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Environmental effects of aviation

Aircraft engines produce gases, noise, and particulates from fossil fuel combustion, raising environmental concerns over their global effects and their effects on local air quality.

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, the best understood greenhouse gas, and, with less scientific understanding, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all emissions.

Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007, and emissions per revenue ton-kilometer (RTK) in 2018 were 47% of those in 1990. In 2018, emissions averaged 88 grams of  per revenue passenger per km.

While the aviation industry is more fuel efficient, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.

Aircraft noise pollution disrupts sleep, children's education and could increase cardiovascular risk.

Airports can generate water pollution due to their extensive handling of jet fuel and deicing chemicals if not contained, contaminating nearby water bodies.

Aviation activities emit ozone and ultrafine particles, both of which are health hazards. Piston engines used in general aviation burn Avgas, releasing toxic lead.

Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better fuel economy in aircraft, or air traffic control and flight routes can be optimized to lower non- effects on climate from, particulates or contrails. Aviation biofuel, emissions trading and carbon offsetting, part of the ICAO's CORSIA, can lower emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and aviation taxation and subsidies. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or by hydrogen-powered aircraft. Since 2021, the IATA members plan net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, followed by the ICAO in 2022.

Factors

Airplanes emit gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen oxides or carbon monoxide − bonding with oxygen to become upon release) and atmospheric particulates (incompletely burned hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, black carbon), interacting among themselves and with the atmosphere. While the main greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft is, jet airliners contribute to climate change in four ways as they fly in the tropopause:

 * Carbon dioxide
 * emissions are the most significant and best understood contribution to climate change. The effects of emissions are similar regardless of altitude. Airport ground vehicles, those used by passengers and staff to access airports, emissions generated by airport construction and aircraft manufacturing also contribute to the greenhouse gas emissions from the aviation industry.

 * Nitrogen oxides (, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide)
 * In the tropopause, emissions of favor ozone  formation in the upper troposphere. At altitudes from 8 to 13 km,  emissions result in greater concentrations of  than surface  emissions and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of  surface concentrations are regional and local, but it becomes well mixed globally at mid and upper tropospheric levels.  emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect, though not offsetting the  forming effect. Aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete, partially offsetting the -induced  increases, although these effects have not been quantified. Light aircraft and small commuter aircraft fly lower in the troposphere, not in the tropopause.

 * Contrails and cirrus clouds
 * Fuel burning produces water vapor, which condenses at high altitude, under cold and humid conditions, into visible line clouds: condensation trails (contrails). They are thought to have a global warming effect, though less significant than emissions. Contrails are uncommon from lower-altitude aircraft. Cirrus clouds can develop after the formation of persistent contrails and can have an additional global warming effect. Their global warming contribution is uncertain and estimating aviation's overall contribution often excludes cirrus cloud enhancement.

 * Particulates
 * Compared with other emissions, sulfate and soot particles have a smaller direct effect: sulfate particles have a cooling effect and reflect radiation, while soot has a warming effect and absorbs heat, while the clouds' properties and formation are influenced by particles. Contrails and cirrus clouds evolving from particles may have a greater radiative forcing effect than emissions. As soot particles are large enough to serve as condensation nuclei, they are thought to cause the most contrail formation. Soot production may be decreased by reducing the aromatic compound of jet fuel.

In 1999, the IPCC estimated aviation's radiative forcing in 1992 to be 2.7 (2 to 4) times that of alone − excluding the potential effect of cirrus cloud enhancement. This was updated for 2000, with aviation's radiative forcing estimated at 47.8 mW/m2, times the effect of  emissions alone, 25.3 mW/m2.

In 2005, research by David S. Lee, et al., published in the scientific journal Atmospheric Environment estimated the cumulative radiative forcing effect of aviation at 55 mW/m2, which is twice the 28 mW/m2 radiative forcing effect of its emissions alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud, with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2012, research from Chalmers university estimated this weighting factor at 1.3–1.4 if aviation induced cirrus is not included, 1.7–1.8 if they are included (within a range of 1.3–2.9).

Uncertainties remain on the NOx–O3–CH4 interactions, aviation-produced contrails formation, the effects of soot aerosols on cirrus clouds and measuring non-CO2 radiative forcing.

In 2018, represented 34.3 mW/m2 of aviation's effective radiative forcing (ERF, on the surface), with a high confidence level (± 6 mW/m2),  17.5 mW/m2 with a low confidence level (± 14) and contrail cirrus 57.4 mW/m2, also with a low confidence level (± 40). All factors combined represented 43.5 mW/m2 ( that of alone) excluding contrail cirrus and 101 mW/m2 (±45) including them, 3.5% of the anthropogenic ERF of 2290 mW/m2 (± 1100).

Volume
By 2018, airline traffic reached 4.3 billion passengers with 37.8 million departures, an average of passengers per flight and 8.26 trillion RPKs, an average journey of undefined km, according to ICAO. The traffic was experiencing continuous growth, doubling every 15 years, despite external shocks − a 4.3% average yearly growth and Airbus forecasts expect the growth to continue. While the aviation industry is more fuel efficient, halving the amount of fuel burned per flight compared to 1990 through technological advancement and operations improvements, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. Between 1960 and 2018, RPKs increased from 109 to 8,269 billion.

In 1992, aircraft emissions represented 2% of all man-made emissions, having accumulated a little more than 1% of the total man-made  increase over 50 years. By 2015, aviation accounted for 2.5% of global emissions. In 2018, global commercial operations emitted 918 million tonnes (Mt) of, 2.4% of all emissions: 747 Mt for passenger transport and 171 Mt for freight operations. Between 1960 and 2018, emissions increased 6.8 times from  to 1,034 million tonnes per year. Emissions from flights rose by 32% between 2013 and 2018.

Between 1990 and 2006, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% in the European Union.

In 2010, about 60% of aviation emissions came from international flights, which are outside the emission reduction targets of the Kyoto Protocol. International flights are not covered by the Paris Agreement, either, to avoid a patchwork of individual country regulations. That agreement was adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organization, however, capping airlines carbon emissions to the year 2020 level, while allowing airlines to buy carbon credits from other industries and projects.

In 1992, aircraft radiative forcing was estimated by the IPCC at 3.5% of the total man-made radiative forcing.

Per passenger

As it accounts for a large share of their costs, 28% by 2007, airlines have a strong incentive to lower their fuel consumption, reducing their environmental footprint. Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007. Jetliner fuel efficiency improves continuously, 40% of the improvement come from engines and 30% from airframes. Efficiency gains were larger early in the jet age than later, with a 55–67% gain from 1960 to 1980 and a 20–26% gain from 1980 to 2000.

The average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45% from 1968 to 2014, a compounded annual reduction of 1.3% with variable reduction rate. By 2018, emissions per revenue ton-kilometer (RTK) were more than halved compared to 1990, at 47%. The aviation energy intensity went from 21.2 to 12.3 MJ/RTK between 2000 and 2019, a % reduction.

In 2018, emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport, for 8.5 trillion revenue passenger kilometres (RPK), giving an average of 88 gram  per RPK. The UK's Department for BEIS calculate a long-haul flight release 102g of per passenger kilometre, and 254g of  equivalent, including non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions, water vapor etc.; for a domestic flight in Britain.

The ICAO targets a 2% efficiency improvement per year between 2013 and 2050, while the IATA targets 1.5% for 2009–2020 and to cut net emissions in half by 2050 relative to 2005.

Evolution
In 1999, the IPCC estimated aviation's radiative forcing may represent 190 mW/m2 or 5% of the total man-made radiative forcing in 2050, with the uncertainty ranging from 100 to 500 mW/m2. If other industries achieve significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions over time, aviation's share, as a proportion of the remaining emissions, could rise.

Alice Bows-Larkin estimated that the annual global emissions budget would be entirely consumed by aviation emissions to keep the climate change temperature increase below 2 °C by mid-century. Given that growth projections indicate that aviation will generate 15% of global emissions, even with the most advanced technology forecast, she estimated that to hold the risks of dangerous climate change to under 50% by 2050 would exceed the entire carbon budget in conventional scenarios.

In 2013, the National Center for Atmospheric Science at the University of Reading forecast that increasing levels will result in a significant increase in in-flight turbulence experienced by transatlantic airline flights by the middle of the 21st century. This prediction is supported by data showing that incidents of severe turbulence increased by 55% between 1979 and 2020, attributed to changes in wind velocity at high altitudes.

