2010 (UTC)

John Barnard → John Barnard (Formula One) — to make way for a disambiguation page. The number of incoming links (about 175) looks high, but the vast majority of them appear to be accounted for by Barnard's inclusion in a series of well-populated templates. The much-less-templated American Civil War General John G. Barnard, has about 75 incoming links, and has at least as good a claim to be the primary topic. Better to disambiguate both of them, and move the disambiguation page to the undisambiguated name. -- Brown HairedGirl (talk) • (contribs) 23:00, 7 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose. This John Barnard had five times the pageviews of John G. Barnard last month and almost double the pageviews of all 6 other John Barnards combined. No more than 6% of readers landing on this article clicked on the hatnote to the dab page, indicating most readers were where they wanted to be. Station1 (talk) 00:18, 8 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Support, although I would suggest John Barnard (engineer) (or maybe John Barnard (motorsport)) as the new name for the article. As noted in the article, in addition to Formula One, Barnard has also worked in Indycar and motorcycle racing, and is currently involved in furniture design. (Although I concede that he is probably most noted for his Formula One activities). DH85868993 (talk) 02:12, 8 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Either John Barnard (engineer) or John Barnard (motorsport) are fine by me. "Formula One" seemed to be the most common dab when I checked the relevant categories, but if it's too narrow then DH85868993's suggestions give wider scope, and "motorsport" also seems to be a widely-used dab. -- Brown HairedGirl (talk) • (contribs) 02:21, 8 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose, Station's statistics seem to confirm that this is indeed the primary topic, so no change is necessary.--Kotniski (talk) 11:28, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

Requested move 05 December 2014

The result of the move request was: no consensus to move at this time. While page views show this may be the primary topic, Google Books appears inconclusive, so there is no persuasive arguments here that make move a viable close. -- Mdann 52   talk to me!  16:03, 29 December 2014 (UTC)

Propose and support John Barnard → John Barnard (motorsport) – With the intention of replacing the present John Barnard as a disambiguation page. I raise the issue once again since it appears the situation has changed since 2010 when the last discussion was held. There are now 11 John Barnards with articles in WP, and the other 10 receive between them about as many hits per day as this John Barnard - so the question of an overwhelming preponderance of hits, which was an issue last time round, no longer arises. As there seemed to be some consensus on John Barnard (motorsport) last time round I submit it herewith, as it meets with the 'precision' requirement of article title policy. Smerus (talk) 22:16, 5 December 2014 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's policy on article titles.

 * Oppose, mainly because I tend toward maintaining the status quo when there is no overwhelming need for change. The fundamental stats are similar to the last discussion: there are still almost twice as many hits (61%) on this page as all the others combined; this page still gets more than five times as many hits as the next most popular; at most, only 3.5% (down from 6% last time) of people arriving at this page head on to the dab page. I see no fundamental problems being caused by the current structure, and increased inconvenience to our readers outweighs any benefit.  Pyrop e  04:57, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Support - evidently not primary to readers interested in the other fields, WP:PRIMARYTOPIC is meant for things that are overwhelming in books. The John Barnard (general) seems to be No.1 there, not that being No.1 is primary, primary means one man is 66+% of all John Barnard refs, which none of the 11 is. In ictu oculi (talk) 06:28, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Support. A case well made, which also shows the danger of relying on page stats as was done last time and is again the only argument against this time. While we don't speculate on these things, experience and commonsense both indicate that these stats are rather fickle, particularly with respect to celebrities such as recent F1 innovators, musicians currently topping charts, etc., and the guidelines already point this out. In the current RM, however, the page stats argument has been answered with like, so there is no contest. Andrewa (talk) 18:21, 13 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Oppose. The page view evidence still show this John Barnard to be more popular than all other ambiguous articles combined. And only 192 hits at the dab page suggests we're not getting a huge influx of people coming to the article intending another "John Barnard". Google Books looks inconclusive to me at best, especially accounting for Google's geography and the fact that the #2 article, John G. Barnard, is evidently rarely referred to without his middle initial or name. Overall, I don't see this move as making things easier for readers.--Cúchullain t/ c 15:18, 22 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Oppose. The pageview stats provided by suggest that this John Barnard meets the usage criterion. No case has been brought forward to suggest that a different John Barnard meets the long-term significance criterion. Those are the actual criteria listed under PRIMARYTOPIC, which does not state it was "meant for things that are overwhelming in books", and a good thing, too, considering that what comes up in Google Books searches isn't exactly the highest-quality scholarly literature anyway. Egsan Bacon (talk) 18:27, 23 December 2014 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Any additional comments:

Page view stats (last 90 days):
 * John Barnard: 5526
 * John G. Barnard: 1052
 * John Barnard (musician): 855
 * John Barnard (British politician): 357
 * John Barnard (supporter of James II): 286
 * John Barnard (biographer): 275
 * John Barnard (clergyman): 260
 * John Barnard (cyclist): 182
 * John Barnard (musician and clergyman): 165
 * John Barnard (cricketer): 132
 * Total = 9090

 * John Barnard (disambiguation): 192
 * Just a quick skim to facilitate discussion, so that each editor doesn't have to go ferreting around for these each time!  Pyrop e  04:01, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Comment - since page views are minor and often self-fulfilling component of WP:PRIMARYTOPIC editors will still need to do a Google Book search for themselves before supporting/opposing in the section above. In ictu oculi (talk) 06:28, 6 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Some rather confusing (dabs) there; I've moved John Barnard (musician and clergyman) to John Barnard (music publisher) and John Barnard (musician) to John Barnard (composer) as primary notability in each case, and John Barnard (clergyman) to John Barnard (American clergyman) given that the music publisher was a canon at St Pauls. In ictu oculi (talk) 06:35, 6 December 2014 (UTC)
 * I disagree with your assumption that Google Books provides a better metric or that page views should be considered "minor". For topics such as these, that are not commonly in the public eye, all Google Books is telling you about is the preoccupation of a very small slice of society: those people who write scholarly works. As there are orders of magnitude more works on military history than any other topic, is it surprising that in this sample the military figure is the more common? Taking a look at what another slice of the general public are interested in, you could consider any number content repositories. Take YouTube, for instance. Here, a search for "John Barnard" gives two videos on the subject of this page in the first page of results, four on the organist or his works, three on an MMA fighter for whom we have no page, and three on a minor club racer who again has no page. I've skimmed down through a few pages of results and I see nothing on the general. Of course, YouTube is itself biased toward subjects popular amongst people with the ability to record and post digital video, so that sample isn't very illustrative of the wider general public either, but it shows what sort of bias you can induce if you assume things about the representative nature of any source. The only place that we have to record the interests of Wikipedia users – who are our target audience! – are the page view statistics on Wikipedia. Here, a comparison of numbers between the main topic page and a hatnoted dab page is the most useful measure of the degree to which our audience's interests are not being served. As mentioned above, currently this runs at 3.5%, and that is a worst-case measure as it makes the assumption both that all dab page views are coming from this page and that people viewing the dab page are not interested in the subject of this page, rather than curiously heading off after reading it to see what sort of other people have been called John Barnard.  Pyrop e  17:18, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

