text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jesse Smith, Jr.

The result was Delete --MelanieN (talk) 04:10, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

Jesse Smith, Jr.

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Not notable as an actor or martial artist. There are no independent sources--they're either from his website or from NBC who was airing the shows he appeared on. His MMA record isn't close to showing notability and his Guinness record is for "delivering the strongest measured kick to another person's groin" (a niche and minor record).Mdtemp (talk) 20:52, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete As per nominator.Peter Rehse (talk) 21:44, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Martial arts-related deletion discussions. Peter Rehse (talk) 21:55, 9 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of United States of America-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 17:07, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Wrestling-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 17:07, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Actors and filmmakers-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 17:07, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Sportspeople-related deletion discussions. • Gene93k (talk) 17:07, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Delete Doesn't meet any notability standards for martial artists, MMA fighters, kickboxers, or actors. No coverage listed that meets GNG standards. <IP_ADDRESS> (talk) 18:46, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Delete Article has no independent sources and he doesn't appear to meet any notability criteria. Papaursa (talk) 17:34, 15 February 2015 (UTC)


text:
Juan Pablo Passaglia

Juan Pablo Passaglia (born 24 May 1989) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as midfielder for Primera Nacional club Agropecuario.

Honours

 * Juventud Unida Universitario
 * Torneo Federal A: 2015

 * CA Barracas Central
 * Primera B Metropolitana: 2018–19

source: wikimedia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Juan Pablo Passaglia


text:
double-declutch

Verb

 * 1) To disengage the clutch twice in quick succession to change gear on a vehicle with no synchromesh.

title: double-declutch


text:
User:Raccoon Fox/Broadcasting

Television and Broadcasting Sources
I get my sources for television stations from the following pages:

 * FCC.gov TV Query Page
 * FCCinfo.com
 * TVRadioWorld.com
 * W9WI.com
 * fybush.com
 * Nielsen's list of DMAs
 * American Media Markets Map
 * Television Markets in the Continental US
 * TV Radio World
 * Nelson Media
 * Caribbean TV
 * Mexican callsigns and allocations
 * DigtalSyndicate.TV: US Territories TV call-signs
 * TV Broadcasters of Canada
 * SVG-TV
 * stations in Windsor/Detroit/Toledo/Cleveland

Broadcasting History
In the 1990s, John CoonFox helped out at CBET 9, (CBC Windsor), testing cameras, and even getting a chance to sit in the Anchor's chair shortly before the station was remodled, given a chance to read a test paragraph from a teleprompter.

On March 3, 2005, he recieved a reply from CFTV 34 Executive Producer Scott Hillier about possible volunteer work or even employment at the station, for covering stories in the northern part of Essex County, and Windsor. He already owns a 1987 RCA VHS camcorder that he hopes will work. He is also quite eager to find potential employment with Southshore Broadcasting in Leamington, Ontario.

Media
This is my media.

Wikipedia Directory

 * Raccoon Fox's User Page
 * About Raccoon Fox
 * About Raccoon Fox's Character
 * Raccoon Fox's Broadcasting Page
 * Raccoon Fox's Wikipedia Information Page
 * Raccoon Fox's Talk Page
 * Raccoon Fox's Contributions
 * User:Raccoon Fox/List of channel two TV stations in Canada
 * User:Raccoon Fox/List of channel three TV stations in Canada
 * User:Raccoon Fox/List of channel four TV stations in Canada
 * User:Raccoon Fox/List of channel five TV stations in Canada
 * User:Raccoon Fox/List of channel six TV stations in Canada

title: User:Raccoon Fox/Broadcasting


text:
Harsh Ka Tila

The archaeological excavations located on the outskirts of the city of Kurukshetra. Kurukshetra, District : Kurukshetra, Adjacent to Sheikh Chilli's Tomb, Excavation revealed antiquities from first millennium BCE to 19th century related to Vedic & Late Vedic periods, and at least six other subsequent cultural and historical periods. Site was abandoned after the vedic period in the first millennium BCE, then continuously habited from 1st century CE to 19th century. The site, spread over an area of 1 km x750 m x 23 m, containts historical remnants belonging to vedic as well as six continuously habited post-vedic periods ranging from Kushan to Mughal era.

Excavation site
The partially excavated site, located north of Thanesar and accessible by road, is 1km long x 750m wide x 23m high. Northeast corner of the site has a caravanserai and Sheikh Chilli's Tomb. This site was excavated by Shri B.M.Pandey of Archaeological Survey of India for 4 continuous seasons from 1987-88 to 1990-91.

Findings
Chronologically, oldest to the newest, the following cultures were found:

 * Vedic period (1300-300 BCE: shards of Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW, usually associated with the vedic period of Mahabharata).

 * Late Vedic period (700-200 BCE): shards of plain grey (Northern Black Polished Ware).

 * Kushan period (39-375 CE): pottery culture found includes typical Kushan red ware as well as associated moulded bright red slipped ware and Polished Red Ware (PRW). The square structure made of a baked bricks, copper coins, terracotta seals with Brahmi inscriptions, terracotta figurines of human and animals, terracotta plaques a, copper coins, bone and ivory artifacts, bangles made of shell, and metal objects were also found.

 * Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE): Polished Red Ware, bright red slipped and plain red wares pottery of daily use utensils such as footed bowls and sprinklers. Other finds include broken stone statue of Lord Vishnu, terracotta plaque depicting a couple in sexual position, casting mould for making human head, terracotta figures of humans and animals, seals with Brahmi inscription, human and animal figurines, beads, copper and iron artifacts.

 * Post-Gupta or Vardhan period of Pushyabhuti dynasty (6th century to 7th century CE): multi-room complex, statue of Kubera, broken inscription. Polished Red Ware and red ware, terracotta artifacts, ivory and shell were also found. Associated with the post-Gupta period include polished redware.

 * Rajput period (8th to 12th century CE) i.e. Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty (8-12 century CE), Tomara dynasty (8-11 century CE) & Chauhan Dynasty (12th century CE): two rooms, which were part of a larger complex, in Pratihara architecture style with the evidence of stairs in the form of optional grooves in the corner of the room were found. Charred wooden doorframes and remains of fire on all walls indicate that the building collapsed due to the fire. Fragments of statues from Pratihara period but also found. The pottery culture finds include medium fabric red ware with decorations of concentric circles, floral & net-shapes stamped on them. Several hundred clay tablets with incised impressions of three vertical and oblique lines.

 * Sultanate period (13th to 16th century CE): On the western side of the mound, ruins of residential building with a large circular bastion and a smaller bastion for phone which showed the sign of being in use in the subsequent periods as well. Pottery finds include red ware and glazed ware. Other artifacts found where copper coins, terracotta figurines of animal and humans, beads made from semi-precious stones, iron and copper equipment.