Aviation emissions grow despite efficiency innovations to aircraft, powerplants and flight operations. Air travel continue to grow.

In 2015, the Center for Biological Diversity estimated that aircraft could generate $43 Gt$ of carbon dioxide emissions through 2050, consuming almost 5% of the remaining global carbon budget. Without regulation, global aviation emissions may triple by mid-century and could emit more than $3 Gt$ of carbon annually under a high-growth, business-as-usual scenario. Many countries have pledged emissions reductions for the Paris Agreement, but the sum of these efforts and pledges remains insufficient and not addressing airplane pollution would be a failure despite technological and operational advancements.

The International Energy Agency projects aviation share of global emissions may grow from 2.5% in 2019 to 3.5% by 2030.

By 2020, global international aviation emissions were around 70% higher than in 2005 and the ICAO forecasts they could grow by over further 300% by 2050 in the absence of additional measures.

By 2050, aviation's negative effects on climate could be decreased by a 2% increase in fuel efficiency and a decrease in emissions, due to advanced aircraft technologies, operational procedures and renewable alternative fuels decreasing radiative forcing due to sulfate aerosol and black carbon.

Noise
Air traffic causes aircraft noise, which disrupts sleep, adversely affects children's school performance and could increase cardiovascular risk for airport neighbours. Sleep disruption can be reduced by banning or restricting flying at night, but disturbance progressively decreases and legislation differs across countries.

The ICAO Chapter 14 noise standard applies for aeroplanes submitted for certification after 31 December 2017, and after 31 December 2020 for aircraft below 55 t, 7 EPNdB (cumulative) quieter than Chapter4. The FAA Stage 5 noise standards are equivalent. Higher bypass ratio engines produce less noise. The PW1000G is presented as 75% quieter than previous engines. Serrated edges or 'chevrons' on the back of the nacelle reduce noise.

A Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) is quieter as less noise is produced while the engines are near idle power. CDA can reduce noise on the ground by ~1–5 dB per flight.

Water pollution

Airports can generate significant water pollution due to their extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants and other chemicals. Chemical spills can be mitigated or prevented by spill containment structures and clean-up equipment such as vacuum trucks, portable berms and absorbents.

Deicing fluids used in cold weather can pollute water, as most of them fall to the ground and surface runoff can carry them to nearby streams, rivers or coastal waters. Deicing fluids are based on ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. Airports use pavement deicers on paved surfaces including runways and taxiways, which may contain potassium acetate, glycol compounds, sodium acetate, urea or other chemicals.

During degradation in surface waters, ethylene and propylene glycol exert high levels of biochemical oxygen demand, consuming oxygen needed by aquatic life. Microbial populations decomposing propylene glycol consume large quantities of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column. Fish, macroinvertebrates and other aquatic organisms need sufficient dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters. Low oxygen concentrations reduce usable aquatic habitat because organisms die if they cannot move to areas with sufficient oxygen levels. Bottom feeder populations can be reduced or eliminated by low DO levels, changing a community's species profile or altering critical food-web interactions.

Glycol-based deicing fluids are toxic to humans and other mammals. Research into non-toxic alternative deicing fluids is ongoing.

Air pollution
Aviation is the main human source of ozone, a respiratory health hazard, causing an estimated 6,800 premature deaths per year.

Aircraft engines emit ultrafine particles (UFPs) in and near airports, as does ground support equipment. During takeoff, 3 to 50 × 1015 particles were measured per kg of fuel burned, while significant differences are observed depending on the engine. Other estimates include 4 to 200 × 1015 particles for 0.1–0.7 gram, or 14 to 710 × 1015 particles, or 0.1–10 × 1015 black carbon particles for 0.046–0.941 g.

In the United States, 167,000 piston aircraft engines, representing three-quarters of private airplanes, burn Avgas, releasing lead into the air. The Environmental Protection Agency estimated this released 34,000 tons of lead into the atmosphere between 1970 and 2007. The Federal Aviation Administration recognizes inhaled or ingested lead leads to adverse effects on the nervous system, red blood cells, and cardiovascular and immune systems. Lead exposure in infants and young children may contribute to behavioral and learning problems and lower IQ.

Mitigation
Aviation's environmental footprint can be mitigated by reducing air travel, optimizing flight routes, capping emissions, restricting short-distance flights, increasing taxation and decreasing subsidies to the aviation industry. Technological innovation could also mitigate damage to the environment and climate, for example, through the development of electric aircraft, biofuels, and increased fuel efficiency.

In 2016, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) committed to improve aviation fuel efficiency by 2% per year and to keeping the carbon emissions from 2020 onwards at the same level as those from 2010. To achieve these goals, multiple measures were identified: more fuel-efficient aircraft technology; development and deployment of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs); improved air traffic management (ATM); market-based measures like emission trading, levies, and carbon offsetting, the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA).

In December 2020, the UK Climate Change Committee said that: "Mitigation options considered include demand management, improvements in aircraft efficiency (including use of hybrid electric aircraft), and use of sustainable aviation fuels (biofuels, biowaste to jet and synthetic jet fuels) to displace fossil jet fuel."

In February 2021, Europe's aviation sector unveiled its Destination 2050 sustainability initiative towards zero emissions by 2050: while air traffic should grow by 1.4% per year between 2018 and 2050. The initiative is led by ACI Europe, ASD Europe, A4E, CANSO and ERA. This would apply to flights within and departing the European single market and the UK.
 * aircraft technology improvements for 37% emission reductions;
 * SAFs for 34%;
 * economic measures for 8%;
 * ATM and operations improvements for 6%;

In October 2021, the IATA committed to net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. In 2022, the ICAO agreed to support a net-zero carbon emission target for 2050.

The aviation sector could be decarbonized by 2050 with moderate demand growth, continuous efficiency improvements, new short-haul engines, higher SAF production and removal to compensate for non- forcing. With constant air transport demand and aircraft efficiency, decarbonizing aviation would require nearly five times the 2019 worldwide biofuel production, competing with other hard-to-decarbonize sectors, and 0.2 to 3.4 Gt of removal to compensate for non- forcing. Carbon offsets would be preferred if carbon credits are less expensive than SAFs, but they may be unreliable, while specific routing could avoid contrails. As of 2023, fuel represents 20-30% of the airlines' operating costs, while SAF is 2–4 times more expensive than fossil jet fuel. Projected cost decreases of green hydrogen and carbon capture could make synthetic fuels more affordable, and lower feedstock costs and higher conversion efficiencies would help FT and HEFA biofuels. Policy incentives like cleaner aviation fuel tax credits and low-carbon fuel standards could induce improvements, and carbon pricing could render SAFs more competitive, accelerating their deployment and reducing their costs through learning and economies of scale.

According to a 2023 Royal Society study, reaching net zero would need replacing fossil aviation fuel with a low or zero carbon energy source, as battery technologies are unlikely to give enough specific energy. Biofuels can be introduced quickly and with little aircraft modification, but are restricted by scale and feedstock availability, and few are low-carbon. Producing enough renewable electricity to produce green hydrogen would be a costly challenge and would need substantial aircraft and infrastructure modification. Synthetic fuels would need little aircraft modification, but necessitates green hydrogen feedstock and large scale direct air capture at high costs. Low-carbon Ammonia would also need costly green hydrogen at scale, and would need substantial aircraft and infrastructure modifications.

In its Sixth Assessment Report, the IPCC notes that sustainable biofuels, low-emissions hydrogen, and derivatives (including ammonia and synthetic fuels) can support mitigation of emissions but some hard-to-abate residual GHG emissions remain and would need to be counterbalanced by deployment of carbon dioxide removal methods. On 29 March 2003, during a Senate hearing, hydrogen propulsion proponents like ZeroAvia or Universal Hydrogen bemoaned that the incumbents like GE Aerospace or Boeing were supporting sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) because it does not require major changes to existing infrastructure.

An April 2023 report of the Sustainable Aero Lab estimate current in-production aircraft will be the vast majority of the 2050 fleet as electric aircraft will not have enough range and hydrogen aircraft will not be available soon enough : the main decarbonisation drivers will be SAF; replacing regional jets with turboprop aircraft; and incentives to replace older jets with new generation ones.