But WP:PRIMARYTOPIC is not so narrowly drawn as Pyrope seems to imply. This is what it says: A topic is primary for a term, with respect to usage, if it is highly likely—much more likely than any other topic, and more likely than all the other topics combined—to be the topic sought when a reader searches for that term. A topic is primary for a term, with respect to long-term significance, if it has substantially greater enduring notability and educational value than any other topic associated with that term. As regards the first of these, the 'primarity' of the John Barnard is marginal (<66%). As regards the second of these, its 'primarity' is highly debatable, to say the least. Pyrope opposes the proposal because ' I tend toward maintaining the status quo when there is no overwhelming need for change'. When there are 10 different John Barnards (not to mention a further four or five 'John Barnard XXXX's and 'XXXX John Barnard XXXX's) I tend to think the need for change is obvious. But then neither my, nor Pyrope's, tendencies are relevant arguments for the present purposes.--Smerus (talk) 11:02, 9 December 2014 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure which of my comments you took to be the "narrow" part. That I consider the users of Wikipedia today to be more important than what their great grandchildren might be searching for using implanted brain chips in 2050? Oh well, priorities vary I guess, and if our cyborg progeny decide that the subject of this article isn't the more interesting to them, then they will be perfectly capable of adjusting the page names at that point. If you are talking about a topic that has flared up in the last few months then I can see the advantage in taking the historical long view as they will probably fall from public favour in a few short weeks, but this page has been maintaining its page views for many years now. Getting nearly two thirds of all page views is not "marginal", and when you consider that the next most viewed gets only 11% it looks pretty obvious that the subject of this page is indeed "much more likely" to be the topic of a search than any other single John Barnard. Five times more likely than its nearest rival, in fact, and twenty times more likely than most. Marginal? Come on...  Pyrop e  17:14, 10 December 2014 (UTC)

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:John Barnard


text:
Talk:Sterling, Illinois

hustling drugs?
I lived there in Sterling for 18 years and I did NOT know that it was well known for hustling drugs. Is this new? I knew there was a market for drugs that spilled over from Chicago, but I didn't think that this was the most notable thing about the city....comments?

It is mostly antidotal, but there is at least a perception based of probable fact that Sterling / Rock falls by virtue of the fact that is so far under the radar of law enforcement and the fact that it has a disproportionately large drug consumer base per capita, is a hub for the distribution of Cocaine, Crack and for both the distribution and manufacture of methamphetamines. There is evidence that suggests not only the presense of fractions of Chicago based street gangs, but in fact, surprisingly, a small fraction who at least has ties to “traditional “ Chicago based organized crime and or low level reputed organized crime figures —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 01:35, 13 October 2008 (UTC)

added links
I added links to 2 Sterling related pages I started, I will probably work on the historical figures, Dillons for sure, next, unless someone else wants to, as for hustling drugs, obvious vandalism that appears to have been taken care of.A mcmurray 00:47, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

Sister city
Canoinhas, Santa Catarina, Brazil. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:50, 10 May 2007 (UTC).

Who said Sterling was a suburb?
I'd like to know who added the portion titled "Geography." It obviously wasn't anybody intending to make the article any better through its spelling of "suberb," and its reference to nickels and Chicago. Sterling and the entire Rock Valley are completely independent of Chicago and should not be associated with the metropolitan area at all. I just edited the geography section to be much more accurate and less juvenile. —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 03:08, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

 * The closest metropolitian area is the Quad Cities of Moline, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Sterling and nearby Rock Hills are called "exurban" and Chicago is less than two hours away on I-80. The area is becoming fashionable in real estate, plus the area's famed claim of Tampico as the birthplace of actor and US President Ronald Reagan. The area was once known for ore mining and some of the area's zinc went to the U.S. Mint in Chicago. Whiteside county's population grown by 20% in the 2000's above state average.

The area has a sizable Hispanic community mostly concentrated in Sterling and Rock Hills, but the "Tampico" namesake in Spanish is 99% white non-Hispanic, so it is rather homogeneous. Whiteside county is about 10-15% Hispanic, esp. of Cuban, Mexican and Spanish ancestry, attracted to the steel industry and zinc mines since the 1920's, and now immigrants from Mexico and Central America moved in Sterling to taken jobs in construction, home remodeling and landscaping in a briefly booming local economy.

I sense it has to do with Ronald Reagan's image and political standing against communism and the Castro regime in Cuba, has appealed to Cuban-Americans. Thus the locals in Sterling shown some sympathy to Hispanics coming to live in American freedom even with the controversy of illegal immigration and cultural differences of the newcomers in Sterling. Admiral Joseph Reeves in the Spanish-American war is also from Sterling, adds further to the local contribution to the U.S. military's efforts to liberate Cuba and Puerto Rico from Spanish rule in the late 1890's. Mike D 26 (talk) 07:26, 6 February 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Sterling, Illinois. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20111006030323/http://wacc-online.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=32 to http://wacc-online.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=32

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 22:13, 27 February 2016 (UTC)

Sterling/Sinnissippi/Hopewell Mounds
You are right, Sinnissippi Park, and the Hopewell Indian mounds (for which I donated a picture) are not in the Sterling city limits. I didn't realize that. Thank you.

The bigger issue is that the Sterling Park District covers a superset of the city limits. Sinnissippi Park, Oppold Marina and the golf course are definitely out of the city limits. (I'm not sure about Westwood and Lawrence Park.) However, I'm sure most people who live in Sterling consider them their own. I'm asking a friend about the exact limits of the park district funding because I don't see it on the park district web site.

I propose adding a note under Sterling Park District saying that the Park District includes parks outside the city limit. And then Sinnissippi Park and the indian mounds would be justifiably included in the article. OK?

