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Biochemistry/DNA and RNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the information storage molecules and working templates for the construction of proteins. Every living cell and virus encodes its genetic information using either DNA or RNA. It is a true marvel of evolution that the vast amount of information needed to produce a human being can fit inside cells.

Friedrich Miescher first isolated DNA and RNA from used surgical bandages in 1869. A series of experiments done by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty in 1944 defined DNA as the genetic information. They injected virulent encapsulated bacteria into a mouse. As it a result, it died. On the contrary, nonvirulent nonencapsulated bacteria did not kill the mouse. Also, heating the virulent encapsulated bacteria and injecting did not kill the mouse either. The surprise lied in mixing the heat-killed virulent encapsulated bacteria with nonvirulent nonencapsulated bacteria did kill the mouse. Avery's group kept isolating factors until they discovered what killed the mouse, which was the DNA. In conclusion, the nonpathogenic bacteria was made pathogenic by DNA transfer from a pathogenic stain. A.D. Hershey and Martha Chase's work in 1952 reconfirmed that DNA is the carrier of genetic information. Hershey and Chase's group conducted an experiment involving two phages. One of the phages was radioactively labeled with heavy phosphorus to highlight the DNA and heavy sulfur to highlight the protein. The two phages inserted their "genetic material" into the bacterial cell. Afterwards, these cells were "blended" to remove the phage heads. The resulting radioactively-labeled heavy phosphorus was found in the cell. This experiment showed that DNA alone was sufficient to make new viruses, and therefore, defined as the genetic information. Rosalind Franklin, Chargaff, and other chemists provided information that led to the discovery of DNA as well. Franklin provided crystallographic data that implied a helical structure. Chargaff's rule said that the adenine content was equal to the thymine content and cytosine was equal to guanine. Also the aromaticity of the electron-rich purine and pyrimidine rings allowed for tautomer shifts between the keto and enol form. The keto tautomer (lactam) dominated at physiological pH. Garnering all this information, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA (double-helix) in 1953.

Structure of DNA and RNA
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of a pentose sugar (2-deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA), a phosphate group ($$H_3PO_4$$), and a nitrogen-containing base. There are five nitrogen bases - adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine and uracil. Individual nucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds to form polynucleotides.

DNA exists as a double helix of two (2) strands of polynucleotides. According to the principle of complementarity nucleotides A (adenine) bases are bound with a hydrogen bridge to the T (thymine) or U (uracil in case of RNA) on the other thread and similarly C (cytosine) bind themselves to G (guanine). This principle allows for DNA and RNA replication and for limited possibilities of repairing the genetic information when one of the threads gets damaged.

Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA is the permanent genetic information storage medium, found in the nucleus of most cells of most living organisms. RNA is, in the case of eukaryotes, the medium that transfers the genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where proteins are synthesized. The most basic structural difference between a DNA molecule and an RNA molecule is that DNA lacks an hydroxyl group at its 2' carbon while RNA has an hydroxyl group at its 2' carbon.

There are three major types of RNA:
 * messenger RNA (mRNA) - temporarily created RNA used for transferring the information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm where it is "read," or translated, and a protein is synthesized.Each gene produce a separate mRNA molecule when a certain protein is needed in the cell. In addition, the size of an mRNA depends on the number of nucletides in that particular gene.

Each tRNA contains an "anticodon" which is a series of 3 bases that complements 3 bases on mRNA.
 * transfer RNA (tRNA) - Is the smallest of the RNA molecules and it is associated with the ribosome and delivers an amino acid to be attached to the growing protein. Only the tRna can translate the genetic information into amino acid for proteins.

 * ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - a major constituent of the ribosome with both structural and catalytic properties.

Additionally, by 2005, other types of RNA, such as siRNA (small, interfering RNA) and miRNA have been characterized.

DNA structure is typically a double stranded molecule with long chain of nucleotides, while RNA is a single stranded molecule    " in most biological roles" and it has shorter chain of nucleotide. Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of the carbon- hydrogen bonds. DNA has small grooves to prevent the enzymes to attack DNA. on the other hand, RNA contain ribose sugar which is more reactive because of the carbon-hydroxyl bonds. RNA not stable in its alkaline conditions.RNA has larger grooves than that of DNA, which makes RNA easier to be attacked by enzymes. DNA has a unique features because of its helix geometry which is in B-form. DNA is protected completely by the body in which the body destroys any enzymes that cleave DNA. In contrast the helix geometry of RNA is in the A- form; RNA can be broken down and reused. RNA is more resistance to be damage by Ultra- violet rays, while DNA can be damaged if exposed to Ultra-violet rays. DNA can be found in nucleus, while RNA can be found in nucleus and cytoplasm. The bases of DNA are A,T,C,and G, DNA is a long polymer with phosphate and deoxyribose backbone. In contrast, RNA bases are A,U, C,and G, RNA backbone contain ribose and phosphate. The job of DNA on the cell is to store and transmit genetic information. RNA job is to transfer the genetic codes that are needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome, this process prevents the DNA from leaving the nucleus, so DNA stays safe.