The airline industry faces a significant climate challenge due to the scarcity of clean fuel options, exemplified by the recent establishment of LanzaJet Inc.'s $200 million facility in Georgia, the first to convert ethanol into jet engine-compatible fuel, with an annual production target of 9 million gallons of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). This volume, however, is minuscule compared to the global demand, as evidenced by the world's airlines consuming 90 billion gallons of jet fuel last year, and even major airlines like IAG SA (parent company of British Airways) using only 0.66% of their total fuel consumption as SAF, with a goal to increase this to 10% by 2030. Incentives such as the $1.75 per gallon SAF credit offered by the US Inflation Reduction Act, set to expire in 2027, aim to boost SAF usage, while L.E.K. Consulting forecasts that alcohol-to-jet technology will become the dominant source of SAF by the mid-next decade. Meanwhile, emerging technologies like e-kerosene, though potentially reducing climate impacts significantly, face economic challenges as they cost nearly seven times more than traditional jet fuel, and the future of 45 proposed power-to-liquids plants in Europe remains uncertain, according to Transport & Environment.

Electric aircraft

Electric aircraft operations do not produce any emissions and electricity can be generated by renewable energy. Lithium-ion batteries including packaging and accessories gives a 160 Wh/kg energy density while aviation fuel gives 12,500 Wh/kg. As electric machines and converters are more efficient, their shaft power available is closer to 145 Wh/kg of battery while a gas turbine gives 6,555 Wh/kg of fuel: a :1 ratio. For Collins Aerospace, this 1:50 ratio forbids electric propulsion for long-range aircraft. By November 2019, the German Aerospace Center estimated large electric planes could be available by 2040. Large, long-haul aircraft are unlikely to become electric before 2070 or within the 21st century, whilst smaller aircraft can be electrified. As of May 2020, the largest electric airplane was a modified Cessna 208B Caravan.

For the UK's Committee on Climate Change (CCC), huge technology shifts are uncertain, but consultancy Roland Berger points to 80 new electric aircraft programmes in 2016–2018, all-electric for the smaller two-thirds and hybrid for larger aircraft, with forecast commercial service dates in the early 2030s on short-haul routes like London to Paris, with all-electric aircraft not expected before 2045. Berger predicts a 24% share for aviation by 2050 if fuel efficiency improves by 1% per year and if there are no electric or hybrid aircraft, dropping to 3–6% if 10-year-old aircraft are replaced by electric or hybrid aircraft due to regulatory constraints, starting in 2030, to reach 70% of the 2050 fleet. This would greatly reduce the value of the existing fleet of aircraft, however. Limits to the supply of battery cells could hamper their aviation adoption, as they compete with other industries like electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries have proven fragile and fire-prone and their capacity deteriorates with age. However, alternatives are being pursued, such as sodium-ion batteries.

Hydrogen-powered aircraft
In 2020, Airbus unveiled liquid-hydrogen-powered aircraft concepts as zero-emissions airliners, poised for 2035. Aviation, like industrial processes that cannot be electrified, could use primarily Hydrogen-based fuel.

A 2020 study by the EU Clean Sky 2 and Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertakings found that hydrogen could power aircraft by 2035 for short-range aircraft. A short-range aircraft (< 2,000 km) with hybrid Fuel cell/Turbines could reduce climate impact by 70-80% for a 20-30% additional cost, a medium-range airliner with H2 turbines could have a 50-60% reduced climate impact for a 30-40% overcost, and a long-range aircraft (> 7,000 km) also with H2 turbines could reduce climate impact by 40-50% for a 40-50% additional cost. Research and development would be required, in aircraft technology and into hydrogen infrastructure, regulations and certification standards.

Electrofuels (e-fuels)
The Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research reported a €800–1,200 mitigation cost per ton of for hydrogen-based e-fuels. Those could be reduced to €20–270 per ton of in 2050, but maybe not early enough to replace fossil fuels. Climate policies could bear the risk of e-fuel uncertain availability, and Hydrogen and e-fuels may be prioritised when direct electrification is inaccessible.

Measures

The ICCT estimates that 3% of the global population take regular flights. Stefan Gössling of the Western Norway Research Institute estimates 1% of the world population emits half of commercial aviation's CO2, while close to 90% does not fly in a given year.

In early 2022, the European Investment Bank published the results of its 2021–2022 Climate Survey, showing that 52% of Europeans under 30, 37% of people between 30 and 64 and 25% for people aged 65 and above plan to travel by air for their summer holidays in 2022; and 27% of those under 30, 17% for people aged 30–64 and 12% for people aged 65 and above plan to travel by air to a faraway destination.

 * Short-haul flight ban

 * Flight shame
 * In Sweden the concept of "flight shame" or "flygskam" has been cited as a cause of falling air travel. Swedish rail company SJ AB reports that twice as many Swedish people chose to travel by train instead of by air in summer 2019 compared with the previous year. Swedish airports operator Swedavia reported 4% fewer passengers across its 10 airports in 2019 compared to the previous year: a 9% drop for domestic passengers and 2% for international passengers.

 * Personal allowances
 * Climate change mitigation can be backed by Personal carbon allowances (PCAs) where all adults receive "an equal, tradable carbon allowance that reduces over time in line with national targets."   Everyone would have a share of allowed carbon emissions and would need to trade further emissions allowances.  An alternative would be rationing everyone's flights: an "individual cap on air travel, that people can trade with each other".

Emissions trading

ICAO has endorsed emissions trading to reduce aviation emission, guidelines were to be presented to the 2007 ICAO Assembly. Within the European Union, the European Commission has included aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme operated since 2012, capping airline emissions, providing incentives to lower emissions through more efficient technology or to buy carbon credits from other companies. The Centre for Aviation, Transport and Environment at Manchester Metropolitan University estimates the only way to lower emissions is to put a price on carbon and to use market-based measures like the EU ETS.

Taxation and subsidies
Financial measures can discourage airline passengers and promote other transportation modes and motivates airlines to improve fuel efficiency. Aviation taxation include: Consumer behavior can be influenced by cutting subsidies for unsustainable aviation and subsidising the development of sustainable alternatives. By September–October 2019, a carbon tax on flights would be supported by 72% of the EU citizens, in a poll conducted for the European Investment Bank.
 * air passenger taxes, paid by passengers for environmental reasons, may be variable by distance and include domestic flights;
 * departure taxes, paid by passengers leaving the country, sometimes also applies outside aviation;
 * jet fuel taxes, paid by airlines for the consumed jet fuel. Jet fuel taxation is applied in the United States, but banned in the European Union.

Aviation taxation could reflect all its external costs and could be included in an emissions trading scheme. International aviation emissions escaped international regulation until the ICAO triennial conference in 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme. Due to low or nonexistent taxes on aviation fuel, air travel has a competitive advantage over other transportation modes.

Carbon offsetting
A carbon offset is a means of compensating aviation emissions by saving enough carbon or absorbing carbon back into plants through photosynthesis (for example, by planting trees through reforestation or afforestation) to balance the carbon emitted by a particular action.

However, carbon credits permanence and additionality can be questionable. More than 90% of rainforest offset credits certified by Verra's Verified Carbon Standard may not represent genuine carbon reductions.

Consumer option
Some airlines offer carbon offsets to passengers to cover the emissions created by their flight, invested in green technology such as renewable energy and research into future technology. Airlines offering carbon offsets include British Airways, Continental Airlines, easyJet,; and also Air Canada, Air New Zealand, Delta Air Lines, Emirates Airlines, Gulf Air, Jetstar, Lufthansa, Qantas, United Airlines and Virgin Australia. Consumers can also purchase offsets on the individual market. There are certification standards for these, including the Gold Standard and the Green-e.

National carbon budgets
In UK, transportation replaced power generation as the largest emissions source. This includes aviation's 4% contribution. This is expected to expand until 2050 and passenger demand may need to be reduced. For the UK Committee on Climate Change (CCC), the UK target of an 80% reduction from 1990 to 2050 was still achievable from 2019, but the committee suggests that the Paris Agreement should tighten its emission targets. Their position is that emissions in problematic sectors, like aviation, should be offset by greenhouse gas removal, carbon capture and storage and reforestation. The UK will include international aviation and shipping in their carbon budgets and hopes other countries will too.

Airline offsets
Some airlines have been carbon-neutral like Costa Rican Nature Air, or claim to be, like Canadian Harbour Air Seaplanes. Long-haul low-cost venture Fly POP aims to be carbon neutral.

In 2019, Air France announced it would offset emissions on its 450 daily domestic flights, that carry 57,000 passengers, from January 2020, through certified projects. The company will also offer its customers the option to voluntarily compensate for all their flights and aims to reduce its emissions by 50% per pax/km by 2030, compared to 2005.