MalcolmSlaney (talk) 21:16, 4 May 2021 (UTC)
 * I oppose your proposal. The Empire State Building is very close to Hoboken, New Jersey, and I would not blame Hoboken's Chamber of Commerce one bit if they stated on their website "less than two miles from the world famous Empire State Building", but Wikipedia is not a Facebook page or personal website (nor is it a game of horseshoes where points are awarded for being close); Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, which means information included in Wikipedia needs to be correct, even if it hurts people's feelings.  If you want to add Sinnissippi Park or the Hopewell Indian mounds to an article, add them to Whiteside County, Illinois, where it would be correct information.  But please don't add them to Sterling, Illinois, because they are not located here. Magnolia677 (talk) 22:48, 4 May 2021 (UTC)

Sinnissippi Park (and a number of other Sterling Park District Parks) are already part of the Sterling Illinois wikipedia page. They were there long before I arrived. Their (mailing) address is Sterling, Illinois. Yes, all these parks are technically in Whiteside county, but local people consider them part of Sterling. They are part of the Sterling Park District, which is based in Sterling. A better solution is to add a note under the park heading saying that some parks are outside the city limits. OK?

Sterling History copied
The history of Sterling on this wikipedia page is a copy of the history on the city web site. I'm not sure which came first, whether this copying is appropriate, or if anybody wants to rewrite it.

MalcolmSlaney (talk) 21:20, 4 May 2021 (UTC)

Unreferenced sections
There are two entire sections that have been flagged as lacking reliable sources for over 13 years. These sections need to have references added or be deleted. Chicago god (talk) 12:22, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sterling, Illinois


text:
Talk:Aptullah Kuran

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Aptullah Kuran. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101203133638/http://fp.arizona.edu/mesassoc/Bulletin/36-1/36-1InMemoriam.htm to http://fp.arizona.edu/mesassoc/Bulletin/36-1/36-1InMemoriam.htm

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 18:42, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Aptullah Kuran


text:
Talk:Reddy (surname)/Archive 1

Don't add non-notables
New article is created. Add only the most prominent persons. Trivial names will attract deletion of the whole article. Users may create new articles.Kumarrao (talk) 07:51, 11 May 2008 (UTC)
 * That looks good. Kumarrao (talk) 13:28, 18 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, the page is good now. Should the chief ministers of AP be added? Itsmejudith (talk) 14:45, 18 May 2008 (UTC)
 * I wonder if we are wasting our time editing this article. Inspite of well-meant advice, users include the names of all Tom, Dick and Harrys. Of course, this comment does not pertain to AP Cheif Minister.Kumarrao (talk) 09:23, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

Criteria for inclusion?
What are the criteria for inclusion here? I see a lot of redlink and non-link entries. Shouldn't these be removed?—C45207 | Talk 00:37, 1 July 2009 (UTC)
 * No one has commented, so I'm going to go ahead and remove the redlink entries.—C45207 | Talk 20:38, 20 July 2009 (UTC)
 * A while ago, I removed the non-linked entries and the redlinked entries []. They have been restored. What should the criteria for inclusion be for this list? I say an article that we can link to.—C45207 | Talk 03:57, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Most of the entries in the list has no wiki-articles, wikipedia is not the directory to add each and every reddy's. the list should include only the notable ones who have wiki-articles about them. if not, there should be some sources to establish notability about them. but i don't see any references in this list. also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Lists#Listed_items  C 21 K talk  12:40, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

 * It seems like only the following entries should be included:
 * ones with a Wikipedia article and
 * ones that have a verifiable claim of notability.
 * I'm going to remove entries that don't meet these criteria.—C45207 | Talk 02:08, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

waht about the RED REDYS ? Like Chandra Pulla Reddy,Kondapalli Sitaramaya,Puchala Palli sundara Rami reddy( sundaraya ). —Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 16:07, 27 June 2010 (UTC)

Inclusion of persons without individual WP articles of their own
The list is impressive. However I am of the opinion that each and every entrant into this list does not have to have a separate WP article of their own. This is because in some instances WP will reject and some articles will be deleted on the grounds of non-notability and non-encyclopedic content. However I still feel that wherever the notability and the relevance arises, an article should be created for that person. Just that it should not be mandatory to have a article for every listing in this list. For example for someone like YSR, yes the notability is fairly high so one can create an article ( in this case an article on YSR already exists). But for example if there is a person who is a minor artist/movie artist, it is not necessary that it warrants a separate article. Not to sound condescending but an encyclopedia is not a place where every tom, dick and harry is listed. That would be a database/directory. Wikipedia is a encyclopedia and not a database or directory. So have a article where the notability is high or else just add it to this list as a black-ink entrant. If readers are so interested, they can always look the person up on the internet/google. This is much better than creating an article for every person on this list just for the sake of creating an article which quite frankly is a farce. It also takes up unnecessary space and there is absolutely no encyclopedic relevance as well. Foodie 377 (talk) 11:40, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

Dacoits of AP
Dear Foodie Fool, Yes I am a fat Brahmin, descendent of my forefathers who inseminated your ancestors and created a few fair skinned samples in your Kapu (reddy) population. You are imagining Kshatriya ancestry by looking at those specimens among you. You were all toiling Dravidian farmers, some of whom got a title "Reddy" by serving as feudal chiefs. A few of those title holders lorded over a few districts (hardly 80 years) and later became slaves to Golkonda sultans, colluded with them, grabbed Jagirs and enslaved poor people (all over Telangana). You shamelessly style yourselves as Rajahs. Shame on you!! The backward nature of Telangana is solely because of your loot and plunder (major part going to your Nizam master). Your Kapu brethren in Rayalaseema, who also had Reddy title, served Raya kings like slaves, although they opposed the unifying efforts of Vijayanagar kings. The fragmentation of Telugu land was solely because of your rivarly with Velamas and Raya kings. Another historical crime you guys commited!! In modern times, you donned Gandhi cap and strated looting AP as contractors and ended up as master dacoits of Andhra (YSR, Jagan, Gali etc., are shining examples of your avarice and loot). People who survived with great difficulty in arid climes of Andhra are the filthy rich of AP now, simply because of your plunder of AP that started with Sanjiva Reddy and continuing unabated. This perfidy cannot last long. Beware!!!!. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 12:10, 7 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Hahahhahahaa. You are just pathetic with your blatant hatred towards Reddys.Foodie 377 (talk) 19:00, 7 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes. The whole state of AP except you looters have become pathetic with the plight you inflicted on them. You dacoits go laughing all the way to Swiss banks trampling on the common man whom you plunder. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 16:29, 8 November 2011 (UTC)