Plasmid
Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome can be use in laboratory to manipulate genes. Plasmids can carry almost any gene and they can passed it on from one generation of bacteria to the next generation, therefore plasmids are key tools for “gene cloning” which is the production of multiple identical copies of a gene carrying piece of DNA

=DNA Replication ;Semi-conservative replication= In the process of DNA replication, as cells divide, copies of DNA must be produced in order to transfer the genetic information. In DNA replication, the strands in the original DNA separate, and then each of the parent strands make copies by synthesizing complementary strands. Enzyme called helicase will start The process of  replication  by  catalyzing the unwinding of protein of the double helix. This enzyme can break  the H bonds between the complementary bases. These single strands now act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. The energy for the reaction can be provided when a nucleoside triphosphate bonds to a sugar (at the end of a growing strand), and 2 phosphate group are cleaved. Then a T in the template forms H bond with an A in ATP, and a G on the template forms H bond with CTP. After the entire double helix of the parent DNA is copied, the new DNA molecule will form. The new DNA molecule is consist of one strand from the parent (original) DNA and one strand from the daughter strand( newly synthesized strand). This process is called "semi-conservative replication".

Recombination
Recombination refers to  ways in which DNA modification leads to  distinct gene expressions and functions. Deletions, insertions and substitutions are the most useful changes implemented for the synthesis of new genes. Recombination techniques and recombinant DNA technologies  has made possible  the modification and  creation of new genes  for specific  proposes. These techniques helps clone, amplified and introduce new DNA  into suitable cells  for replication. Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase play a  vital  role in the production of recombinant DNA. Vectors are useful for cloning. Plasmids or viral DNA (lambda Phage) used to  introduced a  DNA sequence into a  cell is refer as  vector.

The semi-conservative hypothesis was confirmed by both Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958. The parent DNA was labeled with "heavy nitrogen," the radioisotope of fifteen. This radioactive nitrogen was made through growing E. coli with ammonium chloride (also with "heavy nitrogen") environment. Directly after the labeling of "heavy nitrogen" to the parent DNA strand, it was transferred to a medium with only regular nitrogen (isotope of fourteen). The proposed question was "What is the distribution between the two nitrogens in the DNA molecules after successive rounds of replication?" Using density-gradient equilibrium sedimentation, this question was answered. In this centrifugation, similar densities were grouped together in the tube. Afterwards, an absorbance was applied with ultra-violet light to determine the density bands of all the different kinds of DNA in the solution. After one generation, a unique single density band was shown. It was not exactly the band of heavy nitrogen nor the regular band of regular nitrogen, but rather halfway between the two. This proved that DNA was not conservative but semi-conservative due to this nitrogen hybrid. One generation after this one, there were two nitrogen-14 molecules and two hybrid nitrogen molecules. The probability and statistics of this second generation reassures the semi-conservative hypothesis.

As DNA strands can combine and form molecules, it can also be melted, resulting in separation or denaturation. It is important to note that the heat from the melting process does not disrupt the DNA structure, but rather DNA helicase takes energy from the heat, separating the DNA strands. The denaturation process occurs at about ninety-four degrees Fahrenheit where the double strands are converted to single stands. Absorbance readings were taken to reconfirm the denaturation process. When the DNA molecule is in its double-stranded form, it absorbs less UV light. In its single-stranded form, it absorbs more UV light because the single strand is more exposed than its double-strand counterpart. This is known as the hypochromic effect. In a PCR, polymerase chain reaction, it utilizes this denaturation capability in its primary step. Afterwards, it is then annealed at fifty to sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In this step, this is where the primers bind to their corresponding flanking DNA base sequence. In the last step, DNA polymerization, it requires a few ingredients: heat-resistant DNA polymerase, magnesium ion, buffer, and corresponding nucleotides. The DNA polymerase requires heat resistance because throughout the entire process, it undergoes a constant temperatures changes. The magnesium stabilizes the phosphate backbone. The buffer prevents drastic changes in pH, because if the pH lies near the extremes on the scale, it may denature the DNA so drastically that it will not recombine. This final step of DNA polymerization happens at the "melting temperature." The melting temperature is the temperature at which half of the DNA is single-stranded and the other half is double-stranded. At this optimal temperature of seventy-two degrees Fahrenheit, the DNA is amplified with its respective primers, replicating at an exponential rate.