Starting in November 2019, UK budget carrier EasyJet decided to offset carbon emissions for all its flights, through investments in atmospheric carbon reduction projects. It claims to be the first major operator to be carbon neutral, at a cost of £25 million for its 2019–20 financial year. Its emissions were 77 g per passenger in its 2018–19 financial year, down from 78.4 g the previous year.

From January 2020, British Airways began offsetting its 75 daily domestic flights emissions through carbon-reduction project investments. The airline seeks to become carbon neutral by 2050 with fuel-efficient aircraft, sustainable fuels and operational changes. Passengers flying overseas can offset their flights for £1 to Madrid in economy or £15 to New York in business-class.

US low-cost carrier JetBlue planned to use offsets for its emissions from domestic flights starting in July 2020, the first major US airline to do so. It also plans to use sustainable aviation fuel made from waste by Finnish refiner Neste starting in mid-2020. In August 2020, JetBlue became entirely carbon-neutral for its U.S. domestic flights, using efficiency improvements and carbon offsets. Delta Air Lines pledged to do the same within ten years.

To become carbon neutral by 2050, United Airlines invests to build in the US the largest carbon capture and storage facility through the company 1PointFive, jointly owned by Occidental Petroleum and Rusheen Capital Management, with Carbon Engineering technology, aiming for nearly 10% offsets.

Air traffic management improvements

An improved air traffic management system, with more direct routes than suboptimal air corridors and optimized cruising altitudes, would allow airlines to reduce their emissions by up to 18%. In the European Union, a Single European Sky has been proposed since 1999 to avoid overlapping airspace restrictions between EU countries and to reduce emissions. By 2007, 12 million tons of emissions per year were caused by the lack of a Single European Sky. As of September 2020, the Single European Sky has still not been completely achieved, costing 6 billion euros in delays and causing 11.6 million tonnes of excess emissions.

Operations improvements

 * Non- emissions
 * Besides carbon dioxide, aviation produces nitrogen oxides, particulates, unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and contrails. Flight routes can be optimized: modelling , and  effects of transatlantic flights in winter shows westbound flights climate forcing can be lowered by up to 60% and ~25% for jet stream-following eastbound flights, costing 10–15% more due to longer distances and lower altitudes consuming more fuel, but 0.5% costs increase can reduce climate forcing by up to 25%. A 2000 feet (~600 m) lower cruise altitude than the optimal altitude has a % lower radiative forcing, while a 2000 feet higher cruise altitude % higher radiative forcing.

 * Nitrogen oxides
 * As designers work to reduce emissions from jet engines, they fell by over 40% between 1997 and 2003. Cruising at a 2000 ft lower altitude could reduce -caused radiative forcing from 5 mW/m2 to ~3 mW/m2.

 * Particulates
 * Modern engines are designed so that no smoke is produced at any point in the flight while particulates and smoke were a problem with early jet engines at high power settings.

 * Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
 * Produced by incomplete combustion, more unburned hydrocarbons are produced with low compressor pressures and/or relatively low combustor temperatures, they have been eliminated in modern jet engines through improved design and technology, like particulates.

 * Contrails
 * Contrail formation would be reduced by lowering the cruise altitude with slightly increased flight times, but this would be limited by airspace capacity, especially in Europe and North America, and increased fuel burn due to lower efficiency at lower altitudes, increasing emissions by 4%. Contrail radiative forcing could be minimized by schedules: night flights cause 60–80% of the forcing for only 25% of the air traffic, while winter flights contribute half of the forcing for only 22% of the air traffic. As 2% of flights are responsible for 80% of contrail radiative forcing, changing a flight altitude by 2000 ft to avoid high humidity for 1.7% of flights would reduce contrail formation by 59%. DLR's ECLIF3 study, flying an Airbus A350, show sustainable aviation fuel reduces contrail ice-crystal formation by 56% and soot particle by 35%, maybe due to lower sulphur content, as well as low aromatic and naphthalene content.

title: Environmental effects of aviation


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What You Should Know About Medicines/Why Medicines?

What You Should Know About Medicines

Medicine is a substance (not a device) that is used in treatment of conditions of the human body. Medicines are used to relieve pain, prevent progression of disease or alleviate the symptoms of conditions. In the area of infectious disease, they may cure the illness. Examples where medications allow resumption of normal body functions would be treatment of diabetes, thyroid deficiencies, or sex hormone deficiencies.

Medicines in the United States today are prescribed by experienced clinicians, whose ability to prescribe is subject to state licensing laws. In most states they include Doctors of Medicine, Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine, and Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (Physicians), Nurse Practitioners, Physician Assistants, and in rare cases, Pharmacists themselves. All clinicians have undergone training, though Physicians have had the most extensive training in a medical school, and have developed an extensive body of knowledge expanded over the years.


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Horace Greeley 1872 presidential campaign

In 1872, Horace Greeley ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States. He served as the candidate of both the Democrats and the Liberal Republicans (a breakaway party that split off from the Republican Party due to its members' dislike of the corruption of the Republicans and the Republicans' Reconstruction policies), in the 1872 election. In the run-up to the 1872 United States presidential election, major changes occurred in the United States. Specifically, the 15th Amendment gave African Americans the right to vote for the first time, while the government cracked down on the Ku Klux Klan. In addition, the economy was still in good shape and President Ulysses S. Grant's corruption scandals for the most part was still not public knowledge. With this background, the incumbent U.S. President was able to decisively defeat Greeley.

His hypothetical victory would have marked the first socialist presidency, alongside having held no prior office.

The Liberal Republican nomination fight
The fight for the presidential nomination of the Liberal Republican Party was heavily contested in 1872. While U.S. Supreme Court Justice David Davis was the initial front-runner for the Liberal Republican nomination, his support weakened after he was relentlessly criticized and attacked in various newspapers. Thus, former United States Minister to the United Kingdom (and son of U.S. President John Quincy Adams) Charles Francis Adams, Sr. was able to open a lead at the 1872 Liberal Republican National Convention with 205 delegates. After Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, another 1872 Liberal Republican candidate, dropped out of the race and endorsed New York Tribune editor and former Congressman Horace Greeley, Greeley was able to overtake Adams on the second ballot, with Greeley getting 245 delegates to Adams's 243. After a surge by U.S. Senator Lyman Trumbull on the third ballot, Greeley was able to retake the lead with 334 delegates on the sixth ballot. Later on, Greeley ended up winning the 1872 Liberal Republican nomination with 482 delegates to Adams's 187. Meanwhile, Gratz Brown was chosen by the delegates at this convention as Greeley's running mate.

The Greeley nomination was extremely surprising to U.S. Senator Carl Schurz, a prominent Liberal Republican, as well as to the other supporters of Charles Francis Adams. Both the press and the public were also surprised by the Greeley nomination due to the fact that the largely pro-free trade Liberal Republicans had chosen a staunch protectionist as their presidential nominee. Moreover, Greeley had no political or government experience, was known for his eccentric, erratic persona and support of a wide variety of fringe ideas from vegetarianism to spiritualism, and had left a massive paper trail of controversial and sometimes contradictory public statements which the press and his political enemies could exploit. After Greeley and Gratz Brown were nominated by the Liberal Republicans, the Democrats also nominated the Greeley-Brown ticket as its own nominees for the 1872 U.S. presidential election due to their belief that they could not win the U.S. presidency without the support of anti-Grant Liberal Republicans. Both Liberal Republicans and Democrats thought that, by sharing the same presidential candidate, they would be able to infiltrate and dominate the other party.

A group of Democrats dissatisfied with the Greeley nomination called themselves the Straight-Out Democratic Party and held a second nominating convention in Louisville, Kentucky. They nominated Charles O'Conor and John Quincy Adams II as candidates. They received 0.35% of the popular vote and no Electoral College votes.

Campaign
The 1872 U.S. presidential campaign was filled with dirty attacks and mudslinging on both sides, with Greeley partisans calling Grant a dictator and a drunk, while Grant partisans called Greeley a traitor and a flake. In addition, Grant and the Republicans "waved the bloody shirt" by associating the Democrats with secession and with the defeated Confederacy. During the campaign, federal officials arrested over 1,000 people under authority of the Reconstruction Enforcement Acts in order to make sure that Republicans, especially Blacks, were not prevented from voting.