Regarding most of the above threads
Sorry, folks, but it is not good enough just to have blue links. The claim that they are of the Reddy caste must be verified either here or in those bluelinked articles. More, if they are still alive then they must self-identify. Bearing the name "Reddy" is insufficient and this has been discussed at numerous similar lists. - Sitush (talk) 14:16, 15 March 2012 (UTC)
 * What nonsense. you are being absurd with your edits. You did the same with list of kammas. You are spoiling good info. Many ppl see these lists. most ppl who see these lists are indians and locals and anyone would know these are genuine. There is no caste certificate or ID issued in India. So how do you expect to get that info. I think you have lost it and becoming a nutcase. When I have the time, I will post a thread about you and your nutcase edits in WP:INDIA ANI. Foodie 377 (talk) 14:00, 1 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Sorry, Foodie 377, but WP:NLIST and WP:V are policies, which means that there must be a reliable source verifying that the person is 1) important, and 2) fits relevant criteria for the list. Additionally, many editors, including both Sitush and myself, consider caste to be near enough in nature to ethnicity and religion to also fall under WP:BLPCAT, which means that the people must self-identify as Reddy and it must be in some way relevant to what makes them notable. You don't have to like the policy, but if you want to include more people, you must follow that policy or seek to get it changed.  Qwyrxian (talk) 03:03, 2 April 2012 (UTC)
 * This and other discussions in the archives at WT:INB may assist. Then again, they may just further confuse! - Sitush (talk) 17:22, 2 April 2012 (UTC)
 * The views of User:Sitush and Qwyrxian are valid although uncomfortable. It is extremely difficult to provide citation for caste affiliation. Common parlance is the only plank to fall back upon but not acceptable. This is more so in the case of heterogenous social groups such as Reddy and Kapu (Telaga, Balija, Munnuru Kapu) which are not monolithic but vary with geography. The title Reddy is used by many social groups such as Kapu, Balija, Yadava, Kamma, Velama and some hill tribes, although not very frequently. As a matter of fact, a social group such as Reddy did not exist till five decades back, although the title "Reddy" was very old that figured in inscriptions since 7th-8th century. Kapu was the affiliation given by all old timers in their official certificates. Telugu literature of Vijayanagar times also referred the farmers of Rayalaseema as Kapus. The rulers of Addanki and Kondavidu refeferred themselves belonging to Panta vamsa which is known popularly as Panta Kapu. The social groups such as Kamma, Velama and Raju consolidated themselves by medieval times (11th century) although there was considerable horizontal movement among themselves. Kamma and Velama were of the same origin but bifurcated due to unknown reasons. Badabanala Bhatta prescribed surnames and Gothras for them. Hence, it can be safely said that these two groups crystallized by 12th century. One cumbersome way to provide citations is to mention surname and gothra for each person, which are group specific and published in a book. I do not know if Wiki accepts this formula.Kumarrao (talk) 16:39, 8 April 2012 (UTC)

Edit request on 10 October 2012
would like to add

Hind Rattan Award
MYAKALA RAJIREDDY NRI Welfare society of India, New Delhi

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Life Time Achievement Award
MYAKALA RAJIREDDY Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Foundation New Delhi

<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 17:40, 10 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done:. This list should only include people who already have Wikipedia articles and meet the notability criteria in their own right. — KuyaBriBri Talk 18:40, 10 October 2012 (UTC)

Edit request on 23 March 2013
please include dr.ys rajashekar reddy Cheif minister from cuddapa in politicians

<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 13:18, 23 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Please provide a reliable source that verifies that he self-identifies as a member of the Reddy caste. Qwyrxian (talk) 13:28, 23 March 2013 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 April 2015
Please add Dr. C. Narayana Reddy to the Awardees list of Padma ViBhushan and Padma Shree. Also, Dr. C. Narayana Reddy has been awarded the second highest Civilian award of India, the 'Jnanpith Award'. Please add that to the existing list. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Narayana_Reddy#Personal_life https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jnanpith_Award#Jnanpith_Award_recipients

Anvesh11 (talk) 23:16, 3 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Unfortunately Wikipedia does not cite itself, you will need to find reliable sources from the outside to get this change done. Thanks!  Kharkiv07 Talk  01:51, 4 April 2015 (UTC)

List or Disambig page?
made a valid point on the main article page - if this is only to be a list of people with the surname Reddy, then it should be made into a disambig page. If, as I (and was reverted by ), it is to be a page of Indian people with the surname of Reddy (as the wikilink demonstrates, it is an Indian caste), then it should be more clearly stated in the lead. Primefac (talk) 14:16, 7 May 2015 (UTC)
 * It is not clear to me why something should be a list or a disambiguation page. This page is clearly a list. It is not meant to be a disambiguation. Neither does it document a caste. It belongs to category "list of people with surnames" (or something like that) where there are loads of other such pages. It is partly owned by the Anthroponymy project, which is in charge of these kind of pages/lists. It looks like a well-established thing to do this. I am not sure what the issue is. Cheers, Kautilya3 (talk) 15:07, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

 * See this, which TRPoD has not yet responded to, although they have been editing. I'll emphasise something here because it looks like some people do not get it: this is not and cannot be a list of members of a caste. Well, not unless it is dramatically pruned and the article title is changed - see User:Sitush/Common. - Sitush (talk) 20:14, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

 * How about retitling it as "List of people with surname Reddy"? That would make it clearer that we are not claiming any caste stuff. Kautilya3 (talk) 20:31, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

 * I tried something similar to that title elsewhere a few months ago and it was reverted. As I said on TRPoD's talk page, I think the entire situation is rather "meta" and should be discussed at a more central venue. Village Pump might be an option for that. - Sitush (talk) 20:39, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 23 April 2016
<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 11:42, 23 April 2016 (UTC) y s raja shakar reddy (cheifminister ap ) y s jagan mohan reddy ( leader of opposition ap)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Subject needs an article on Wikipedia before we add him to the list. Sam Sailor Talk! 13:51, 23 April 2016 (UTC)
 * ✅ Added them. - Kautilya3 (talk) 14:32, 23 April 2016 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 7 May 2016
Umesh Reddy