 * Mughal period (16th to 19th century CE: building complex with residential area, hall, a big arched structure, staircases, streets, a well, garden complex and bastions, etc in Mughal architectural style. Mughal garden complex is based on the charbagh pattern. Pottery cultural finds include the glazed ware, grey ware, stone ware and sherds of Chinese porcelain with floral designs and chinese language inscriptions. The stairs inside might've been built later on, the Chamber in it is quite wide and spherical on the top. Just as compartments are created for horses in the stable, Delhi's zoo comprises a similar structure for the elephants.

The major discovery of the post-Gupta period is represented by brick structures associated with 'Red Polished Ware' including a Mughal period garden complex on the Charbagh pattern.

title: Harsh Ka Tila


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject South Africa/Wikipedia Primary School/Outcome

Paper 1

 * draft
 * wikipedians mentionned
 * Midnightblueowl
 * Zaian
 * Storkk


text:
User:Truthistrue

Truthistrue is dedicated to keeping it real by keeping options and facts is different places. If you don't like it please feel free to talk about it.

title: User:Truthistrue


text:
Talk:List of members of the National Transportation Safety Board

Strange links in "Notes" section
In the "Notes" section, notes "a" and "d" include lists of other notes. So note "a. Chair" (which is linked from each person who served as chair) includes links to a (itself!) b, c, d... m, n. What is the meaning of all those links? Why, for example, does this note "a" include a link to "k Died during a plane crash in 1989."? 2600:8801:8100:40F:D5B1:9488:BD20:5AB0 (talk) 22:29, 18 November 2021 (UTC)


text:
D. Maria II National Theatre

The Queen Maria II National Theatre (Teatro Nacional D. Maria II) is a theatre in Lisbon, Portugal. The historic theatre is one of the most prestigious Portuguese venues and is located in the Rossio square, in the centre of the city.

History
The theatre was built on the north side of Rossio square on the site of the old Estaus Palace, built around 1450 as a lodging for foreign dignitaries and noblemen visiting Lisbon. In the 16th century, when the Inquisition was installed in Portugal, the Estaus Palace became the seat of the Inquisition. The palace survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, but was destroyed by fire in 1836.

Thanks to the intensive efforts of Romantic poet and dramatist Almeida Garrett, it was decided to replace the old palace by a modern theatre, dedicated to Queen Mary II of Portugal. The building was constructed between 1842 and 1846 to a Neoclassical design by Italian architect Fortunato Lodi.

The Theatre building was as a Property of Public Interest in 1928, and has been reclassified as National Monument since 2003.

Architecture
The building is the best representative of Neoclassical architecture of Palladian influence in Lisbon. The main feature of the façade is a portico (hexastyle) with six Ionic columns reused from the Saint Francis Convent of Lisbon and a triangular pediment. The tympanum of the pediment is decorated with a sculpted relief showing Apollo and the Muses.

The pediment is topped by a statue of Renaissance playwright Gil Vicente (c. 1464-c. 1536), considered the founder of Portuguese theatre. Ironically, some of Gil Vicente's plays had been censured by the Portuguese Inquisition in the late 16th century.

The interior of the theatre was decorated by many important 19th-century Portuguese artists, but much of this decoration was lost in a fire in 1964. The theatre had to be completely renovated and was reinaugurated only in 1978.

title: D. Maria II National Theatre


text:
User:Blackkettle/sandbox

Today i am learning about wiki, the sun is shining ] but I got wet walking the hound. British library website Blackkettle (talk) 14:15, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User:Blackkettle/sandbox


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dawn School

The result was delete. The "keep" opinions do not address the actual sourcing status of this article, but only refer to a supposed consensus for keeping all secondary schools. All who have followed the RfCs and discussions about this topic know that this is precisely an issue on which the community has no consensus. The "keep" opinions must therefore be discounted as weakly argued.  Sandstein  09:22, 7 October 2017 (UTC)

Dawn School

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

Article's sole source is to the school itself, and the text proper is promotional. Google News turns up only the school's Facebook page with quotes, and irrelevant news stories without. — Jeremy  v^_^v  Bori! 05:59, 21 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of India-related deletion discussions. Mark the trainDiscuss 08:04, 21 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Education-related deletion discussions. Mark the trainDiscuss 08:04, 21 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Note: This debate has been included in the list of Schools-related deletion discussions. Mark the trainDiscuss 08:04, 21 September 2017 (UTC)

 * Keep Delete. per WP:SCHOOLOUTCOMES. Α Guy into Books ™  § ( Message ) -  09:39, 21 September 2017 (UTC) My original vote was based on my (clearly incorrect) assumption this was a primary school.  Dysklyver  08:36, 7 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Delete per WP:GNG, WP:NORG and WP:NOTPROMO. Pburka (talk) 22:57, 25 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Keep as a secondary school per longstanding precedent and consensus. -- Necrothesp (talk) 12:38, 28 September 2017 (UTC)
 * You mean the longstanding precedent and consensus that was explicitly rejected back in February? — Jeremy  v^_^v  Bori! 19:39, 28 September 2017 (UTC)
 *  No, it wasn't! The RfC was completely inconclusive and does not override existing consensus. This has been discussed endlessly since and still almost no secondary school articles have been deleted. -- Necrothesp (talk) 13:33, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Is that because few have been taken to AfD or because you keep citing-not-citing WP:SCHOOLOUTCOMES and not pointing people to the RfC? At this point you're about to be put in the same class of editors as Flagged Revisions supporters to me. — Jeremy  v^_^v  Bori! 23:14, 3 October 2017 (UTC)

 * ('Jeremy'), I'll repeat 's comment in case you missed it:  If there is any consensus, it is the one that that RfC didn't have one.  Kudpung กุดผึ้ง (talk) 22:01, 4 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Not buying it. The first line in the summarisation of the close is: Secondary schools are not presumed to be notable simply because they exist. The closer also makes note that any argument on that ground essentially boils down to appeal to tradition circular reasoning, as opposed to the arguments agaimnst it whiich actually pointed to relevant Wikipedia policies. In other words, your "per longstanding precedent and consensus" argument was in fact explicitly rejected in the RfC, no matter how you try to spin it. — Jeremy  v^_^v  Bori! 23:44, 4 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes, the RfC did not override existing consensus on the notability of secondary schools. It did however, effectively override existing consensus by making these such AfDs such heavily participated that both the consensus' you pointed out are being overruled as people are actually reading the closure. please read this: Secondary schools are not presumed to be notable simply because they exist, which was actually the consensus, making all of this extremely hard to understand. Unless I missed something, in which case it would go completely bollocks. :)   J  947 ( c ) (m)   20:45, 6 October 2017 (UTC)

 Relisted to generate a more thorough discussion and clearer consensus.

Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, Winged Blades of Godric On leave 08:23, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Delete due to a lack of reliable, independent sources. Cordless Larry (talk) 14:42, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Keep. Even if it was inconclusive, the summary of the RfC on secondary school notability identified above includes the following:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"

 * Because extant secondary schools often have reliable sources that are concentrated in print and/or local media, a deeper search than normal is needed to attempt to find these sources. At minimum, this search should include some local print media.
 * }
 * The article should not be deleted without a thorough search for reliable sources, which should ideally include local print-only newspapers and sources in languages other than English. I know that this will not be feasible for most editors. This is particularly important for schools outside first world countries where web coverage, English-language sources and Wikpedia editors are less common, because of the risk of systemic bias. The article does not appear to be a hoax, and school's website suggests that the school is large enough to be notable. Verbcatcher (talk) 20:03, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * , I have searched the 462 Indian sources archived by LexisNexis, and not found any coverage. Cordless Larry (talk) 20:17, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * thank you. However, the LexisNexis website says that are for "seeking legal solutions, news & business insights", which does not indicate a focus on this area. Their 462 Indian sources is not impressive in the context of Media of India which says that India has more than 70,000 newspapers. Does it cover the sources listed in Media in Chennai, particularly the Tamil language newspapers and the local newspapers? Verbcatcher (talk) 22:59, 29 September 2017 (UTC)
 * It includes many newspapers, but not in Tamil and more focused on the national and regional level than the local. However, I would argue that without any independent sources available to us, there is nothing to base on article on at present. If local coverage is found at a later date, then perhaps the article could be recreated based on that coverage. Cordless Larry (talk) 10:09, 30 September 2017 (UTC)
 * I agree with Larry, for what it's worth. Once we start seeing usable independent sources, I have no objection to re-creating the article, but with the sources we can find right now nothing doing. The language barrier is going to be a significant issue here, especially as more and more schools from the Subcontinent are going to be looking at Wikipedia as free Google ranking. I just wish automated translation of those languages didn't return broken English at best. — Jeremy  v^_^v  Bori! 21:33, 30 September 2017 (UTC)

 * Delete--Local media gives nothing relevant or significant.(I mean the state dailies et al) Winged Blades of Godric On leave 06:38, 30 September 2017 (UTC)
 * If it is not kept then it should be merged into Nolambur, where the school is located, with a redirect. Verbcatcher (talk) 21:41, 30 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Keep as a secondary school per longstanding precedent and consensus. Kudpung กุดผึ้ง (talk) 12:10, 3 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Do you have any independent sources, ? My understanding of the consensus (whether it still remains or not is debatable) is that it involved keeping articles only when independent sources existed. Cordless Larry (talk) 13:14, 3 October 2017 (UTC)

 * Delete Per the RFC from February 2017 that states (among others) Secondary schools are not presumed to be notable simply because they exist. Fails WP:RS. Wikipedia is not a medium to promote a school. The Banner talk 14:09, 3 October 2017 (UTC)
 * That RfC also states: WP:SCHOOLOUTCOMES should be added to the Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions, as it is an accurate statement of the results but promotes circular reasoning.. In fact as a secondary school per longstanding precedent and consensus is nothing more than The Banner talk 14:27, 3 October 2017 (UTC)
 * See also Articles for deletion/ARS Public School, another school in India, where the same issues apply. Verbcatcher (talk) 19:23, 4 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Regretful redirect (or smerge) (in)to Nolambur per longstanding precedent for schools not kept at AfDs – Upon reading through the closure of [the February RFCI have found that the closure is confusing and inconclusive, but from my understanding the result was 'no consensus, defaulting to status quo. However—rather surprisingly, in fact—I have found not a single [[WP:RS|reliable source]] that is independent of the subject. If some editor can find some, I will change my !vote to weak keep (second choice, per this being in a third-world area with limited news coverage) per the outcome of the RfC. Also, Secondary schools are not presumed to be notable simply because they exist was the status quo back then; existence has to be verified by a reliable secondary source independent of the subject. I believe though, that the correct interpretation would of been reliable secondary source s independent of the subject. Now though, school AfDs have become much further scrutinised because of the RfC, and I feel that is a slightly negative aspect. I cannot find any mentions of the school, which is probably because the school was made only in 2008. As a further note, promotional language is a content issue and ought to be discussed at the article's talk page, not here.  J 947 ( c ) (m)   20:35, 6 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Delete - unconvinced by the argument that sources might exist but we can't find them; they might not and even if they do, until they are found, they can't be used. Pinkbeast (talk) 22:48, 6 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Note:, , , , , reasons for not deleting this article are clearly laid out at WP:ATD-R (Alternatives to deletion) - a policy, not an essay or a guideline. Kudpung กุดผึ้ง (talk) 02:01, 7 October 2017 (UTC)
 * That's one of the reasons why my !vote was redirect.  J 947 ( c ) (m)   02:11, 7 October 2017 (UTC)


text:
User:Lokiz0r

Hi. I'm known as Loki to my friends. I'm 20, male and single, and I live in Derby, England, where I'm a student at the University of Derby studying BSc Computer Games Programming.

I can be found in a variety of places around the Internet - one of my better profiles can be found here, on LiveJournal. Feel free to get in touch!

title: User:Lokiz0r


text:
CisLunarFreighter/Requirement analysis and high level design

Object Oriented Software Engineering
 * Component, Responsibility, Collaborators (CRC)Cards - 4" X 6" note cards
 * Design, Code, or Case Scenario Walkthroughs

CRC Cards
This exercise is based loosely upon the technique demonstrated in Chapter One of Classic Data Structures in C++ by Timothy A. Budd, cp1994 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. In a local object orieted design project using C++ CRC (Component, Responsibility, Collaborating Objects) cards are used to jot down names and bullets outlining the high level components identified in walkthrough as required for the project design.

Local Adaptation
A procedure we may use here for asnychronous, distributed, walkthroughs is as follows: Individual files shall be created for proposed components. Responsibilities for that component jotted down in bullet form at the top of the screen, simulating a 4" X 6" note card. When another component is called a link will eventually be created to that component. Actions the component must complete are listed in the bottom half of the computer screen/file.

For the highest level walkthough or design Budd designates the most important characteristics of potential design components as: 1. A small set of well defined responsibilities must result. If the component has too many responsibilities then it should be busted into multiple components and the walkthrough reaccomplished. 2. Interactions with other components should be minimalized to the greatest extent possible.

Effort expended achieving the two characteristics above are alleged to provide large benefits in the coding process and final code.

Draft Component/Card Set

 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Initial Splashscreen, Launcher, Menu
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Load and Mission Generator
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Ship
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Ship Designer
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Personal Game Data
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Terran Spaceport
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Spacecraft Freight Load Planner
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Takeoff or Lander Screen
 * Terran, Lunar, Asteroid, or Saturn Pirate Base

 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Pilot's Cockpit Screen
 * Mini Map Radar Overview, Cockpit Menu, Headsup Communicator

 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card 2D Overview Asteroids or Meteor Shower Flythrough
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Solar System Game Controller
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card User Keyboard Interface Controller
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card User Mouse Interface Controller
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Background Music Selection and Player
 * cisLunarFreighter CRC Card Lunar Spaceport

Components called as Collaborators
* Animation player * Background display * Main Menu


text:
grandissime

Etymology
, itself inherited from, the superlative of. Old French had grandisme inherited from the same Latin word, which would have given grandîme if it had survived until Modern French.