While President Grant did not actively campaign, Greeley travelled through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana and delivering up to 22 speeches per day for a total of nearly 200. Ultimately, though, Greeley was hurt by the belief that he was saying the wrong things to the wrong audiences during his campaign, and by taking political attacks extremely personally. He also suffered a personal loss during the campaign when his wife fell ill and died in October 1872.

To make matters worse, his running mate, Gratz Brown, was an embarrassment who attended campaign events and delivered speeches while intoxicated (he fainted before a gathering in New York City, and at a campaign picnic, Brown was so drunk he was seen slicing up and buttering a watermelon), forgot party policies, and generally made errors and misstatements.

Results
Grant defeated Greeley in the election by a landslide, winning 31 out of 37 states in capturing the Electoral College by 286 to 66, and won the national popular vote by 55.6% to 43.8%. Grant's winning percentage was the highest between 1828 and 1904, while Greeley's losing percentage was the lowest between 1848 and 1904. However, Grant's performance was much weaker in the South, where his (and the Republicans') appeal was primarily limited to Black men.

Due to exhaustion and demoralization, Horace Greeley himself died several weeks after the 1872 election, before the Electoral College met.


text:
Takebayashi

Takebayashi (written: 竹林 or 武林) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Takebayashi Seiichi (武林 盛一), Japanese photographer
 * Takaji Takebayashi (竹林 隆二), Japanese swimmer
 * Takebayashi Takashige (武林 隆重), Japanese samurai

Fictional characters

 * Kōtarō Takebayashi (竹林 孝太郎), a character in the manga series Assassination Classroom
 * Ryoma Takebayashi, the main character of the light novel series By the Grace of the Gods

title: Takebayashi


text:
Talk:Pensacola-class cruiser

Apologies if I step on toes, never proposed a change before. The text implies that there are only two other classes of ship that used different turret layouts, KGV and Nevada class battleships. There were several other cruiser and destroyer classes that used a mix of single and twin turrets and the Italian battleships of the Cavour and Dora classes used mixed twins and triples.<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 21:57, 27 May 2016 (UTC)

various
My main interest is if

Placing heavier turrets above lighter ones allows for finer lines for a given length, however this causes top heaviness and reduces stability.

may be made clearer by adding something like "because a very fine hull is not large enough at the positions 1 and 4 to house here a triple tower".

For the different-size towers, I feel that the only battleships and MAJOR cruisers not mentioned in the text were the italian Cavour, Doria and Garibaldi classes. One might add the HMS Enterprise, but this is a minor point. Also the swedish Tre Kronor, that has a certain importance, and the project of the dutch De Ruyter with 10/152 (later built with 8). Superfiring larger turrets appear in the definitive project of the austro-hungarian Ersatz Monarch class.

More interesting are the polish destroyers Grom and Blyskawica with 7/120-mm guns in an 1-2-2-2 geometry, probably for the same reason.

Also the spanish cruisers of the Cervera/Galicia classes had heavier superfiring turrets.

For the original rating as light cruisers, this probably was a consequence of the fact that immediately before and after WW I all (almost all, to be precise) the cruisers with turbines were so rated to distinguish them from the disappearing armored and protected cruisers with reciprocating engines - a designation historically rooted in the fact that the turbines were first tested on small cruisers. The italian Trento class were originally rated g.i.l. (grandi incrociatori leggeri).

pietro<IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 10:25, 2 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pensacola-class cruiser


text:
Kulegu

Kulegu (Кулегу; Kaitag and Dargwa: Кьулегу) is a rural locality (a selo) in Dzhibakhninsky Selsoviet, Kaytagsky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. The population was 151 as of 2010. There are 4 streets.

Geography
Kulegu is located 14km southeast of Madzhalis (the district's administrative centre) by road. Khatagi and Dzhinabi are the nearest rural localities.

Nationalities
Dargins live there.

title: Kulegu


text:
Büdingen (Oberhess) station

Büdingen (Oberhess) station is a station on the Gießen–Gelnhausen railway (also known as the Lahn-Kinzig Railway) in the town of Büdingen in the German state of Hesse. The station is located in the centre of the town. Büches-Düdelsheim station is also located in the municipality, in the district of Büches. The station is classified by Deutsche Bahn (DB) as a category 5 station.

History
The station was opened on 30 October 1870 as the end of the third section of the Lahn Gießen–Gelnhausen railway (Nidda–Büdingen) by the Upper Hessian Railway Company (Oberhessische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft). Exactly a month later, the railway was extended to Gelnhausen.

The entrance hall of the station is now listed as a monument under the Hessian Heritage Act. The station building is now privately owned and is no longer used for rail purposes. The condition has deteriorated and dilapidated.

Operations
Büdingen is served by the RB (Regionalbahn) 46 service of the Hessische Landesbahn (Hessian State Railway, HLB) on the Gießen–Nidda–Glauburg-Stockheim–Gelnhausen route. The “house” platform (platform 1) is used by trains towards Gelnhausen. Track 2 is used by trains towards Nidda or Gießen. The service operates at 60-minute intervals in both directions, but is supplemented by an extra service towards Gelnhausen in the morning peak and after lunch and from Gelnhausen in the evening peak. Gießen can be reached in around 75 minutes by train, and Frankfurt (with a change in Gelnhausen to the RE 50 service) in about an hour.

The Lahn-Kinzig Railway also offers interchanges in Nidda (with RB 32 towards Friedberg or Frankfurt) and in Glauburg-Stockheim  (with RE/RB 34 towards Bad Vilbel or Frankfurt).

Buses
Büdingen station is connected by several bus routes to the surrounding area.

title: Büdingen (Oberhess) station


text:
Template:Did you know nominations/Tamika Domrow

Tamika Domrow

 * ... that 2012 Australian Olympic synchronized swimmer Tamika Domrow has a Certificate in Companion Animal Services and works as as an apprentice kennel technician?
 * Reviewed: Dorothy Baker (madam)

Created/expanded by LauraHale (talk), Frietjes (talk). Nominated by LauraHale (talk) at 11:36, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Symbol confirmed.svg, QPQ complete, article sourcing, length, newness etc all good. Hook sourced, interesting and non-copy-vio. Nicely done  Nik  the  stoned  15:54, 13 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Let's combine this hook with the one for Frankie Owen:
 * NEW COMBINED HOOK ... that 2012 Olympic synchronized swimmer Tamika Domrow of Australia works as an apprentice kennel technician and her teammate Francesca Owen is a model and photographer?

 * I am fine with that. --LauraHale (talk) 21:27, 1 August 2012 (UTC)

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ


text:
Talk:Belay Zeleke

Neutrality
This page is pending changes protected for some reason, despite not having any entries in the pending changes protection log somehow, and I came across it through that. Having now looked through the article as it is now, as well as the article's revision history, I can see no point at which the article has not been significantly comprised of unsourced research that's quite possibly original, along with words and phrases like "national hero", "incredibly popular", "cherished" etcetera.

I am strongly of the opinion that this article requires a fundamental rewrite to become even remotely encyclopedic. The fact that it's been around since 2011 and has not had true NPOV at any time I can find is incredibly surprising. | Naypta✉ opened his mouth at 14:21, 20 April 2020 (UTC)

 * Fixed, most text was POV (such as "national hero", "Amhara hero") and immediately removed them. The Supermind (talk) 08:04, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 05:51, 9 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Belay Zeleke ethiopian Arbenuoch resistance heros.jpg

title: Talk:Belay Zeleke


text:
Cookbook:Grape Seed Oil

| Basic Foodstuffs

Grape seed oil is a vegetable oil pressed from the seeds of Vitis vinifera grapes, an abundant byproduct of wine making. Grape seed oil is used for: salad dressings, marinades, deep frying, flavored oils, baking, massage oil, sunburn repair lotion, hair products, body hygiene creams, lip balm and hand creams.

Cooking
Grape seed oil is extracted from grape seeds and has a relatively high smoke point, approximately 320 °F (160 °C), so it can be safely used to cook at high temperatures. Grape seed oil is commonly used for stir-fries, sautéing and fondue. In addition to its high smoking point, grape seed oil has other positive attributes in relation to cooking. It has a clean, light taste that has been described as 'nutty'. Because of its 'neutral' taste, grape seed oil is often used as a base for infusing or flavoring with garlic, rosemary, or other herbs or spices.

The metabolic energy density of grape seed oil is comparable to that of other oils, about 120 kCal per tablespoon (34 kJ/mL). However, the fact that less oil is needed for cooking may be useful when observing a low-fat diet.