Ajithkumar23 (talk) 14:38, 7 May 2016 (UTC)
 * ✅ Primefac (talk) 14:40, 7 May 2016 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 9 August 2016
<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 08:06, 9 August 2016 (UTC)

 * ❌. If there is an article on the person, that is evidence of notability. -- Kautilya3 (talk) 08:26, 9 August 2016 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 8 January 2017
SURAVARAM PRATAP REDDY is a renowned TELUGU POET, FOUNDER EDITOR OF 'GOLKONDA PATRIKA' a telugu paper in which he criticized NIZAM. My request you to include his name in POET and I am attaching a link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suravaram_Pratapareddy. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 13:08, 8 January 2017 (UTC)
 * ✅. Thanks for the suggestion! -- Kautilya3 (talk) 14:37, 8 January 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 25 January 2017
Please Remove " Umesh Reddy - serial Killer" from the OTHERs list because its disgusting to see such a person among the elite. Ramanapradeep (talk) 17:28, 25 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Wikipedia is NOTCENSORED. Primefac (talk) 17:29, 25 January 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 9 March 2017
Ajithkumar23 (talk) 17:09, 9 March 2017 (UTC)

[Umesh Reddy] --serial rapist
 * Yes check.svg Done Primefac (talk) 17:18, 9 March 2017 (UTC)

Edit request
Add Cingireddy Narayana Reddy, Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy under poets/writers. Add the only Indian Turing Award winner Raj Reddy under a new section Academics. Add Anji Reddy under industrialists. Nagi Reddy (Vijaya Movies, Chandamama fame) under Movies section. Add Pratap C Reddy under entrepreneurs (Appollo hospital chain). — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:04, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * These entries have previously been removed because they violated our policies. In particular, we need verifiability and in the case of living people that means verified self-identification by them. Such verifications didn't exist at the time of removal but if you now have some sources that fit this purpose then please do let us know what they are. Thanks. - Sitush (talk) 18:08, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * This is ridiculous. Why not take down the whole article then? I don't see any references for any of the existing entries. Some of the people mentioned in the article are far less important / inspiring than those I listed. You seem to be unfamiliar about the Caste discourse in India. There is no offical certificate given out to people born in a certain caste. Caste doesn't play any role in public life (though it plays a prominent role in marriages, communities) so there is no reason why a person would publicly self-identify as belonging to a particular caste. I don't see single citation for any of the notable Brahmins in List of Brahmins article. It's not even locked like this page. Why then is this special discrimination for this article? <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:44, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * User:Sitush/Common explains the principles. Yes, there are entries here and at other lists that should be removed. Rome was not built in a day. - Sitush (talk) 18:47, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * The fact that all these persons use 'Reddy' as their surname is enough to prove that they aren't dissociating themselves from their caste (unlike Amitabh, whose case you mentioned). A person's caste is a hereditarily acquired thing as opposed to say religious affiliation which we can't assume unless the person is a known adherent to the belief system. In that respect caste is similar to ethnicity. Doesn't it sound ridiculous if I question the inclusion of Michael Jackson's African American ethnicity simply because he never publicly self-identified as African American? — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 19:31, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Ok, should we add Helen Reddy, given that she clearly associates herself by her name? - Sitush (talk) 19:39, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * I'm talking about Indians who use Reddy surname here. People can easily figure out that Helen Reddy doesn't belong to this group given the disambiguation page. Let me get a bit offtopic here and explain to you why I'm so intent on adding these entries. Whether or not we like it caste based politics is a ground reality in India and various castes often compete with each other to portray their caste as a victim of discrimination and thus claim that they have been historically denied opportunities (to benefit from affirmative action schemes). In the state Tamil Nadu even rich land owning communities succeeded in getting themselves unfarily listed under backward classes. Given that there are so many people in 'Reddy' community who have had opportunities to rise economically, politically they can no longer claim to be backward. These lists are not just silly scoring points, as you seem to think, but they document, illustrate the crucial information about the historical socio-economic status of a caste in the society. I'm pretty new to all this editing business so I request you to provide my version to whoever determines the policy of including / excluding caste information. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 20:19, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Policy on Wikipedia is determined by consensus, not by any one individual. As a general rule, I'd advise you not to approach editing here with some sort of real-world agenda, other than that of improving the encyclopedia. It is far too easy to get drawn into accusations of having a conflict of interest or failing to edit neutrally. I was well aware that the Helen Reddy example was ludicrous but that was actually my point. Even in India, you have no way of knowing that just because someone's last name is "Reddy" that means they are of the Reddy community or desire to be of it. People usually use last names because they are given them, most commonly as an accident of birth. Basing stuff on their last name is original research and we are not allowed to do that on Wikipedia. However, I think the solution here is to get a third party involved, even though I know exactly what the outcome has to be because all the things that you are saying are identical to numerous other occasions when this issue has been raised for various lists of castes. We have various dispute resolution methods here and I am loathe to suggest one because I've had people accuse me of making biassed suggestions in the past. Would you like to choose a method? - Sitush (talk) 20:39, 9 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Here's a third opinion: 14..., if you don't like the rule that requires verification, you will need to propose that the rule be changed. The rule itself is WP:NLIST, which is a part of WP:Notability (people}. The correct place to start such a discussion would thus be on WT:Notability (people). You should note, though, that this is a fairly long-standing policy, built on a combination of our core policies of requiring verification of claims (WP:V) and our extra-stringent rules on living people (WP:BLP). I'm not sure you'll have much success, but you're welcome to try. It would be nice if you notify us here if you do attempt such an argument; I, for one, would strongly oppose any change to WP:NLIST. Qwyrxian (talk) 01:56, 10 December 2012 (UTC)

Please add that the surname Reddy is found mostly in County Kildare, Ireland. They have no links to India and the surname Reddy is also found in Scotland Jim97 (talk) 11:35, 11 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Reddy (surname)/Archive 1


text:
Berea, Warren County, Tennessee

Berea is an unincorporated community in Warren County, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.