=DNA manipulation: human's effort to desire DNA and "read" DNA=

Restriction endonucleases
What's endonuclease?--Endonucleases are enzymes that can recognize specific base sequences in double-helical DNA and cleave, at specific places, both strands of that duplex. Many prokaryotes contain restriction enzymes. Biologically, they cleave foreign DNA molecules. Because the sites recognized by its own restriction enzymes are metylated, the cells' own DNA are not cleaved. One striking properties of endonucleases is that they recognize DNA cleavage sites by "two-fold symmetry". In another word, within the cleavage site domain (usually 4 to 8 base pair), there exists a center, around which the cleavage site rotate 180 degree, the whole cleavage site would be indistinguishable. The following graph shows an example of how endonuclease recognize cleavage site by symmetry..After cleavage from several different endonulcease, a DNA sample would be sliced into many different duplex fragments, which are then separated by electrophoresis. The restriction fragments are then denatured to form single stranded DNA, which are then transferred to a nitrocellulose sheet, where they are exposed to a 32P-labeled single-stranded DNA probe. The single-stranded DNA are then hybridized by the radio active complementary strand. These duplex are then examined by autoradiography, which reveals the sequence of the DNA. This technique is named Southern plot, after Edwin South, who invented the technique. The following image shows the steps for creating a southern plot.

DNA sequencing
DNA subunits are dGMP, dAMP, dCMP and dTMP. In a DNA molecule, these subunits are connected in a way that their phosphate on 5 prime carbon are bonded to another subunit's hydroxy group on 3 prime carbon. If there is no hydroxy group on 3 prime carbon, then the DNA polymeration will be terminated. Utilizing this idea, subunit analogies were invented, ddGMP, ddAMP, ddCMP and ddTMP. These analogies have the same structure as their parent molecule except that they have hydrogen on 3 prime carbon instead of hydroxyl group. In practice, target DNA template is put into four polymeration environments, dNTP+ddGMP or ddAMP or ddCMP or ddTMP, respectively.. Statically, fragments with different length terminated at base, G, A, C, T will be formed, respectively. Then these fragments will be separated by electrophoresis, which will tell the sequence of the target DNA.

DNA synthesis
Although nature synthesize DNA from 5 prime carbon to 3 prime carbon, human synthesize DNA from 3 prime carbon to 5 prime carbon. The following monomer is commercially available for each of the base and is used as basic building block for DNA synthesis. It starts with the subunit with the first base bonded to resin by the 3 prime hydroxyl group. The second monomer with its own 5 hydroxyl protected by DMT (protecting group) was activated on its 3 prime phosphate, which is attached to the 5 prime hydroxyl group by nucleophilic substitution. Then the phosphite is oxidized by iodine to yield phosphate. Then DMT is removed to make the 5 prime hydroxyl available for the incoming of the third monomer. The graphical representation is shown below.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
It is used for amplification of DNA. It includes three stages: DNA denaturation, oligonucleotide annealing, and DNA polymerization. In each cycle, the DNA duplex is denatured at first, then the primers for both strands (forward and reverse) bind to the desired sites and at last both strands polymerize to form the desired sequence. What needed in PCR are the DNA containing the desired sequence, primers for both strands, heat resistant DNA polymerase, dNTP and constantly changing temperature. The following image shows the detailed steps in PCR.

=RNA Editing=

Introduction
Adenosine deaminases (ADAR) are mRNA editing enzymes that alternate a double stranded RNA sequence by tuning it. When tuning the mRNA, ADARs retype the nucleotides of the mRNA at certain, specific points they wish to change. Because ADARs can change the sequence of mRNA, they can create or remove a splice site, delete or alter the meaning of a codon, and finally change the sequence of the RNA altogether. ADAR plays a vital part in editing mRNA and modulating the mRNA translational activity and is mainly found in the nervous system and is important in regulating the nervous systems. Lacking the ADAR gene is very detrimental to health.

Function
RNA splicing and RNA editing are very similar to one another. RNA splicing is more of a cut, copy, and past process while RNA editing is an alteration of one or more nucleotides. There are mainly two types of ADAR that alternate the sequence of a single nucleotide. The first type of ADAR retypes cytidine nucleotides into uridine nucleotides while a second type of ADAR retypes adenosine into inosine. mRNA consisting of many inosine nucleotides in its sequence is known to be very abundant in the nucleus and only mRNAs that leave the nucleus can be translated. In this case, ADAR is modulating the translational activities of mRNAs. In modulating the translational activities of the specified mRNA, it is also modulating the abundance of the certain proteins that are expressed in the edited mRNA. Also, increasing inosine can stabilize the structure of mRNA. Hence, ADAR can function as an mRNA stabilizer too. ADARs target the coding sequence, introns, and 5’ and 3’ untranslated reigions (UTR). ADAR targets the coding sequence by changing the nucleotide which then changes the geometry of the protein. Change in the geometry of the protein may yield to higher protein-protein affinity interaction. This high protein-protein affinity can improve biological reactions by facilitating those reactions. Alternation of the non-coding sites such as introns, 5’, and 3’ UTR is still unknown. The only thing that is known is that alternating the sequence within these sites can create new splice sites.

Importance of ADAR
Adar is mainly found in the nervous system because it plays a very important role in regulating the nervous system. One of Adars’ primary functions is its regulation of the nervous system. Adar regulates the nervous system by editing the glutamate receptors’ mRNA. These glutamate receptors construct the glutamate-gated ion channels which are important in transferring electrical signals between neurons. When ADARs edit gluR mRNA, they change the calcium permeability of these glutamate channels. They can either lower the calcium permeability for certain glutamate channel or increase calcium permeability for other glutamate channels. Regulation of calcium permeability is important to proper neurotransmission between neurons.