Vitamins in grape seed oil
Vitamin E (0.8 to 1.2 g/kg), Vitamin C and Beta-Carotene.

title: Cookbook:Grape Seed Oil


text:
Southern Football League Cup (England)

The Southern League Cup is a knock-out cup competition organised by the Southern Football League. For the 2017–18 season, the competition was known as the BigFreeBet.com Challenge Cup for sponsorship reasons. It is understood that the majority of funds from the sponsorship deal are being put into developing English grassroots football.

Names

 * 1984–   : Bill Dellow Cup
 * 1987–1990: Westgate Insurance Cup
 * 1990–1991: Larchimage Windows Cup
 * 1991–1993: Barclays Commercial Services Cup
 * 1993–2004: Doc Martens Cup
 * 2005–2007: Errea Cup
 * 2008–2009: GX Cup
 * 2009–2011: Red Insure Cup
 * 2017–2018: BigFreeBet.com Challenge Cup
 * 2018–19: City Security Services Ltd League Challenge Cup

title: Southern Football League Cup (England)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/XMLmind

The result was   no consensus. — Coffee //  have a cup  //  beans  // 01:20, 4 March 2015 (UTC)

XMLmind

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Non-notable software. PROD declined by page author. Q VVERTYVS (hm?) 15:18, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Software-related deletion discussions.  Everymorning   talk  16:24, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

 * speedy delete - as above, also appears to have been blanked by creator Deunanknute (talk) 16:28, 10 February 2015 (UTC)

Keep – This seems to be one of the most popular editors for the Docbook format. Which may be minor unless you're a technical writer. But this editor and Docbook are what O'Reilly use to publish their programming language books, the famous ones with animals on the covers. In my mind, that alone makes it notable. There were also the following hits on the web:

And a couple of mentions (recommendations) in Books:

To me this looks like plenty of material for an article. Enough to meet WP:NSOFT. It's from a small software company in France and is still being developed, with the last upgrade last month. – Margin1522 (talk) 19:34, 10 February 2015 (UTC)  Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion so a clearer consensus may be reached.

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, Missvain (talk) 05:32, 17 February 2015 (UTC)  Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion so a clearer consensus may be reached.

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, -- Sam Sing! 13:23, 24 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/XMLmind


text:
Louisiana's 9th State Senate district

Louisiana's 9th State Senate district is one of 39 districts in the Louisiana State Senate. It has been represented by Republican Cameron Henry since 2020, succeeding fellow Republican Conrad Appel.

Geography
District 9 is based in the Jefferson Parish city of Metairie, also incorporating smaller parts of Jefferson and Uptown New Orleans.

The district overlaps with Louisiana's 1st and 2nd congressional districts, and with the 79th, 80th, 82nd, 94th, and 98th districts of the Louisiana House of Representatives.

Recent election results
Louisiana uses a jungle primary system. If no candidate receives 50% in the first round of voting, when all candidates appear on the same ballot regardless of party, the top-two finishers advance to a runoff election.

title: Louisiana's 9th State Senate district


text:
International Student Identity Card

The International Student Identity Card (ISIC) serves as internationally recognized proof of student status and offers access to various benefits and discounts globally, including travel, accommodation, and cultural institutions. The ISIC Association also issues the International Youth Travel Card (IYTC) for non-students, and the International Teacher Identity Card (ITIC) for teachers and professors. Membership fees for these cards vary by country.

ISIC Association
The ISIC Association is a non-profit membership organisation legally registered in Denmark.

The ISIC card is administered and managed at a global level by the ISIC Service Office d.o.o. The ISIC Service Office d.o.o is a company seated in Belgrade, Serbia. The ISIC Service Office d.o.o is wholly owned by the ISIC Association.

ISIC card distribution
ISIC Exclusive Representatives, who have the exclusive rights to issue ISIC cards in their respective countries, make up a global distribution network for ISIC cards. The ISIC card is available in over 130 countries. In each country, the ISIC Exclusive Representative is exclusively responsible for ISIC card distribution, promotion and development, including the development and managing a portfolio of local and national benefits and discounts, and services available to the ISIC holders.

ISIC card today
Eligibility for the International Student Identity Card (ISIC) is limited to students in higher, tertiary, or full-time secondary education, with a minimum age requirement of 12 years. There is no upper age limit for obtaining an ISIC card. The validity of an ISIC card spans 16 months, aligning with the academic year of the country where it is purchased.

Brand refresh
The idea to conduct an ISIC Brand refresh originated in 2017, and was subsequently launched in May 2019.

UNESCO Endorsement
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has been involved in the ISIC development almost since the beginning. UNESCO joined the International Student Travel Conference in 1995 and supported the ISIC card. In 1968 UNESCO issued an official endorsement in full support of the ISIC card. UNESCO recognised the ISIC card as the only internationally accepted proof of full-time student status and a unique document encouraging cultural exchange and international understanding. A renewed Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 1993. The UNESCO logo has appeared on the ISIC card since 1993. UNESCO recognises the ISIC card as a unique document encouraging cultural exchange and international understanding.

British Council and Global Study Awards
This initiative was launched by the British Council IELTS, Studyportals and the ISIC Association in 2015. The goal of these annual awards is to encourage and support more students undertaking study abroad. This award is available in all countries worldwide. In total there have been 17 winners in 5 rounds

Other Global Endorsement

 * AIESEC
 * Community of Andean Nations
 * International Association of Universities
 * International Pharmaceutical Federation
 * European Students' Union
 * European Law Students' Association (ELSA)
 * European Youth Card Association (EYCA)
 * World Youth Student Education Travel Confederation (WYSETC)
 * Hosteling International Partnership (HIP)
 * World Savings Banks Institute (WSBI)

Strategic global partners

 * Mastercard
 * British Council
 * Education First
 * FlixBus
 * Hard Rock Café
 * The Economist
 * Homestay
 * Hostelsclub
 * Hostelworld
 * Hotels.com
 * Lonely Planet
 * SANDEMANs
 * Withlocals

ISIC Event
The ISIC Event

title: International Student Identity Card


text:
Clorindy: The Origin of the Cakewalk

Clorindy, or The Origin of the Cake Walk is a one-act musical by composer Will Marion Cook and librettist Paul Laurence Dunbar.

The piece premiered in 1898 and was the first Broadway musical with an all-black cast. It starred the famous African-American performer Ernest Hogan. Popular songs from the show included "Who Dat Say Chicken In Dis Crowd" (one of the first documented uses of the well-known "Who Dat?" comedy motif) and the finale, "Darktown Is Out Tonight".

Development
Despite his traditional musical education in music schools in Europe and America, Cook believed that "Negroes should eschew white patterns" and work to create unique styles to reflect their unique culture, rather than imitating the music of whites. Cook dreamed of presenting the first musical play with an all black cast on Broadway. Encouraged by the vaudeville duo Bert Williams and George Walker, Cook recruited his friend, poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, to write the book and lyrics for the new show. The duo completed the music and lyrics for the production in a single night in a basement near Howard University "equipped with beer, whiskey, a T-bone steak, but no piano." Dunbar found the collaboration so unpleasant that he vowed never to work with Cook again, but the two nonetheless collaborated on several more productions, including 1903's In Dahomey.

Songs

 * Darktown is Out To-night
 * Love in a Cottage is Best
 * Dance Creole (or Creole Dance)
 * Who Dat Say Chicken in Dis Crowd
 * Hottest Coon in Dixie
 * Jump Back

Productions
Cook sought a producer and venue in New York. He met much rejection before bringing his cast uninvited to a rehearsal hall where he heard that another act was auditioning for Edward E. Rice, manager of the Casino Theatre's Roof Garden. Rice eventually agreed to present it. The musical was adapted for the venue, with Rice removing most of Dunbar's dialogue, as the rooftop setting made spoken dialogue difficult to understand over the noise from the street. Clorindy was first presented on July 4, 1898 as an afterpiece to Rice's production Summer Nights, and it was a hit, prompting Cook to boast that "My chorus sang like Russians, dancing meanwhile like Negroes, and cakewalking like angels, black angels!" He declared that "Negroes are at last on Broadway, and here to stay!"

Clorindy had a brief run, also starring Hogan, at the Boston Music Hall in mid-January, 1901.