History
The community was named after the biblical place of Berea.

title: Berea, Warren County, Tennessee


text:
Talk:Chathuranga Kodithuwakku

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:17, 1 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Chathura.jpg

title: Talk:Chathuranga Kodithuwakku


text:
Talk:Machiavellianism (psychology)

Good work
I saw that my copyedit was reverted, but then it seems you've improved on it quite substantially -- this lede gets the idea across very well. Nice! :^) jp×g 04:45, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Thank you so much! TheLastAccountant (talk) 19:13, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

Note for future editors
This article has been blatantly and heavily copied by two websites, 1 and 2. Keep in mind that contents of this article were split, and are well over 10 years old. CrocodileUnderling (talk) 12:54, 26 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Machiavellianism (psychology)


text:
User:Honorable Scizor/sandbox

I'm the honorable Scizor. As the name implies, I am a Pokémon fan. I have also done some editing for Wikipedia before I made this account, as <IP_ADDRESS>

title: User:Honorable Scizor/sandbox


text:
Cell Biology/Introduction/What is a cell

Cells are structural units that make up plants and animals; also, there are many single celled organisms. What all living cells have in common is that they are small 'sacks' composed mostly of water. The 'sacks' are made from a phospholipid bilayer membrane. This membrane is semi-permeable (allowing some things to pass in or out of the cell while blocking others). There exist other methods of transport across this membrane that we will get into later.

So what is in a cell? Cells are 90% fluid (called cytoplasm) which consists of free amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and numerous other molecules. The cell environment (i.e., the contents of the cytoplasm and the nucleus, as well as the way the DNA is packed) affect gene expression/regulation, and thus are VERY important aspects of inheritance. Below are approximations of other components (each component will be discussed in more detail later):

Elements

 * 59% Hydrogen (H)
 * 24% Oxygen (O)
 * 11% Carbon (C)
 * 4% Nitrogen (N)
 * 2% Others - Phosphorus (P), Sulphur (S), etc.

Molecules

 * 50% protein
 * 15% nucleic acid
 * 15% carbohydrates
 * 10% lipids
 * 10% Other

Components of cytoplasm
The following is optional reading, as all cell components will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

 * Cytosol - contains mainly water and numerous molecules floating in it- all except the organelles.
 * Organelles (which also have membranes) in 'higher' eukaryotic organisms:
 * Nucleus (in eukaryotes) - where genetic material (DNA) is located, RNA is transcribed.
 * Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Important for protein synthesis. It is a transport network for molecules destined for specific modifications and locations. There are two types:
 * Rough ER - Has ribosomes, and tends to be more in 'sheets'.
 * Smooth ER - Does not have ribosomes and tends to be more of a tubular network.
 * Ribosomes - half are on the Endoplasmic Reticulum, the other half are 'free' in the cytosol, this is where the RNA goes for translation into proteins.
 * Golgi Apparatus - important for glycosylation, secretion. The Golgi Apparatus is the "UPS" of the cell. Here, proteins and other molecules are prepared for shipping outside of the cell.
 * Lysosomes - Digestive sacks found only in animal cells; the main point of digestion.
 * Peroxisomes - Use oxygen to carry out catabolic reactions, in both plant and animals. In this organelle, an enzyme called catalase is used to break down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas.
 * Microtubules - made from tubulin, and make up centrioles,cilia,etc.
 * Cytoskeleton - Microtubules, actin and intermediate filaments.
 * Mitochondria - convert foods into usable energy. (ATP production) A mitochondrion does this through aerobic respiration. They have 2 membranes, the inner membranes shapes differ between different types of cells, but they form projections called cristae. The mitochondrion is about the size of a bacteria, and it carries its own genetic material and ribosomes.
 * Vacuoles - More commonly associated with plants. Plants commonly have large vacuoles.
 * Organelles found in plant cells and not in animal cells:
 * Plastids - membrane bound organelles used in storage and food production. These are similar to entire prokaryotic cells - for example, like mitochondria they contain their own DNA and self-replicate. They include:
 * Chloroplasts - convert light/food into usable energy. (ATP production)
 * Leucoplasts - store starch, proteins and lipids.
 * Chromoplasts - contain pigments. (E.g. providing colors to flowers)
 * Cell Wall - found in prokaryotic and plant cells; provides structural support and protection.


text:
Talk:David Akers

Memorable Picture?
It appears that he, has, uh... wet himself in the picture on this page. I did a quick search online and found that there are fairly few quality images where he hasn't wet himself. I don't know how to explain it, maybe this must be part of his defense modus operandi. — Preceding unsigned comment added by <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 20:12, 15 December 2011 (UTC)
 * It's sweat/lighting. Obviously he didn't wet himself.  Eagles   24/7  (C)  22:29, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

Memorable Kicks
Do we need this section? Have removed. No other kickers, least of all actual Superbowl winners like Viniatieri, have this section. Porterjoh 20:44, 4 February 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 15:22, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot (talk) 18:39, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Akers


text:
Anti Social Media

Anti Social Media is a Danish pop rock band that represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 with the song "The Way You Are". The group consists of Philip Thornhill, Nikolaj Tøth, David Vang and Emil Vissing.

2015: Eurovision Song Contest
In 2015, Anti Social Media was announced as one of the ten competing musicians in Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2015 with the song "The Way You Are". On 7 February 2015 Anti Social Media performed the song and won the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix to represent Denmark at the Eurovision Song Contest 2015. On 4 May 2015 Anti Social Media released the single "More Than a Friend". On 11 May 2015 they released their debut EP The Way. At the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 they performed during the first Semi-final on 19 May 2015, they failed to qualify for the final. This was the first time since 2007 that Denmark had failed to qualify to the final.

Members

 * Philip Thornhill (10 June 1995) – vocals
 * Nikolaj Tøth (17 September 1995) – guitar
 * David Vang (22 November 1989) – bass
 * Emil Vissing (26 October 1990) – drums

title: Anti Social Media


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/Summer2006/PitterDeinhart/TCMP2.0

The Concept
The design is based on a 16bit load/store architecture. All instructions need two bytes space. A rather unusal (but already existing in some chips) idea is, that every opcode can be flagged as conditional.

Memory
Instruction and data memory are separated. Instructions are read from ROM data can be read and written to the RAM.

Since all instructions consist of 2 bytes the ROM can adress 128 kilobytes. The instruction pointer counts words. Constants can be loaded from ROM using the LDI* opcodes (see below).

Since RAM can be accessed byte per byte it can store only 64 kilobytes of data.

Registers
There are 16 general purpose registers. Their size is 16 bits and they are called ax, bx, cx, .. px.

Additionally there exists the 1 bit sized conditional flag (CF).

Conditionals
A conditional bit is added to each instruction. If this bit is 1, then the instruction is considered conditional and is only executed if conditional flag is set. The conditional flag can be modified by CMP* or by calling clear conditional flag (CCF). Those can be conditional instructions, too.