Adjective

 * 1) supersized; gigantic

title: grandissime


text:
The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels

The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels is a 2014 climate denialist book by Alex Epstein that advocates for the expansion of fossil fuels. Epstein runs the Center for Industrial Progress, a for-profit think tank.

Reception
The book was a New York Times and Wall Street Journal bestseller.

The book received praise from conservative publications such as The Wall Street Journal, Barron's, National Review, Reason, and The Morning Sun of Pittsburg, Kansas.

However, the book's conclusions were heavily criticized by publications following the scientific mainstream, with critical reviews published by Inside Higher Ed, The Huffington Post, The Guardian, and Our World, a publication of the United Nations University. Jason Wilson of The Guardian found that "Epstein's work has been popular and influential on the right because it is a particularly fluent, elaborate form of climate denialism."

In 2014, Epstein was interviewed by Peter Thiel at an event hosted by the energy startup Tachyus. Thiel also provided a blurb for the book.

In December 2014, political commentator John McLaughlin called Epstein "most original thinker of the year" for his book during McLaughlin's yearly The McLaughlin Group roundup.

title: The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels


text:
Regents Earth Science (High School)

This text was written to prepare students for the New York State Regents Earth Science exam. As such, it closely follows the New York State Standards for Mathematics, Science, and Technology.

Observation and Inference
Observation basically means watching something and taking note of anything it does. For instance, you might observe a bird flying by watching it closely. To infer is to draw a conclusion based on what one already knows and on that alone. Suppose you see rain on your window - you can infer from that, quite trivially, that the sky is grey.

Density
The concept of density is fundamental to understanding many aspects of Earth Science. Density is a derived unit. That is, the density of a substance must be calculated (or derived) from other measurements. Density is calculated by using the mass (grams) and volume (mL or cm3) of a given sample. Mass is determined by using a balance and volume of a fluid or solid can be determined by using a graduated cylinder. In this course, the equation for density is shown on p. 1 of the Earth Science Reference Tables as:

D = m/v, in which D represents density; m represents mass; and v represents volume. Some of the other sciences and engineering disciplines make use of a slightly different form of the equation for density. Solutions to problems that require the use of the density equation should include the corresponding metric system (or SI)units.

Density is considered an intrinsic property. That is, the density of a material at a specific temperature and pressure remains the same regardless of the size of the sample being considered. Density may be useful in helping to identify specific materials such as minerals, or in helping interpret or predict the behaviors of materials as they interact with other materials, or are subjected to changes in temperature or pressure.

Percent Error
The concept of "percent error" is also known as "percent deviation from an accepted value", and the second term may be more helpful in understanding what is actually being determined in the equation used to calculate it. All equations that are given in the Earth Science Reference Tables are on page 1.

The equation is (|(Accepted Value-Measured Value)|/(Accepted Value))*100, sometimes written as:

 * (Difference from Accepted Value)|/(Accepted Value)*100, or simply: (Difference from Accepted Value)/(Accepted Value)*100.

Because one has already multiplied by 100, the equation will yield a percentage value, so the appropriate unit of % should be shown in your calculated value. One could report the value as positive or negative, and this would give information about whether your measurement is "high" or "low", but usually the absolute value of the percent deviation is reported (the difference is converted to a positive number).

The concept of percent error or percent deviation relates to a measure used by some people in statistics in which you determine how close a value that is measured (or that is calculated from measurements) is to a value that is given as "known" or "accepted". Thus the term "error" sometimes leads to a sense of panic that something was done wrong if the percent deviation from the accepted value is high. It is possible to have very high percent deviations if the accepted value is a small number, even if your measured value is close to the accepted. It is also possible that the particular thing one is measuring (say the mass for a mineral sample) may have a density that is slightly different from what is "accepted" because it contains some "impurities" (variations in the elemental composition). If one calculates a high value for a percent deviation from an accepted value, just make sure that the calculation has been done correctly, but never change the values measured to lower this percentage as these are based on actual observations!

Multiple Choice
Which of these represents the density of a metal block whose mass is 200 g and volume 150 cubic centimeters?

(A) 3 000 grams per cubic centimeter. (B) 50 grams per cubic centimeter. (C) 350 grams per cubic centimeter. (D) 1.3 grams per cubic centimeter.

Constructed Response
(D) 1.3 grams per cubic centimeter

Shape of the Earth
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It bulges at the equator and is flattened at the poles.

Evidence of its spherical shape comes from photographs of the Earth from space, seeing the shadow of Earth during a lunar eclipse, and the fact that ships seem to sink as they move farther into sea. Also, the altitude of the star Polaris increases with latitude.

Evidence for the fact that it is oblate comes from photographs of the Earth from space and variations in gravity along the Earth's surface (stronger at the poles where flattened, weaker at the equator where bulging, also, gravity does not pull directly down). Also, the altitude of Polaris does not vary uniformly when increasing latitude.

The best model for the earth is a globe or a ball because Yunis says so though the Earth is oblate, it is only slightly so. On Regents exams, very often there is a question about the shape of the Earth and the answer is a ping pong ball because it is smooth and round.

Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids.

Inorganic substances are those not formed by living things, and in the majority of cases, this is true of all minerals, though there are some notable exceptions. Inorganic molecules usually do not contain carbon as a component in their atomic structures, though again, there are some inorganic minerals that are exceptions to this general statement.

A substance is said to be crystalline if it has a regular, repeating atomic structure. Each mineral has a specific atomic structure and formula, such as is given on page 16 of the Earth Science Reference Tables. The individual molecule made by these atoms forms the most basic structure of that type of mineral, and then typically combines chemically with others of the same kind so that the mineral becomes larger. Mineral samples may be microscopic or extremely large, but all the crystals of a single type of mineral share common chemical and physical properties because they share the same chemical composition, types of chemical bonds, and positions of the individual atoms within each of the mineral's molecules. This fact, that a single mineral, whether large or small reacts similarly to chemical and physical tests is very useful in identification.

Minerals are solids. There is actually a group of substances known as crystalline liquids, but those do not fit into the definition needed for this course.

Difference Between Rocks and Minerals
Rocks - Any natural formed aggregate or mass of mineral matter constituting an essential and appreciable part of the Earth's crust (AGI).

Mineral - A naturally formed chemical element or compound having a definite range in chemical composition, and usually a characteristic crystal form (AGI).