Disease connecting to ADAR
Adenosine deaminase Deficiency (ADD) is caused by the lack of ADAR gene. Hence ADARs editing is important for survival especially for human. Without ADAR, the body can not break down the toxin deoxyadenosine. The accumulation of this toxin destroys the immune cells making its host vulnerable to infection from bacteria and viruses. Seizures can also be caused by ADAR. Unedited version of gluR mRNA strongly causes seizures. When a seizure happens, the body mechanism increases the level of ADAR activity to edit gluR mRNA to prevent future seizures.

DNA Replication:Initiation
There are multiple mechanisms that have been proposed for the melting of the DNA strand and the subsequent unwinding of the double helix during the initiation process of DNA replication.

Two recently proposed models are E1 and LTag. These two models function differently to attain the same overall goal of melting the DNA double helix due to differences in their overall structure.

E1 model: In the E1 hexamer, there are six ß-hairpins in the central channel of the protein. They are arranged in a staircase-like structure. Two adjacent E1 trimers assemble at the origin point to melt the double-stranded DNA. A ring shaped E1 hexamer is then formed around the melted single-stranded DNA and the DNA is then pumped through the ring hexamer to from a fork that allows for the replication of the DNA.

Ltag: The channel diameters of these hexamers vary between 13-17 angstroms. The hexamer responsible for melting has an assortment of planar ß-hairpins in the narrow channel. Two of these hexamers surround the origin point of the double-stranded DNA and squeeze the area together. This causes the melting of the dsDNA by forcing the breakage of base pairing. The two single-stranded DNA strands are then pumped into a larger channeland finally out through two separate Zn-domains. This allows for the replication of the DNA.

The two mechanisms here are built solely on the structural knowledge of the proteins involved in the process and as such more experimental support is needed to confirm.

There are not an excessive amount of helicases. Currently, work is being done in discerning the more simple helicases, and trying to find the different mechanisms that they may have. While there are some similarities, for example helicases all seem to have a hexameric structure, there are also differences as well in their structures that contribute greatly to the differences in their mechanisms.

-This article refers to a recently published article in Curr Opin Struct Biol. published 2010, Sep. 24.: "Origin DNA melting and unwinding in DNA replication" by Gai et al.

title: Biochemistry/DNA and RNA


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Simalia boeleni

Simalia boeleni is a species of python, a nonvenomous snake in the family Pythonidae. The species is endemic to the mountains of New Guinea. No subspecies are recognized. Its common names include Boelen's python and the black python. ''

Etymology
The specific name, boeleni, is in honor of K.W.J. Boelen, M.D., who collected the holotype specimen.

Description
In S. boeleni adults, the upperside color pattern is dark bluish-black or purplish-black, and the anterior part of the underside is white to pale yellow. The white extends up the flanks as a series of streaks. The upper and lower lips are also patterned with pale or whitish labial scales. The black portions are commonly iridescent with an oil-slick-like sheen. The body is stocky and the head large. Neonates are predominantly red upon emerging from the egg. Gradual black pigmentation presents itself as the neonate grows and sheds. Ontogenetic color change begins as the juvenile snake approaches 1 m in length, usually around 2 years of age. Adults may be up to 3 m in total length (including tail).

Conservation status
The unmistakable and famed Boelen's python receives the highest legal protection possible in Papua New Guinea. It is currently listed on CITES Appendix II. It is difficult to truly assess the conservation status of these snakes, as they are incredibly secretive and difficult to find in the wild.

Common names
Locally, S. boeleni is also known as the blu moran or papa graun. Within Indonesia, it has several names depending on which language is used. The common Indonesian names of this snake are sanca hitam, sanca bulan, piton hitam, and ular buleni.

Geographic range
S. boeleni is found in Indonesia (Western New Guinea in the Paniai Lakes region) and Papua New Guinea (the provinces of Eastern Highlands, Central and Morobe, and Goodenough Island).

The type locality given is "Dimija (3[°] 56' S, 136[°] 18' E), Wissel Lakes, Dutch New Guinea, about 1750 m (5700 feet) above sea-level" [Western New Guinea, Indonesia].

Habitat
S. boeleni inhabits forested montane regions at elevations of 1,000 - 2,000 m. It is generally encountered on the forest floor, but is also reckoned to be an able climber.

Diet
The diet of S. boeleni consists of small mammals, ground-nesting birds, and lizards.

Captivity
S. boeleni is considered to be highly desirable by private keepers due to its beauty, but is also exceptionally rare in collections. Although captive-born snakes are fairly hardy in captivity, wild-caught individuals are considerably more difficult to keep successfully. Captive breeding is exceedingly rare, and the conditions necessary are still unclear. Many specific strategies have been employed to attempt to get these rare snakes to breed.

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Simalia boeleni


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Tuesday's Gone

"Tuesday's Gone" is the second track on Lynyrd Skynyrd's debut album, (Pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd). It also appears on the band's first live LP, One More from the Road.