Load & Store
''MS: you will need an indierct load and store (LD (ax), ST (AX)). Without'' ''those instructions you will be VERY limited. Then you will think again'' about a register size which is less than the address size - one of the big issues in the 8086..80286 (the segementation was a real pain) ;-)

The heart of our load/store architecture are these two commands. Actually one could argue that they are 32 commands, because they have the register number hardcoded into the opcode.

LD	   loads a word from RAM into a register ST	   stores a word from a register into the RAM LDIL,LDIH loads an immediate byte from ROM into a register

Comparison
All comparison instructions set the conditional flag as a result.

CMPEQ	 tests if two registers are equal CMPNE	 tests if two registers are not equal CMPGT	 tests if register 1 > register 2 CMPLT	 tests if register 1 < register 2 CMPEZ	 tests if register is equal to zero CMPNZ	 tests if register is not equal to zero

''Is there any way to set the conditional flag when register 1 <= register 2 ? Or do we need a CMPLE ?''

Is there any difference at all between GMPGT R1, R2 or GMPLT R2, R1 ?

Branching
JMP	 loads a registers value into the instruction pointer

ALU operations
ADD	 adds registers 1 to register 2 ADDI	 adds immediate value to register SUB	 subtracts registers 1 to register 2 SUBI	 subtracts immediate value from register AND	 bitwise locigally ands register 1 to register 2 OR	 bitwise locigally ors register 1 to register 2 XOR	 bitwise locigally xors register 1 to register 2 SHL	 shifts the register specified bits left SHR	 shifts the register specified bits right NOT	 bitwise logically nots register

Others
CCF	 clears the conditional flag NOP	 null operation, justs waits a cycle

Instruction Set Encoding
a .. ALU operation number c .. conditional flag (CF) i .. immediate value s .. source register number d .. destination register number m .. memory pointer register number j .. jump pointer register number _ .. don't care

ALUOPS c1aaaaaa ssssdddd

LDIL  c000iiii iiiidddd LDIH  c001iiii iiiidddd

LD    c0100000 mmmmdddd ST    c0100001 mmmmdddd

JMP   c0100010 ____jjjj

CCF   c0100110 ________ NOP   c0100111 ________

optional and reserved for future use:

LOOP  c0101iii iiiiiiii LDX   c011iiii mmmmdddd

ALU ops
operations that do not modify CF: 0xxxxx

000000 ADD 000001 SUB 000010 AND 000011 OR 000100 XOR 000101 NOT 000110 SHL 000111 SHR 001000 ASR

operations that do modify CF: 1xxxxx

100000 CMPEQ 100001 CMPNE 100010 CMPGT 100011 CMPLT 100100 CMPEZ (d = dont care) 100101 CMPNZ (d = dont care)

The Assembler and Simulator
The assembler/simulator package can be downloaded from http://www.nix.at/sw/tcmp/

Note that only versions >= 0.1 only support TCMP2.0 while versions 0.0.* only support TCMP1. The version that represents the state at the end of the computer architecture course is 0.2.4.

The pacakge consists of the assembler and 3 different simulator programs, which are all described below. Read the INSTALL file in the package for installation hints/requirements.

The package is written in Objective Caml, wich is a really greate computer language. It will generate byte code and object code executables (if supported on your architecture). So if you find an executable called e.g. asm.opt you may call it instead of just asm and it will do the same, but a lot faster.

The assembler: tcmp/asm
The assembler can output text (to verify parser and some calculations), binary output (mainly used for simulation) and vhdl code (can be used as or in a ROM implementation).

When u call it with no arguments or with -h it will give you instruction how to use it: asm: usage: ./asm (-b|-r|-t) -b binary output (better not to stdout..) -r vhdl rom code output -t asm text output (to verify parser)

Line Layout
The assembler layout is similar to nasm, its lines consist of up to three parts:

label:   instruction operands        ; comment

All three components are optional. Operands are separated by a ','.

The main difference is that there is an optional '?' that can be written directly before the instruction. That marks the instruction to be a conditional one.

Mnemonics
The mnemonics are lower case variants of the instructions.

There are some macro like mnemonics that will expand to several instructions when used:

jump reg,label  ; this will jmp to label using reg for address generation

Example Program 1: Blinking around
This little example program blinks with the boards LED.

;; blink led ; begin: ;; counter delta ldil cx,1 ldih cx,0 ;; high word ldil bx,70    ; change this to adjust frequency ldih bx,0 bigloop: ;; low word ldil ax,0x20 ldih ax,0xa1 smallloop: sub cx,ax cmpnz ax       ?jump (fx),smallloop ;       sub cx,bx cmpnz bx       ?jump (fx),bigloop doblink: not ox,ox jump (fx),begin

Example Program 2: Blinking around with changing frequency
This is a modification to the previous example, with variable frequency.

;; blink led ;       ;; counter delta ldil cx,1 ldih cx,0 begin: ;; meta freq ldil ex,70 ldih ex,0 metaloop: ;; high word ldil bx,0    ; change this to adjust frequency ldih bx,0 bigloop: ;; low word ldil ax,0x20 ldih ax,0xa1 smallloop: sub cx,ax cmpnz ax       ?jump (fx),smallloop ;       add cx,bx cmpne bx,ex ?jump (fx),bigloop doblink: not ox,ox sub cx,ex cmpnz ex       ?jump (fx),metaloop jump (fx),begin

Example Program 3: Instruction tester
Not really useful, but it covers all instructions.

; comment ldil ax,10             ;  low byte of ax := 10 nop ldih ax,0              ;  high byte of ax := 10 st ax,(bx)             ;  Memory[ax] := bx        ld ax,(bx)              ;  ax := Memory[bx] ccof jump (fx),l1           ;  fx := AddressOf(l1); ip := fx        jmp (ax)                ;  ip := ax        ccof                    ;  c := 0 nop                    ;  no operation add ax,bx              ;  bx := ax + bx        sub ax,bx               ;  bx := ax - bx        and ax,bx               ;  bx := ax and bx        not ax,bx               ;  bc : = not ax        or ax,bx                ;  bx := ax or bx        xor ax,bx               ;  bx := ax xor bx        shl ax                  ;  ax := ax shl 1 shr bx                 ;  bx := ax shr 1 asr cx                 ;  cx := cx asr 1 cmpeq ax,bx            ;  c := ax == bx        cmpne ax,bx             ;  c := ax != bx        cmpgt ax,bx             ;  c := ax > bx        cmplt ax,bx             ;  c := bx < ax        cmpez ax                ;  c := ax == 0 cmpnz ax               ;  c := ax != 0 l1: nop ?not bx       cmpez ax l2: ccof l3: l3b:  not ax        sub cx,ax jump (fx),l2 l4: jump (fx),l4