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is measured in several relative scales that are determined by how readily one mineral scratches the surface of another. The Mohs scale of hardness has ten level. #1 Talc, #2 gypsum, #3 calcite...... up to #10 DIAMOND the hardest natural substance because of the internal arrangement of its carbon atoms and the atomic bond forces in its tetrahedral shape.

Streak
The streak of a mineral refers to the color of the powder left behind when the mineral is scratched across a very hard surface, usually an unglazed porcelain plate. Most streak plates are white, though a few may be dark colored. Since a streak plate has a hardness of about 7 on Moh's scale of hardness, minerals that scratch a streak plate will obviously leave no powder behind (other than that of the streak plate itself). Typically, we group minerals by the colors of the streaks they produce. Oddly, many metallic minerals that appear shiny when viewed in a larger sample leave a dark or colored line on a streak plate. Since very small quantities of an element may cause a mineral to take on different colors, but streak tends to stay more or less consistent, we sometimes say that the color of the powdered mineral, or streak, is a more accurate test for a mineral's identity than using the color alone.

Color
The color of a mineral is generally easily influenced by a number of factors such as very small quantities of impurities in the mineral's atomic structure. Weathering of a mineral's surface may also influence how the color appears, so color is generally not as reliable a way to identify a specific mineral as is using tests such as hardness, the way a mineral breaks, or even the streak (the color of the powdered mineral).

There are also many other optical properties besides color that minerals may posses that may be unique to particular minerals, or groups of minerals.

Cleavage and Fracture
The way a mineral breaks is controlled mostly by the internal arrangement of its molecules. Though all minerals are considered crystalline and therefore have a repeating pattern of atoms in their structures, sometimes the chemical bonds in these patterns allow a mineral to break along smooth planes. Other times an uneven surface is produced. Since the way a mineral breaks is an expression of the molecular pattern, we can use this visible feature to infer properties about the internal structure of the mineral. Further, how a mineral breaks is a characteristic identifying feature of specific minerals. Breaking minerals may produce surprising results since some minerals may produce smooth crystal shapes as they form, yet break unevenly.

When a mineral breaks along smooth planes it possesses the property called cleavage. Minerals may break along one direction of cleavage or several. When there is more than one direction of cleavage, we are also interested in knowing the angles created between different cleavage directions. A single cleavage direction is inferred to extend throughout the entire sample, so it is important to not confuse parallel sides of the same cleavage plane that occur on different sides of a mineral sample. An example would be a mineral such as halite, that breaks with 3 directions of cleavage each at a 90 degree angle to each other. This pattern of breaking will produce a mineral sample shape that tends to be cubic, but any two opposite sides of the cubic shape are actually in the same plane, so the six sides of the broken sample result from three directions of cleavage. It is fun to slowly break a mineral using a tool such as a bench vise and watch the cleavage planes develop as the stress is applied to the sample, though you should wear appropriate safety equipment because sometimes little chips of the sample tend to fly off unpredictably!

When a mineral breaks unevenly, and does not break along smooth planes, it is said to break with fracture. Sometimes the type of fracture is itself characteristic, such as with the mineral quartz. Quartz has what is known as conchoidal fracture. Its fractured surfaces look somewhat like broken glass (most glass is made from quartz), and the name conchoidal comes from the word "conch" (like the sea shell) because this type of fracture makes a shell-like depression in the mineral as it breaks.

Knowing how specific minerals break and whether they have a certain type of fracture or if they have one or several directions of cleavage is one of the ways to help identify minerals or predict the behaviors a certain mineral may exhibit if it were to break. Useful information on minerals related to cleavage and fracture is found on page 16 of the Earth Science Reference Tables.

Luster
Luster refers to the way that light reflects off the surface of a mineral sample, particularly a freshly broken or unweathered surface of the sample. The two major divisions in the classification we make are whether minerals have metallic or non-metallic luster. On page 16 of the Earth Science Reference Tables, the only common mineral listed that may have either metallic or non-metallic luster is hematite. Like all physical properties of minerals, the luster of a mineral is due to the particular aspects of its chemical composition and its atomic bonds.

Sedimentary
Break down (erosion) of rock will yield smaller sized particles (sediments). As sediments are moved from one place to another by a transporting medium (either by wind or water) they are deposited in basins (loactions where deposition occurs). If a cementing material is introduced to these sediments then lithification (formation of rock) will result and the outcome will be a Sedimentary rock.

Among the common cementing material is calcium carbonate and silica.

Sedimentary rock = Erosion of rock + transport of sediments + lithification.

Size of particles of a sedimentary rock indicate the environment of deposition. Coarse grained particle sizes indicate a terrestrial (land) to shallow marine environment. The smaller the particle size indicates the more we move towards the deeper sea environment.

Common sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale and siltstone.

Igneous
Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".

Magma origination The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7-10 kilometers beneath the oceans. The continental crust is composed primarily of crystalline basement; stable igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granulite, granite and various other intrusive rocks. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt, gabbro and peridotite.

The crust floats on the asthenospheric mantle, which is convecting due to the forces of plate tectonics. The mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers is the source of all magma. Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.

Melting of rocks requires temperature, water and pressure. The mantle is generally over 1000 to 1200 °c beneath the crust, at depths of between 7 and 70km. However, most magma is generated at depths of between 20 and 50 km. Melting begins because of upwelling of hot mantle from deeper portions of the earth, nearer the Planetary core; because of water driven off subducted oceanic crust at subduction zones (providing water to lower the melting point of the rocks) and because of decompression caused by rifting.

Melting of the continental crust occurs rarely because it is usually dry, and composed of minerals and rocks which are resistant to melting such as pyroxene granulite. However, addition of heat from the mantle or from mantle plumes, subduction related compression and burial as well as some rifting, can prompt the continental crust to melt.

As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminum, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.

Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealized sequence of fractional crystallization of a magma.

Igneous rocks make up approximately ninety five percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rock are geologically important because:

their minerals and global chemistry gives information about the composition of the mantle, from where some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted; their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events; their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitution (see plate tectonics); in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated with granites.

Morphology and setting In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic).

Intrusive igneous rocks Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes. The extrusive types usually are called lavas.

The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths) may occupy huge areas of the surface.

Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are termed hypabyssal.

Extrusive igneous rocks Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the melting of rocks within the mantle.

The melted rock, called magma rises due to contrasting density with the surrounding mantle. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either beneath water or air, is called lava. Eruptions of volcanoes under the air are termed sub-aerial whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed submarine. Black smokers and mid ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.

Magma which erupts from a volcano behaves according to its temperature and composition, which cause a highly different range of viscosity. High temperature magma, which is usually basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. This forms pahoehoe type lava. Intermediate composition magma such as andesite tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. These volcanoes rarely form lava flows, and usually erupt explosively.

Felsic and intermediate rocks which erupt at surface often do so violently, with explosions driven by release of gases such as carbon dioxide trapped in the magma. Such volcanic deposits are called pyroclastic deposits, and include tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite. Fine volcanic ash is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas.

Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals the resulting rock may be a glass (such as the rock obsidian).

Because of this fine grained texture it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.

Classification Igneous rock are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.

The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. Feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential (called accessory minerals).

In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.

Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.

The crystals embedded in fine grained igneous rocks are termed porphyritic. The porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma consolidates into the finer grained uniform material.

Texture

Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The texture of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a tuff, a pyroclastic lava or a simple lava.

However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or which are airfall tuffs which may be formed from volcanic ash.

Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks tend also to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance porphyritic margins to large intrusive bodies, porphyry stocks and subvolcanic apophyses. Mineralogical classification is used most often to classify plutonic rocks and chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, eg; "olivine-bearing picrite" or "orthoclase-phyric rhyolite".

Chemical classification Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters:

Chemical - Total alkali - silica content (TAS diagram) for volcanic rock classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:

acid igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% SiO2 (examples rhyolite and dacite) intermediate igneous rocks containing between 52 - 63% SiO2 (example andesite) basic igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 52% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example basalt) ultrabasic igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (examples picrite and komatiite) alkalic igneous rocks with 5 - 15% alkali (K2O + Na2O) content (examples phonolite and trachyte) Note: the acid-basic terminology is used more broadly in older geological literature. Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks which are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance;

Ultrapotassic; rocks containing molar K2O/Na2O >3

Peralkaline; rocks containing molar K2O + Na2O/ Al2O3 >1 Peraluminous; rocks containing molar K2O + Na2O/ Al2O3 <1

Mineralogical classification For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criteria is the phenocryst species, followed by the ground mass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is aphanitic, chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock.

Mineralogical contents - felsic versus mafic

felsic rock, with predominance of quartz, alkali feldspar and/or feldspathoids: the felsic minerals; these rocks (e.g., granite) are usually light colored, and have low density. mafic rock, with predominance of mafic minerals pyroxenes, olivines and calcic plagioclase; these rocks (example, basalt) are usually dark colored, and have higher density than felsic rocks. ultramafic rock, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., dunite) For intrusive, plutonic and usually phaneritic igneous rocks where all minerals are visible at least via microscope, the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock.

The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their composition and mode of occurrence.

Mode of occurrence Acid Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite

Example of classification Granite is an igneous, intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and with more than 10% of felsic minerals) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible for the unaided eye and some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Granite is the most abundant intrusive rock that can be found in the continents.

Etymology Volcanic rocks are named after Vulcan, the Roman name for the god of fire. Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks, named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld.

Metamorphic Rock is new rock that forms when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or chemicals. Heat and pressure deep underground bake and squeeze sedimentary and igneous rocks. The minerals within the rocks change, often becoming harder. In this way they form new rocks called metamorphic rocks. After millions of years, the top layers of rocks closest to the earth's surface are worn away by weather, shifts in the earth's crust, oceans, and rivers and metamorphic rock can appear on the surface.

Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics (from the Greek word for "one who constructs and destroys", τεκτων, tekton) is a theory of geology developed to explain the phenomenon of continental drift and is currently the theory accepted by the vast majority of scientists working in this area. In the theory of plate tectonics the outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers: the lithosphere comprising (1) the crust, which has an elemental composition of: oxygen, 46.6%; silicon, 27.7%; aluminum, 8.1%; and iron, 5.0%; and (2) the solidified uppermost part of the mantle. Below the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere which comprises the inner viscous part of the mantle. The mantle makes up 84% of the earth's volume and can sometimes get as hot as 3700 °C. Over millions of years the mantle behaves like a superheated and extremely viscous liquid, but in response to sudden forces, such as earthquakes, it behaves like a rigid solid and can 'ring like a bell'.

The lithosphere essentially "floats" on the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. The ten major plates are: African, Antarctic, Australian, Eurasian, North American, South American, Pacific, Cocos, Nazca, and the Indian plates. These plates (and the more numerous minor plates) move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries (most notably around the Pacific Ring of Fire).

Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: continental drift, noticed in the early 20th century, and seafloor spreading, noticed in the 1960s. The theory itself was developed during the late 1960s and has since almost universally been accepted by scientists and has revolutionized the earth sciences (akin in its unifying and explanatory power for diverse geological phenomena as the development of the periodic table was for chemistry, the discovery of the genetic code for biology, and quantum mechanics in physics).

The division of the Earth's interior into lithospheric and asthenospheric components is based on their mechanical differences. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, whilst the asthenosphere is hotter and mechanically weaker. This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of the Earth into (from innermost to outermost) core, mantle, and crust. The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which float on the fluid-like (visco-elastic liquid) asthenosphere. The relative fluidity of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to undergo motion in different directions.

One plate meets another along a plate boundary, and plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features like mountains, volcanoes and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate's Ring of Fire being most active and famous. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below.

Tectonic plates can include continental crust or oceanic crust, and typically, a single plate carries both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The part of the tectonic plate which is common in all cases is the uppermost solid layer of the upper mantle which lays beneath both continental and oceanic crust and is considered, together with the crust, lithosphere.

The distinction between continental crust and oceanic crust is based on the density of constituent materials; oceanic crust is denser than continental crust owing to their different proportions of various elements, particularly, silicon. Oceanic crust has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic") than continental crust ("felsic").

As a result, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while the continental crust projects above sea level.

There are three types of plate boundaries, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:

1. Transform boundaries occur where plates slide, or perhaps more accurately grind, past each other along transform faults. The relative motion of the two plates is either sinistral (left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side toward the observer). 2. Divergent boundaries occur where two plates slide apart from each other. 3. Convergent boundaries (or active margins) occur where two plates slide towards each other commonly forming either a subduction zone (if one plate moves underneath the other) or an orogenic belt (if the two simply collide and compress). Plate boundary zones occur in more complex situations where three or more plates meet and exhibit a mixture of the above three boundary types.

Transform (conservative) boundaries

The left- or right-lateral motion of one plate against another along transform faults can cause highly visible surface effects. Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates and when it reaches a level that exceeds the slipping-point of rocks on either side of the transform-faults the accumulated potential energy is released as strain, or motion along the fault. The massive amounts of energy that are released are the cause of earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries.

A good example of this type of plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault complex, which is found in the western coast of North America and is one part of a highly complex system of faults in this area. At this location, the Pacific and North American plates move relative to each other such that the Pacific plate is moving northwest with respect to North America. In 50 million years or so, the part of California that is west of the San Andreas Fault will be a separate island near the Alaska area.