Production
Al Kooper added upfront Mellotron string sounds to the chorus of the song. It is one of a few Lynyrd Skynyrd songs on which Bob Burns, one of the original founding members and drummer, did not play. Atlanta Rhythm Section's drummer Robert Nix played on the studio version. Bob Burns, however, can be heard playing on the demo version from the same session.

Cover versions
Metallica covered "Tuesday's Gone" on the album Garage Inc., which features special appearances by Gary Rossington on guitar, Pepper Keenan from Corrosion of Conformity, John Popper from Blues Traveler, Les Claypool from Primus and Jerry Cantrell from Alice in Chains.

title: Tuesday's Gone


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kouria

Verb

 * 1) To work something powerfully with one's hands
 * 2) To massage with hands in an unpleasant way
 * 3) To knead treat or form as by kneading
 * 4) To grope touch another person closely and sexually

title: kouria


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User:Talvikki

Moikka!
(as we Finns say Hello) My name is Jenni Ahonen and yes I'm from Finland. At the moment I'm living in Reading, Berkshire, England and spending my beautiful Winter days doing my MA of Typeface Design in the University of Reading. Literally, I'm messing with type; reading about it or sketching my own typeface for children. Here's some of my thoughts about my typeface design: All my thoughts are still flowting around and I'm trying to make my direction clearer.
 * I want to design a typeface for kids that start to learn how to read (the typeface could be used in ABC books or even in the early books that parents read for their kids ?).
 * I'm thinking of making a hybrid type where elements (best parts) of serifs and sans-serifs are mixed, maybe little bit informal style 'a', 'g' etc. Would my design help reading to become easier for children? Does it help them to start to read other books (children's literature) after learned how to read? Not straight jump from sans-serif types (like it is fashion these days in learning books) to serifs. I would like my type to be friendly, warm and easy to take in, but it shouldn't be too playful (I need to make a difference between my design and comic/ over played types).
 * I've been wondering why it's not common in typefaces for children to design light face? Is it difficult to understand the forms when they are seemingly lighter?... If I think it's a good idea to design lighter version of the type, I would like to do it. Other faces could be italic, regular, bold and maybe funny feature, dingbats: A = apple, B = banana, C = carrot etc. Idea of the dingbats is to realate letter's shapes and sound to familiar object. The problem is that figures are then linked into certain language, in this case into English. I probably need to do also an outline face that children use to trace letters by finger and this way learn each letter's shape (in Dr. Rosemary Sassoon and Adrian William's Sassoon Primary Infant they have this feature).
 * It would be nice that the type has a longer function with children even after they know how to read. Maybe design a face that is for children's reading books (advanced readers), that the type has serifs and is more formal, but still has the same form language in it. What about low vision readers and deaf children? How to make a type that could take them in, children who have learning disabilities?
 * I'm still thinking of making Non-Latin typeface, but I'm not sure if it's too much for me. My time is limited and I don't want to produce type that isin't good, just good enough. If I decided still to do Non-Latin alphabet, I probably do a Cyrillic or Bengali Script (300 characters).

 * Talvikki on Wikipedia | Meta
 * Email: ahonen (dot) jenni (at) gmail (dot) com
 * Here's my helper's page :-)

Interests

 * Typography
 * Type design for Children
 * Readability and legibility
 * Typefaces used in online learning
 * 'Talking Books' and learning softwares for children
 * Children and online learning
 * Book of Kells
 * Green jewel
 * Finnish typographers
 * Irish typographers

Random

 * Sandbox
 * Dissertation topic

Links

 * Typeradio (interviews, talks and information of typography)
 * Gerard Unger (my teacher in the University of Reading)
 * Typographic design for children

title: User:Talvikki


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Bergwinkel

Bergwinkel is a region around the town of Schlüchtern in the county of Main-Kinzig-Kreis in East Hesse, Germany.

It describes a small region of the Landrücken, in which the foothills of the Brückenau Kuppenrhön to the east, the Sandstone Spessart to the south and the Southern Lower Vogelsberg to the west come together. In the dictionary, Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache by Joachim Heinrich Campe, the German word Bergwinkel is generically defined as "an angle between hills, a valley, which ends between two hills in a sharp angle."

In Schlüchtern there is the Bergwinkel Museum. The best known individual from the region is the medieval knight, Ulrich von Hutten, who was born at Steckelberg Castle.

title: Bergwinkel


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1888 Indiana gubernatorial election

The 1888 Indiana gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 1888. Republican nominee Alvin Peterson Hovey defeated Democratic nominee Courtland C. Matson with 49.03% of the vote.

Candidates
Major party candidates
 * Alvin Peterson Hovey, Republican, U.S. Representative
 * Courtland C. Matson, Democratic, U.S. Representative

Other candidates
 * Jasper Hughes, Prohibition
 * John B. Mulroy, Union Labor

title: 1888 Indiana gubernatorial election


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User:Mzee10/sandbox

Jürg Stahl (born 16 January 1968 in Winterthur) is a Swiss politician of the Swiss People's Party. He has been a member of the National Council for the canton of Zürich since 1999 and is the current President of the National Council.