Cook would later write the first Broadway musical with an integrated cast, The Southerners, in 1904.

title: Clorindy: The Origin of the Cakewalk


text:
Talk:Ferrari F1-2000

Have tried 4u1e's racing car template (see discussion pages for other F1 cars, e.g. Ferrari 312T) Diniz 17:03, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Reliability
See Talk:McLaren MP4/15. DH85868993 (talk) 21:48, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 20:22, 19 September 2020 (UTC)
 * F1-2000 in f1 2020.png

title: Talk:Ferrari F1-2000


text:
Olia Burtaev

Olga "Olia" Burtaev (born 18 June 1995) is an Australian synchronised swimmer. Burtaev joined Australia's National Team at 14 years of age, and made her international debuts at the 2010 Swiss Open and the 2010 FINA Synchronised Swimming World Cup. Burtaev competed for Australia at the 2012 Summer Olympics, and represented the nation at the 2011 and 2013 World Aquatics Championships.

Personal life
Burtaev was born on 18 June 1995 in Brisbane, Queensland. She spent her childhood in the Brisbane area, and took dance classes. She attended Mt Gravatt East State School before going to high school at Mansfield State High School. She is trilingual, speaking English, French and Russian. As a child, she wanted to be a ballerina. , she lives in Gold Coast, Queensland. Burtaev is 170 cm tall and weighs 54 kg.

Synchronised swimming
Burtaev began synchronised swimming at ten years old, and is a member of Gold Coast Mermaids Synchronised Swimming Club (GCMSSC).

Burtaev finished 4th in the team event at the 2010 Swiss Open in Arbon, Switzerland. She finished 11th in the team event at the 2010 FINA World Cup in China. She finished 18th in the technical team event at the 2011 FINA World Championships in Shanghai, China. She finished 17th in the team event at the 2011 FINA World Championships in Shanghai, China. She finished 9th in the team event at the 2011 German Open in Bonn, Germany and 6th in the team event at the 2011 French Open in Paris, France. The FINA World Championships held in Shanghai, China served as the 2012 Olympic qualifying event for the team. In the technical team portion, her team finished 18th and in the Free Team event, her team finished 17th.

In 2012, she was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Olympics in synchronized swimming along with team-mates Eloise Amberger, Jenny-Lyn Anderson, Sarah Bombell, Tamika Domrow, Bianca Hammett, Tarren Otte, Francesca Owen and Samantha Reid. At 17, Burtaev was the youngest member of the Australian squad. Burtaev was also scheduled to perform a solo synchro routine, along with some of the other members of the team.

In 2013, Burtaev and Bianca Hammett competed in the duet events at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, placing 22nd in the Technical Duet with a score of 71.700, and placing 30th in the Free Duet with a score of 70.180. Prior to the World Championships, Burtaev and Hammett represented Australia at the 2013 French Open, and the 2013 Japan Open.

title: Olia Burtaev


text:
Talk:Cowdrey House

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Cowdrey House. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150209031956/http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/%21userfiles/MR0008.nr.pdf to http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/%21userfiles/MR0008.nr.pdf

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:38, 13 August 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cowdrey House


text:
hushaby

Etymology
or.

Interjection

 * 1)  hush and be still;
 * 2) * 1892. Eugene Field. Hushaby Sweet my Own. In With Trumpet and Drum. page 106 :
 * The night is fair, and the waves are still,
 * And the wind is singing to you and to me
 * In this lowly home beside the sea —
 * Hushaby, sweet my own!
 * Hushaby, sweet my own!

Noun

 * 1) A lullaby used to soothe babies to sleep.

Verb

 * 1)  To lull to sleep by saying "hushaby".

title: hushaby


text:
Mocis mutuaria

Mocis mutuaria is a species of moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa, East Kasai, Bas Congo, North Kivu, Katanga), Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

title: Mocis mutuaria


text:
pilkkopimeä

Etymology
🇰🇲; the initial component is probably from and was picked for the alliteration.

Adjective

 * 1) pitch-dark

title: pilkkopimeä


text:
Michael English

Michael English may refer to:

 * Michael English (illustrator) (1941–2009), British 1960s poster designer
 * Michael English (politician) (1930–2019), British Labour Member of Parliament for Nottingham West 1964–1983
 * Michael English (American singer) (born 1963), American Christian singer from North Carolina
 * Michael English (album), his eponymous album released in 1991

 * Michael English (Irish singer) (born 1979), Irish country singer

title: Michael English


text:
Talk:Thorium-based nuclear power

A problem with dates
It seems to me that this "In August 2022, the Chinese Ministry of Ecology and Environment informed the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) that its commissioning plan for the LF1 had been approved.[9] " entry is about something that happened 2018, even if the article is dated 2022. For surely the commissioning must have happened before it was built last year. Star Lord -   星爵 (talk) 02:06, 16 September 2022 (UTC)
 * It's new development (from the perspective of trying to scale-up a 2MW reactor), the regulators are trying to settle on a canonical sequence of approvals; the Chinese began their development effort in 2011 at Oak Ridge National Lab (based on MSRE). The Chinese gathered as much IP as they could, with parallel streams of development using staffs of hundreds in a horse-race of possible technologies. One path was at Wuwei (near the Gobi desert), only one of one hundred reactors in China. The Thorium-based path was finally given China's legal approval to scale up as an electrical utility in 2022. The TMSR-LF1 is now cleared for scaling up. Indonesia's TMSR-500 is a similar Thorium-based project, with legal approval by Indonesia's regulatory agency in 2022 as well. Both projects (China and Indonesia) have long histories. --Ancheta Wis    (talk  | contribs) 11:33, 16 September 2022 (UTC)

Huge and direct self-contradiction in the page
"Not suitable for bombs. It is difficult to make a practical nuclear bomb from a thorium reactor's by-products"

Later:

'Harvesting weapons-grade plutonium. The thorium fuel cycle is a potential way to produce long term nuclear energy with low radio-toxicity waste. In addition, the transition to thorium could be done through the incineration of weapons grade plutonium (WPu) or civilian plutonium."

even later:

"The decay of the protactinium-233 would then create uranium-233 in lieu of uranium-232 for use in nuclear weapons"

This says it is possible and suitable in a great and several ways to produce products for a nuclear bomb. 2003:C1:B720:C800:D565:433:BA0C:399B (talk) 06:40, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

 * No. A suitable process is needed to turn u-233 into weapons material. For far-more relevant materiel, see Plutonium-239. The refinement processes were the purpose of the Manhattan Project. -- Ancheta Wis   (talk  | contribs) 12:34, 26 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thorium-based nuclear power


text:
Ludicrous: The Unvarnished Story of Tesla Motors

Ludicrous: The Unvarnished Story of Tesla Motors is Edward Niedermeyer's non-fiction book about Tesla, Inc., published in 2019. The book traces Tesla's inception along with episodes and controversies from the first fifteen years of the company under the leadership of Elon Musk. In it, Niedermeyer uses original research, anonymous insider accounts, and industry analysis to explore "Tesla's attempt to merge Silicon Valley arrogance with automotive industry standards". The Wall Street Journal noted that the book's sources have "refused to be quoted out of fear of Mr. Musk". The book devotes a significant portion of its contents to a cultural account of the ongoing "confrontation" between Tesla's fans and its skeptics.

Reception
A LA Times reviewer noted, "Niedermeyer... possesses a deep understanding of how the auto industry works (and often doesn't). He's in a good position to assess the foibles of Musk as Tesla struggles to prove that it can earn sustainable profits after 16 years of surviving on cash raised from lenders and investors, with no return on invested capital to show for it."

The Wall Street Journal's review voiced some skepticism over the lack of named sources supplying criticisms of the company: "Perhaps this information is solid. But people who aren't identified can't complain about being misquoted." The review goes on to say, "The book hits its stride when the author details Mr. Musk's attempts to revolutionize the way cars are built."


text:
Den i Nok

Den i Nok (Ден и Ноќ; Day and Night) is the debut album of the Macedonian pop musician Elena Risteska. Following the release of the album in 2003, Risteska garnered popularity in several Balkan countries. The album, although only long enough to be an EP, achieved a large amount of success in her native country of Macedonia, with several songs from the album going on to become hit singles in their own right.