It should be noted that the actual direction of movement of the plates which abut at a transform like the San Andreas Fault is often not the same as their relative motion at the fault. For instance, the North American Plate as measured by GPS is actually moving southwestward, nearly perpendicular to the Pacific Plate while the Pacific Plate is actually moving slightly more westward than its relative northwest motion along the San Andreas Fault. [1] The resultant compressive forces are taken up by thrust faulting in the larger fault zone, producing California's Coast Range. The conspicuous bend in these ranges (the Transverse Ranges) and the San Andreas Fault itself in Southern California is a possible result of crustal spreading in the Great Basin region superimposed on the overall movement of the North American Plate. There is speculation by some geologists that rifting may be developing in the Great Basin as the crust here is measurably thinning.

Divergent (constructive) boundaries

At divergent boundaries, two plates move apart from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere. The hot spot which may have initiated the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system currently underlies Iceland which is widening at a rate of a few centimeters per century.

Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A sea floor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the sea floor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper (due to thermal contraction and subsidence).

It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the sea-floor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals.

There is at least one plate that has no creative ridge associated with it: the Caribbean Plate. The Caribbean Plate is generally believed to have originated at a now extinct ridge in the Pacific Ocean, yet it remains in motion according to GPS measurements. The complex tectonics of this region are the subject of ongoing research.

Convergent (destructive) boundaries The nature of a convergent boundary depends on the type of lithosphere in the plates that are colliding. Where a dense oceanic plate collides with a less-dense continental plate, the oceanic plate is typically thrust underneath, forming a subduction zone. At the surface, the topographic expression is commonly an oceanic trench on the ocean side and a mountain range on the continental side. An example of a continental-oceanic subduction zone is the area along the western coast of South America where the oceanic Nazca Plate is being subducted beneath the continental South American Plate. As the subducting plate descends, its temperature rises driving off volatiles (most importantly water). As this water rises into the mantle of the overriding plate, it lowers its melting temperature, resulting in the formation of magma with large amounts of dissolved gases. This can erupt to the surface, forming long chains of volcanoes inland from the continental shelf and parallel to it. The continental spine of South America is dense with this type of volcano. In North America the Cascade mountain range, extending north from California's Sierra Nevada, is also of this type. Such volcanoes are characterized by alternating periods of quiet and episodic eruptions that start with explosive gas expulsion with fine particles of glassy volcanic ash and spongy cinders, followed by a rebuilding phase with hot magma. The entire Pacific ocean boundary is surrounded by long stretches of volcanoes and is known collectively as The Ring of Fire.

Where two continental plates collide the plates either crumple and compress or one plate burrows under or (potentially) overrides the other. Either action will create extensive mountain ranges. The most dramatic effect seen is where the northern margin of the Indian Plate is being thrust under a portion of the Eurasian plate, lifting it and creating the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau beyond. It has also caused parts of the Asian continent to deform westward and eastward on either side of the collision.

When two plates with oceanic crust converge they typically create an island arc as one plate is subducted below the other. The arc is formed from volcanics which erupt through the overriding plate as the descending plate melts below it. The arc shape occurs because of the spherical surface of the earth (nick the peel of an orange with a knife and note the arc formed by the straight-edge of the knife). A deep undersea trench is located in front of such arcs where the descending slab dips downward. Good examples of this type of plate convergence would be Japan and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska.

As noted above, the plates are able to move because of the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the source of energy driving plate tectonics. Three-dimensional imaging of the Earth's interior (seismic tomography), indicates that convection of some sort is occurring throughout the mantleTanimoto 2000. How this convection relates to the motion of the plates is a matter of ongoing study and discussion. Somehow, this energy must be translated to the lithosphere in order for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two forces that could be accomplishing this: friction and gravity.

Friction Mantle drag Convection currents in the mantle are transmitted through the asthenosphere; motion is driven by friction between the asthenosphere and the lithosphere. Trench suction Local convection currents exert a downward frictional pull on plates in subduction zones at ocean trenches.

Gravity Ridge-push Plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at mid-ocean ridges. Essentially stuff slides downhill. The higher elevation is caused by the relatively low density of hot material upwelling in the mantle. The real motion producing force is the upwelling and the energy source that runs it. This is a misnomer as nothing is pushing and tensional features are dominant along ridges. Also, it is difficult to explain continental break-up with this. Slab-pull Plate motion is driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. There is considerable evidence that convection is occurring in the mantle at some scale. The upwelling of material at mid-ocean ridges is almost certainly part of this convection. Some early models of plate tectonics envisioned the plates riding on top of convection cells like conveyor belts. However, most scientists working today believe that the asthenosphere is not strong enough to directly cause motion by friction. Slab pull is widely believed to be the strongest force directly operating on plates. Recent models indicate that trench suction plays an important role as well. However, it should be noted that the North American Plate, for instance, is nowhere being subducted, yet it is in motion. Likewise the African, Eurasian and Antarctic Plates. The over-all driving force for plate motion and its energy source are still debatable subjects of on-going research. Lunar drag In a study published in the January-February 2006 issue of the Geological Society of America's journal Bulletin, a team of Italian and U.S. scientists argue that a component of the westward motion of the world's tectonic plates is due to the tidal attraction of the moon. As the Earth spins eastward beneath the moon, they say, the moon's gravity ever so slightly pulls the Earth's surface layer back westward. It may also explain why Venus and Mars have no plate tectonics since Venus has no moon, and Mars' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on Mars. [2] This is not a new argument, however. It was originally raised by the "father" of the plate tectonic hypothesis, Alfred Wegener. It was challenged by the physicist Harold Jeffreys who calculated that the magnitude of tidal friction required would have quickly brought the earth's rotation to a halt long ago. One might also note that many plates are actually moving north and eastward, not west.

Plate motion is measured directly with the Global positioning satellite system (GPS).

Continental drift For more details on this topic, see Continental drift. Continental drift was one of many ideas about tectonics proposed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The theory has been superseded by and the concepts and data have been incorporated within plate tectonics.

By 1915 Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea with the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener wasn't the first to note this (Francis Bacon, Benjamin Franklin and Snider-Pellegrini preceded him), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation. However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust.

In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution’s research vessel Atlantis and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not granite which was common on the continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions. [3]

Beginning in the 1950s, scientists, using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt -- the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor-- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded the Earth's magnetic field at the time.

As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a zebra-like pattern. Alternating stripes of magnetically different rock were laid out in rows on either side of the mid-ocean ridge: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping.

When the rock strata of the tips of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way implying that they were joined initially. For instance, some parts of Scotland contain rocks very similar to those found in eastern North America. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology.

Floating continents The prevailing concept was that there were static shells of strata under the continents. It was early observed that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt. It was apparent that a layer of basalt underlies continental rocks.

However, based upon abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer deduced that less-dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots" was confirmed by George B. Airy a hundred years later during study of Himalayan gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations.

By the mid-1950s the question remained unresolved of whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating like an iceberg.