Biography
Stahl underwent advanced training as a Pharmacist in Neuchâtel and graduated in 1992. He supplemented his education with a diploma in small business management at the University of St. Gallen. Between 1996 and 2004, Stahl ran a pharmacy in Winterthur. In 2004 he was elected as a member of the managment board of the health insurance company Group Mutuel.

Stahl's career in politics began as a member of Winterthur's municipal council between 1994 and 2001. In 2001, he missed the election to Winterthur's "Stadtrat" (executive) by a single vote.

Stahl was elected to the National Council in 1999 and reelected in 2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015. In 2016, Stahl was elected to succeed Christa Markwalder as President of the National Council, only days after he had been elected as president of Swiss Olympic (succeeding Jörg Schild).

Stahl served in the Swiss Air Force with the rank of major. He is married and has a daughter.

title: User:Mzee10/sandbox


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List of nuncios of the Holy See to China

The Holy See nuncio in Taipei is the official representative of the government in Vatican City to the government of Taiwan.

Apostolic delegates to China (1922–1946)
In 1922 Celso Benigno Luigi Costantini was appointed by the Holy See as Apostolic Delegate to China, without diplomatic status.


text:
serpe

Etymology
, from, from.

Noun

 * 1) billhook, pruning hook, sickle agricultural implement often with a curved or hooked end to the blade used for pruning or cutting thick, woody plants

Etymology
Attested since circa 1300. From, from , from. Cognate with 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) serpent, snake
 * 2)  dragon
 * 1)  dragon
 * 1)  dragon

Etymology
From, from , from , from.

Noun

 * 1) snake
 * 2) viper (figurative)

Noun

 * 1) serpent, snake

Etymology
From, from , from , from , from.

Cognate with 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬, 🇨🇬 and 🇨🇬.

Noun

 * 1) serpent, snake
 * 2)  wyvern
 * 3)  an ugly person
 * 1)  an ugly person

title: serpe


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1978–79 Carlisle United F.C. season

For the 1978–79 season, Carlisle United F.C. competed in Football League Division Three.

title: 1978–79 Carlisle United F.C. season


text:
User:Sperpig/sandbox

The Claus M. Halle Institute for Global Learning
The Claus M. Halle Institute for Global Learning is Emory University's main venue for visits by heads of state, distinguished policymakers, and influential public intellectuals from around the world. The institute’s major programs include the Halle Speaker Series, Halle Distinguished Fellows, Turkish Lecture Series, and the India Summit. Events and conferences are held year-round.

The institute also supports travel abroad for Emory faculty, staff, and students. These study trips allow participants to gain knowledge of the world. More than a hundred faculty and staff members have participated in the Halle Study Trip Program since its inception.

Claus Halle
Claus M. Halle (May 27, 1927- August 22, 2004) was born in Schwelm, Germany and spent much of his early childhood in India. At the age of 16, he was drafted into the German army during World War ll. In 1950 he started as a truck deliveryman for The Coca-Cola Company of Germany. Over the span of 45 years he rose to become president of Coca-Cola Germany, then president of Coca-Cola Europe, and, ultimately, senior exectuive president of The Coca-Cola Company and president of Coca-Cola International. He retired in 1989.

In 1986 Claus Halle established The Halle Foundation, which promotes transatlantic relations between the people of Germany and the United States.

He was heavily involved with numerous boards and societies. In 2001 he was honored as the Georgia Philanthropist of the Year.

The Halle Institute
Claus Halle established The Halle Institute for Global Learning in 1997 at Emory University. Marion Creekmore served as the institute’s first director from 1997-2001. Creekmore is a former Ambassador to Sri Lanka and currently a professor at Emory.

Emory faculty and staff can participate in the Halle Study Trip Program which visits Germany and India, two countries influential to Halle. The Halle Institute sponsors research on topics of global importance. The institute historically focused on programs relevant to East Asia, South and Central Asia, and Europe.

Programs
The Halle Institute hosts numerous programs throughout the year.

Halle Speaker Series
Since 2005, the Halle Speaker Series has brought international speakers to Atlanta for seminars and panel discussions that focus on current events. Some of the most prominent speakers include Ambassador to India Nirupama Rao, Al-Jazeera Washington Bureau Chief Abderrahim Foukara, and Le Monde cartoonist Jean Plantu.

China Speaker Series
Launched in 2012, the Chinese Speaker Series discusses China’s political history and its rise as a world power. This series is a collaboration with the China Research Center and The Carter Center China Program.

Sheth Lecture in Indian Studies
The Sheth Lecture in Indian Studies seeks to raise cultural awareness of India and South Asia and serve the Indian community in Atlanta and the Southeast. The annual series was established by the Sheth Family Foundation, a non-profit organization that promotes the understanding of Indian cultures in the Southeast.