Track listing

 * 1) "Telo i Duša" (Тело и Душа, Body And Soul)
 * 2) "Raj i Pekol" (Рај и Пекол, Heaven And Hell)
 * 3) "Den i Nok" (Ден и Ноќ, Day And Night)
 * 4) "Vo Tvojot Svet" (Во Твојот Свет, In Your World)
 * 5) "Tvoja Edinstvena" (Твоја Единствена, Your Only One)
 * 6) "Ne Sakam Da Krijam" (Не Сакам да Кријам, I Don't Want To Hide)
 * 7) "Me Nemaš Mene" (Ме Немаш Мене, You Don't Have Me)
 * 8) "Prosti Mi Za Sè" (Прости ми за Сѐ, Forgive Me For Everything)
 * 9) "Ona Drugoto" (Она Другото, The Other Thing)

title: Den i Nok


text:
Asian leaffish

Asian leaffish can refer to two families of tropical freshwater fish:

 * Nandidae, a family found in both Asia and Africa
 * Pristolepididae, a family found in Asia

title: Asian leaffish


text:
Wikipedia:Possibly unfree files/2012 July 12

File:Photo of Dr. Giroir.jpg

The result of the debate was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:49, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

 * File:Photo of Dr. Giroir.jpg ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | [ logs]).

 * The subject's profile at the Texas A&M website includes a photo that is very similar if not identical to this one (only cropped) and the copyright is explicitly stated to be held by the university with all rights reserved. With no proof of authorship provided, I find the claim of self-publication weak.  Super Mario  Man  01:39, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

File:MarquitaHopeCrosby.jpg

The result of the debate was: Delete; deleted by AnomieBOT ⚡  02:49, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

 * File:MarquitaHopeCrosby.jpg ([ delete] | talk | [ history] | [ logs]).

 * Previously nominated here and subsequently deleted; now re-uploaded, again under an implausible claim of self-publication.  Super Mario  Man  01:55, 12 July 2012 (UTC)


text:
Physiotherapy Assessment/Introduction

The assessment is probably the most important aspect of your work because without a good assessment, there is almost no way for you to get a handle on what's actually wrong with your patient. Many therapists will have many different ideas on what constitutes a good assessment and there are many different variations on what to do and when to do it.

This is an attempt to lay out a few basic principles of assessing patients. I'm going to use the ‘patient’ label because most of the people reading this book will probably be students who work in an acute hospital setting. I’ve also used the term ‘physiotherapist’ as opposed to ‘physical therapist’, the distinction being mainly a grammatical one with the United States using the latter and everyone else the former. Along the same lines, it may be important to note that physiotherapists are physical therapists who have respiratory therapy included in their training, while in the US, this is a separate profession.

You may find that the order of questions/techniques is different from what you've been shown before. You may find that I've left questions out, or included ones you've never seen. You should therefore bear in mind that this is only a guideline, something that you can use while you get comfortable with the idea of performing an assessment.

I was always told that in your subjective examination (interview), the answers you get should be used to initiate or guide the direction of the next question. It's not about learning the questions off by heart and then sitting down with a pen and saying, "Right, number one...” Your patient’s answers should be clues in your search for the cause of their pain or stiffness.

I've divided the book into several chapters, each focusing on a particular type of assessment. For example, Chapter 5 is a Respiratory assessment. I've divided them up for the sake of simplicity and ease of explanation. In reality there is no hard and fast dividing line for what type of assessment you'll use. In fact, you'll generally use a combination of all of them. Think about the 83 year old lady who's just had a stroke and also has a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). You'll be doing a neurological assessment while taking note of her respiratory system, while possibly mentally scoring her on an Elderly Mobility Scale.

''Note: While the subjective assessment is examined in detail in it's chapter, the objective assessment will be dealt with separately in each following chapter, as they will all be slightly different depending on the type of condition being assessed. Therefore each chapter after the subjective assessment will actually be an objective assessment of that type of condition i.e. the chapter on Respiratory assessments is actually a description of the objective assessment performed on a respiratory patient.''

title: Physiotherapy Assessment/Introduction


text:
Gladisa Guadalupe

Gladisa Guadalupe is an American artistic director. She was the co-founder and former artistic director of the current Cleveland Ballet, founded in Cleveland, Ohio in 2014.

Life and career
A native of San Juan, Puerto Rico, Guadalupe began her classical ballet training with Ballets de San Juan, becoming one the company's youngest members. As a young teenager, Guadalupe relocated to the United States on a scholarship to study under George Balanchine, father of American ballet, at the prestigious School of American Ballet in New York City.

Upon completing her studies, Guadalupe became a Principal Dancer, performing with the Ballets de San Juan, Ballet Nuevo Mundo de Caracas, Cleveland San Jose Ballet, and the second incarnation of Cleveland Ballet (1972–2000). She has danced under choreographers George Balanchine, Dennis Nahat, Ian Horvath, Margot Sappington, Ana Garcia, John Butler, Choo San Goh, and Louis Falco. Guadalupe has toured North America, South America, Asia, and Europe as a Principal Dancer.

In 2000, Guadalupe founded the Cleveland School of Dance (now known as the School of Cleveland Ballet). In addition to serving as the school's Director and Principal teacher, Guadalupe has also been an adjunct instructor for the Cecchetti Council of America, American Ballet Theatre, Ballet de San Juan, Ballet San Jose, Ohio Ballet, Rochester School of Ballet, and the University of Akron.

Cleveland Ballet
In 2014, Guadalupe and Ukrainian businessman Michael Krasnyansky, founded a new incarnation of Cleveland Ballet to fill the city's void of a resident professional ballet company. The company has grown from 5 to 26 professional dancers, who have represented a total of 11 different nations in the initial five seasons. A resident company of Playhouse Square, Cleveland Ballet has earned critical acclaim and is one of the fastest growing ballet companies in the U.S.

In July 2015, Guadalupe was invited to serve on the Alumni Advisory Committee on Diversity and Inclusion at the School of American Ballet, official school of the New York City Ballet. She has received recognition as a Distinguished Teacher in the Arts and for Promotion of Excellence in the Arts by the National Foundation for Advancement in the Arts. Her extensive ballet experience as a Principal Dancer combined with her B.S. degree in psychology from Cleveland State University gives her a unique perspective as both a teacher and choreographer.

For her exceptional work with the ballet as its artistic director, Guadalupe received the YWCA's Women of Achievement award in 2021. In 2022, she was honored with an Ohio Arts Council Governor's Award under its Arts Administration category for her leadership and artistic vision in both the school and company.

Guadalupe was fired from her position as executive director at the Cleveland Ballet on January 11, 2024, after an investigation instituted by the board found acts of impropriety including using ballet funds for personal expenses and nepotism. She and her husband, Michael Krasnyansky, former CEO of the Cleveland Ballet who resigned in October 2023, denied the allegations.

title: Gladisa Guadalupe


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Comparative Politics

In physical sciences, experiments can be conducted by isolating factors to see what causes lead to what effects. For instance, if you put baking soda in a test tube full of vinegar, and it starts to bubble, you can be pretty sure that the baking soda caused the bubbling.

In politics, one cannot conduct an experiment in a test tube. The only way that one can make scientific study of politics is by examining it in daily life and comparing it with other situations. Through observation and comparison, one can hopefully learn enough about politics to make reliable predictions. That is the goal of comparative politics: observe two or more political situations, analyse their similarities and differences, and try to isolate causes and effects in order to make reliable predictions.

This wikiversity course will first start out by comparing basic theoretical concepts in politics. Then, it will compare political situations of different states with different political systems.

Table of Contents

 * /Definitions/
 * /Federal, unitary, and confederate states/
 * /Democratic Systems versus Authoritarian Systems/
 * /Presidential Systems, Parliamentary Systems, and Mixed Systems/
 * /Proportional Representation, Single-Member Plurality, and Mixed Representation/

title: Comparative Politics


text:
Free Officers Movement

Free Officers Movement can mean:
 * Free Officers Movement (Egypt) in Egypt who overthrew the Muhammad Ali Dynasty in the Egyptian Revolution, to form the Republic of Egypt.
 * Free Officers Movement (Iraq) in Iraq who overthrew the Hashemite Dynasty in the 14 July Revolution, to form the Republic of Iraq.
 * Free Officers and Civilians Movement in Iraq who campaigned against Saddam Hussein's rule in the 1991 Iraqi uprisings, to form the Coalition Provisional Authority.
 * Free Officers Movement (Syria) in Syria who fought against Bashar al-Assad's rule in the Syrian Civil War in 2011, to form the Free Syrian Army.
 * Free Officers Movement (Libya) in Libya who overthrew the Senussi Dynasty in the Libyan Revolution, to form the Libyan Arab Republic.

title: Free Officers Movement


text:
Talk:Double Figure

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060929024955/http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/reviews/plaid_figure.htm to http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/reviews/plaid_figure.htm
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title: Talk:Double Figure