The simulator: tcmp/sim
This simulator takes an assembler program and simulates it instruction by instruction. You can optionally specify how much cycles it will simluate. It has its own little help screen, too:

./sim: usage: ./sim []

If you simulate the first instruction of blink.asm you will get this output:

./sim blink.bin 1 | awk '{ printf " ";print}' registers:    ax=00 cx=00 ex=00 gx=00 ix=00 kx=00 mx=00 ox=00 ip=0 bx=00 dx=00 fx=00 hx=00 jx=00 lx=00 nx=00 px=00 cof=false RAM: 0000: 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 001a:  0000 0000 0000 ROM: 0000: 0012 2700 1002 0011 2700 1001 0010 2700 1000 2700 4120 2700 6500 000d:  2700 80a5 a700 9005 a700 a205 2700 4121 2700 6510 2700 8065 a700 001a: 9005 a700 a205 2700 45ee 0005 2700 1005 2700 2205 executing instruction: -> ldil        cx,1<PHONE_NUMBER>010010=0x0012) registers:    ax=00 cx=01 ex=00 gx=00 ix=00 kx=00 mx=00 ox=00 ip=1 bx=00 dx=00 fx=00 hx=00 jx=00 lx=00 nx=00 px=00 cof=false RAM: 0000: 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 001a:  0000 0000 0000 ROM: 0000: 0012 2700 1002 0011 2700 1001 0010 2700 1000 2700 4120 2700 6500 000d:  2700 80a5 a700 9005 a700 a205 2700 4121 2700 6510 2700 8065 a700 001a: 9005 a700 a205 2700 45ee 0005 2700 1005 2700 2205

Please note that you won't see any hazards here, as this simulator knows nothing about pipelining at all. This can be useful to verify the correctness of the pipeline engine (or the builtin hazard prevention freature of the assembler).

The pipelined simulator: tcmp/psim
This is another simulator, which is completly different from the previous one. While it should give the same results it simulates the complete TCMP pipeline. So it will corrupt registers or RAM if there are hazards. In short: It will (try to) act like the processor in hardware.

While its internals are completly different, the usage is equal to the non pipelined simulator:

./psim: usage: ./psim []

If we simlate 5 clock cycles of blink.asm we get:

RST IF: ip=0001 ID: cof=false rom[0000]=0012 that is ldil    cx,1 EX: s23op=NOP s23rda=0 rd1=0000 rd2=0000 s23aluops=0 s23ldiv=00 s23ldiop=0 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0000 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=NOP s34rda=0 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=0000 s34ldiout=0000 CLK IF: ip=0002 ID: cof=false rom[0001]=2700 that is nop EX: s23op=LDI s23rda=2 rd1=0000 rd2=0000 s23aluops=0 s23ldiv=01 s23ldiop=0 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0000 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=NOP s34rda=0 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=0000 s34ldiout=0000 CLK IF: ip=0003 ID: cof=false rom[0002]=1002 that is ldih    cx,0 EX: s23op=NOP s23rda=0 rd1=0000 rd2=0000 s23aluops=27 s23ldiv=70 s23ldiop=0 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0000 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=LDI s34rda=2 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=0000 s34ldiout=0001 CLK IF: ip=0004 ID: cof=false rom[0003]=0011 that is ldil    bx,1 EX: s23op=LDI s23rda=2 rd1=0000 rd2=0001 s23aluops=10 s23ldiv=00 s23ldiop=1 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0001 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=NOP s34rda=0 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=3039 s34ldiout=0070 CLK IF: ip=0005 ID: cof=false rom[0004]=2700 that is nop EX: s23op=LDI s23rda=1 rd1=0000 rd2=0000 s23aluops=0 s23ldiv=01 s23ldiop=0 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0001 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=LDI s34rda=2 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=3039 s34ldiout=0001 CLK IF: ip=0006 ID: cof=false rom[0005]=1001 that is ldih    bx,0 EX: s23op=NOP s23rda=0 rd1=0000 rd2=0000 s23aluops=27 s23ldiv=70 s23ldiop=0 reg.file: ax=0000 cx=0001 ex=0000 gx=0000 ix=0000 kx=0000 mx=0000 ox=0000 bx=0000 dx=0000 fx=0000 hx=0000 jx=0000 lx=0000 nx=0000 px=0000 WB: s34op=LDI s34rda=1 ram[0000]=0000 s34aluout=0000 s34ldiout=0001

RST and CLK are the reset and the clock signal.

The graphical pipelined simulator: tcmp/gpsim
This is a graphical frontend to the pipelined simulator (psim). It accepts no option, instead it will show you a file dialog to choose some binary code to load.

The interface is quite simple and self explaining. Just take a look at this screenshot:

Pipeline Architecture
The TCMP2.0 pipeline consists of 4 stages:

 * Instruction fetch
 * Instruction decode
 * Execute
 * Write back

If you have not by now, please take a look at the picture in the gpsim section to get an overview. The line colors are showing from which stage the signals are coming (Cyan, Bue, Red, Green).

At this time there is no processor builtin hazard prevention, but a smart nop generateion at assembler level. Due to our not too unclever design, there is no need to delay the processor for more than one nop at once. Of course one could implement e.g. bypassing but to our luck that was not in the mandatory scope of computer architecture.

But maybe by the time you read this, it is already implemented in the simulator or even at vhdl level. So be sure to check the download packages!

VHDL Implementation
The VHDL implementation was generated by first creating the black boxes like ALU and register file. Then we basically translated the code from the pipelined simulator (can be found in pipeline.ml) into VHDL. Once that seemed to be complete we simulated the whole thing in Modelsim.

After a few fixes, mainly dangling signals, we downloaded the processor to the FPGA. To our suprise it nearly instantly worked. Maybe it was a good idea to simulate a lot with tcmp/*sim and Modelsim. On the other side, maybe we just had lots of luck :)

The full vhdl files can be downloaded here: [http://www.nix.at/tcmp2/vhdl.zip vhdl.zip].

Additionally a couple of testbenches were created to simulate some building blocks of the processor in ModelSim. The following screenshot describes a simulation of the processor running the blink2.asm program.