Turkish Lecture Series
The Turkish Lecture Series brings scholars of Ottoman and Turkish studies to discuss Turkish current events and specific issues. Notable speakers have included Ambassadors Namik Tan and Nabi Sensoy.

India Summit
The India Summit brings together experts from different fields to discuss the economy, culture, and politics of India. Notable speakers have included Indian Ambassador to the United States Nirumpama Rao and author Salman Rushdie.

Halle Study Trips
The Halle Institute supports international study trips for faculty and students. Halle Study Trips have taken students and faculty to Germany, Belgium, India, South Korea, and China.

Halle Distinguished Fellows
Halle Distinguished Fellows are influential public figures and scholars from a range of fields. Fellows are invited to give public lectures and participate in seminars at Emory. Some notable Halle Distinguished Fellows include:
 * Jimmy Carter
 * Gurcharan Das
 * Rita Dove
 * Vicente Fox
 * Olafur Ragnar Grimsson
 * Chan Lien
 * Ferenc Madl
 * Salman Rushdie
 * Mikhail Saakashvili
 * Albie Sachs
 * Ellen Johnson Sirleaf

Additional Programs
The Halle Institute also supports Cartooning for Peace and Health, and research programs. Research events and conferences have covered topics ranging from medical breakthroughs to global history.

title: User:Sperpig/sandbox


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File:ArtRage2EyesWhiteFinished.jpg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to draw thumbnail storyboards with ArtRage2 free version.

title: File:ArtRage2EyesWhiteFinished.jpg


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Talk:Presidential Emergency Action Documents

This article is now outdated
I'm not up for editing but if anyone wants to update this article, we have confirmation from Miles Taylor that the "Presidential Emergency Action Documents" are known as the "doomsday book" (or at least part of that book, as the fed and other agencies have their own pieces of it) and that it includes powers like shutting off the internet, shutting down companies, and deploying the military on US soil. Dinosaurtoaster (talk) 17:57, 27 April 2024 (UTC)


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alreet

Adjective

 * 1)  alright

Interjection

 * 1)  All purpose greeting, often said in passing.
 * Alreet wor kid?
 * Aye, am canny man!

title: alreet


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arrapare

Etymology
, derive from "rapa" (turnip) because when the penis is in erection, the glans assume the rigidity and the size like a turnip.

Verb

 * 1)  to turn on, to arouse sexually
 * 2)  to be turned on, to be horny/randy

title: arrapare


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Little Brokenstraw Creek

Little Brokenstraw Creek is a 27.56 mi long 3rd order tributary to Brokenstraw Creek. Little Brokenstraw Creek and its tributaries are classed as a cold water fisheries by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission.

Variant names
According to the Geographic Names Information System, it has also been known historically as:
 * Cosh-not-e-a-go
 * Little Brocken Straw Creek
 * Little Broken Straw Creek

Course
Little Brokenstraw Creek rises on the French Creek divide about 2 miles northeast of Wickwire Corners, New York. It then flows southeast into Pennsylvania to meet Brokenstraw Creek at Pittsfield, Pennsylvania.

Watershed
Little Brokenstraw Creek drains 79.45 sqmi of primarily the Venango Formation. The watershed receives an average of 43.1 in/year of precipitation and has a wetness index of 444.38. The watershed is about 61% forested.

title: Little Brokenstraw Creek


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User:J.Steinbock~enwikiversity/Miscellaneous

 The Spanish Language Spanish or Castilian is an Iberian Romance language. It was spoken by roughly 364 million people in the year 2000. Current estimation accounts up to 400 million, making Spanish the second language in the world in number of speakers (after Mandarin Chinese) and the most widely spoken and the most widely studied Romance language. It is arguably the most widely studied foreign language for native speakers of English due to its perceived sense of practicality in a largely globalized Twenty-first Century, as both languages have similar numbers of native speakers, are very widely dispersed on a global scale, and are spoken in many countries. For similar reasons, it is also the most widely studied foreign language in Brazil, which is almost entirely surrounded by Spanish-speaking nations.

Spanish originated as a Latin dialect along a remote crossroads strip among the Cantabria, Burgos and La Rioja provinces of Northern Spain. From there, its use gradually spread inside the Kingdom of Castile, where it eventually became the principal language of government and trade. It was later brought to America and other parts of the world in the last five centuries by Spanish explorers, colonists and empire-builders. Spanish is one of six official working languages of the United Nations and one of the most used global languages, along with English. It is spoken most extensively in North and South America, Europe, and certain parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. Within the globalized market, there is currently an international expansion and recognition of the Spanish language in literature, the film industry, television (notably telenovelas) and mostly music.


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Portal:Artificial intelligence

Four approaches summarize past attempts to define the field:
 * The study of systems that think like humans.
 * The study of systems that think rationally.
 * The study of systems that act like humans.
 * The study of systems that act rationally.

Of these approaches, the former two are considered to be "white-box" approaches because they require our analysis of intelligence to be based on the rationale for the behaviour rather than the behaviour itself. The latter two are considered "black-box" approaches because they operationalize intelligence by measuring performance over a task domain. We prefer the latter two because they allow for quantitative comparisons between systems rather than requiring a qualitative comparison of rationales. We realize that the ultimate performance of a system will depend heavily on the task domain that it is situated in, and this motivates our preference for studying activity (behaviour) rather than thought (rationale).

Although the third approach, (known as cognitive modelling), is of great importance to cognitive scientists, we concern ourselves with the fourth approach. Of the four, this approach allows to consider the performance of a theoretical system that yields the behaviour optimally suited to achieve its goals, given the information available to it.

This approach motivates us to provide a model for our intelligent systems known as the intelligent agent.

Learning projects
See: Learning Projects and the Learning model.

Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the learning project (learning projects are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing! We suggest the use of the learning project template (use "subst:Learning project boilerplate" on the new page, inside the double curved brackets – ).

Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple departments. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource. Understanding AI as a field of Computer Science involves a thorough understanding of the following topics:

Remember, Wikiversity has adopted the "learning by doing" model for education. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. We learn by doing.

Select a descriptive name for each learning project.

Applied project

 * Building an artificial neural network using reinforcement learning strategies

Research projects

 * Neural Symbolic Learning and Reasoning

Readings

 * https://www.deeplearning.ai/
 * https://github.com/fastai/fastbook/
 * Your Deep Learning Journey
 * From Model to Production
 * Data Ethics
 * Under the Hood: Training a Digit Classifier
 * Image Classification
 * Other Computer Vision Problems
 * Training a State-of-the-Art Model
 * Collaborative Filtering Deep Dive
 * Tabular Modeling Deep Dive
 * NLP Deep Dive: RNNs
 * Data Munging with fastai's Mid-Level API
 * A Language Model from Scratch
 * Convolutional Neural Networks
 * ResNets
 * Application Architectures Deep Dive
 * The Training Process
 * A Neural Net from the Foundations
 * CNN Interpretation with CAM
 * A fastai Learner from Scratch
 * Concluding Thoughts
 * Appendix: Jupyter Notebook 101
 * Natural Language Processing (NLP) course
 * transformer models
 * using transformers: pipeline, tokenizer, AutoModel, decoding, padding, attention mask
 * fine-tuning a pretrained model: preprocessing, dataset, dynamic padding, batch, collate function, train, predict, evaluate, accelerate
 * sharing models and tokenizers: hub, model card
 * the datasets library
 * the tokenizers library
 * main nlp tasks
 * how to ask for help
 * building and sharing demos new
 * Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, companion to the popular textbook

Wikipedia

 * Deep belief network
 * Speech recognition
 * List of artificial intelligence projects
 * List of datasets for machine learning research
 * Deep belief network
 * Speech recognition
 * List of artificial intelligence projects
 * List of datasets for machine learning research
 * Deep belief network
 * Speech recognition
 * List of artificial intelligence projects
 * List of datasets for machine learning research
 * List of datasets for machine learning research

Open source software

 * EVO - 3D artificial life simulator
 * MindForth artificial mind for robots
 * Open Source 3D Vision Library
 * Texai English Lexicon, Fluid Construction Grammar, and RDF Entity Manager

People

 * --NicholasTurnbull 04:12, 14 November 2008 (UTC)

Papers

 * Papers @ CALO: Cognitive Agent that Learns and Organizes

Fachbereich Virtuelle Wissenskonstruktion fr:Département:Intelligence artificielle Introdução à Inteligência Artificial Факультет искусственного интеллекта

title: Portal:Artificial intelligence


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List of United States servicemembers and civilians missing in action during the Vietnam War (1961–1965)

This article is a list of US MIAs of the Vietnam War in the period 1961–1965. In 1973, the United States listed 2,646 Americans as unaccounted for from the entire Vietnam War. By October 2022, 1,582 Americans remained unaccounted for, of which 1,004 were classified as further pursuit, 488 as non-recoverable and 90 as deferred.


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God Gene

Welcome to the Wikiversity discussion group for the idea that there might be a biological basis for spirituality or genes that predispose people towards religious belief.

Discussion topics and readings
'God gene' discovered by scientist behind gay DNA theory By Elizabeth Day in the LONDON SUNDAY TELEGRAPH

"Dean Hamer, the director of the Gene Structure and Regulation Unit at the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, asked volunteers 226 questions in order to determine how spiritually connected they felt to the universe.The higher their score, the greater the person's ability to believe in a greater spiritual force and, Mr. Hamer found, the more likely they were to share the gene VMAT2."

Additional readings

 * Is God in Our Genes? by Jeffrey Kluger. TIme Magazine. Sunday, Oct. 17, 2004.
 * God gene - article at Wikipedia

Pseudoscience
"Pseudoscience, astrology, eugenics, quackery, the occult, and superstition, is any subject that appears superficially to be scientific or whose proponents state is scientific but nevertheless contravenes the testability requirement, or substantially deviates from other fundamental aspects of the scientific method." - Pseudoscience as defined by Wikipedia

title: God Gene