Plate tectonic theory Significant progress was made in the 1960s, and was prompted by a number of discoveries, most notably the Mid-Atlantic ridge. The most notable was the 1962 publication of a paper by American geologist Harry Hess (Robert S. Dietz published the same idea one year earlier in Nature. However, priority belongs to Hess, since he distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article already in 1960). Hess suggested that instead of continents moving through oceanic crust (as was suggested by continental drift) that an ocean basin and its adjoining continent moved together on the same crustal unit, or plate. In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian Islands. His paper, though little-noted (and even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal" and "prescient". In 1967, Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth's surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other. Two months later, in 1968, Xavier Le Pichon published a complete model based on 6 major plates with their relative motions.

Explanation of magnetic striping Seafloor magnetic striping.The discovery of magnetic striping and the stripes being symmetrical around the crests of the mid-ocean ridges suggested a relationship. In 1961, scientists began to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest. New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years has built the 50,000 km-long system of mid-ocean ridges. This hypothesis was supported by several lines of evidence:

1. at or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and they become progressively older away from the ridge crest; 2. the youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-day (normal) polarity; 3. stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternated in magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal, etc.), suggesting that the Earth's magnetic field has flip-flopped many times.

By explaining both the zebra like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate-tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording" of the history of the reversals in the Earth's magnetic field.

Subduction discovered A profound consequence of sea floor spreading is that new crust was, and is now, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. This idea found great favor with some scientists who claimed that the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this so-called "Expanded earth theory" hypothesis was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing geologic mechanism to produce such a huge, sudden expansion. Most geologists believe that the Earth has changed little, if at all, in size since its formation 4.6 billion years ago, raising a key question: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth?

This question particularly intrigued Harry Hess, a Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess were among the small handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading. If the Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess reasoned, it must be shrinking elsewhere. He suggested that new oceanic crust continuously spread away from the ridges in a conveyor belt-like motion. Many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends into the oceanic trenches -- very deep, narrow canyons along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. According to Hess, the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust was consumed in the trenches, new magma rose and erupted along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins were perpetually being "recycled," with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, Hess' ideas neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

Mapping with earthquakes During the 20th century, improvements in seismic instrumentation and greater use of earthquake-recording instruments (seismographs) worldwide enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in certain areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40-60° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati-Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above-ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much-improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.

Geological paradigm shift The acceptance of the theories of continental drift and sea floor spreading (the two key elements of plate tectonics) can be compared to the Copernican revolution in astronomy (see Nicolaus Copernicus). Within a matter of only several years geophysics and geology in particular were revolutionized. The parallel is striking: just as pre-Copernican astronomy was highly descriptive but still unable to provide explanations for the motions of celestial objects, pre-tectonic plate geological theories described what was observed but struggled to provide any fundamental mechanisms. The problem lay in the question "How?". Before acceptance of plate tectonics, geology in particular was trapped in a "pre-Copernican" box.

However, by comparison to astronomy the geological revolution was much more sudden. What had been rejected for decades by any respectable scientific journal was eagerly accepted within a few short years in the 1960s and 1970s. Any geological description before this had been highly descriptive. All the rocks were described and assorted reasons, sometimes in excruciating detail, were given for why they were where they are. The descriptions are still valid. The reasons, however, today sound much like pre-Copernican astronomy.

One simply has to read the pre-plate descriptions of why the Alps or Himalaya exist to see the difference. In an attempt to answer "how" questions like "How can rocks that are clearly marine in origin exist thousands of meters above sea-level in the Dolomites?", or "How did the convex and concave margins of the Alpine chain form?", any true insight was hidden by complexity that boiled down to technical jargon without much fundamental insight as to the underlying mechanics.

With plate tectonics answers quickly fell into place or a path to the answer became clear. Collisions of converging plates had the force to lift sea floor into thin atmospheres. The cause of marine trenches oddly placed just off island arcs or continents and their associated volcanoes became clear when the processes of subduction at converging plates were understood.

Mysteries were no longer mysteries. Forests of complex and obtuse answers were swept away. Why were there striking parallels in the geology of parts of Africa and South America? Why did Africa and South America look strangely like two pieces that should fit to anyone having done a jigsaw puzzle? Look at some pre-tectonics explanations for complexity. For simplicity and one that explained a great deal more look at plate tectonics. A great rift, similar to the Great Rift Valley in north eastern Africa, had split apart a single continent, eventually forming the Atlantic Ocean, and the forces were still at work in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

We have inherited some of the old terminology, but the underlying concept is as radical and simple as "The Earth moves" was in astronomy.

Temperature
A measurement of energy in a substance's molecules. More active molecules bump into each other and friction occurs and is therefore warm or hot. A cooler substance is less active and it's molecules don't rub together so less heat is given off. Temperature is measured in many units but most commonly degrees Celsius, degrees Fahrenheit, kelvin, or BTU. Temperature is measured using a thermometer.

Dewpoint
The temperature at which H2O molecules in the air will condense.

Relative Humidity
The percentage of H2O molecules in the air compared to the possible amount (absolute humidity). A hydrometer or hygrometer can be used to measure relative humidity. Multiple Choice

A student using a sling psychrometer measured a wet-bulb temperature of 10°C and a dry-bulb temperature of 16° What was the dewpoint? (1)10°C (3) 6°C (2)45°C (4) 4°C

Air Pressure
Air is made of molecules. Most of the air is made of nitrogen: N2 (78%). There is also some oxygen: O2 (21%) as well as small amounts of carbon dioxide: CO2 and other gases. Air molecules are moving around very quickly. When air molecules hit a surface, they exert a force known as pressure.

Imagine that you are at the bottom of an ocean of air. The air pressure that you measure is caused by the weight of all of this air.

Pressure is measured using a barometer and labeled in millibars (mb).

Wind Speed
The velocity of wind gusts. Commonly measured in mph (miles per hour) or km/h (kilometers per hour). The tool used to measure wind speed is called an anemometer.

Wind Direction
The direction on a wind rose that the wind is blowing. The tool used to measure wind direction is a weather vane.

Extreme Weather
Thunderstorms

Probably the most common of storms, these form when large-scale convection occurs, drawing warm, moist air up into colder parts of the troposphere. This can happen along fronts, because of local topography such as mountains, and because of the rising of a warm air parcel over a piece of warm land. the moisture is converted into deep cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds, the warm air of which, becomes the updraft. As the air rises up high enough, perhaps even to the tropopause, it cools, and begins to sink, forming a downdraft.

This huge mixing of air molecules throws both water droplets, which nucleate to a small particles such as dust or pollen, as well as electrical charges all about the cloud. Remember that water molecules are polar, which means they have separated charges. This means that they carry electrical particles easily. The winds separate ice droplets and water droplets, the latter of which tends to carry a positive charge. Negative charges in the air and along the ground align with the cloud and travel with it. When they meet, as in a high point on a tree or cliff, an electrical discharge occurs, and lightning is born. The super-hot zap of energy quickly heats the immediate air surrounding it, creating a loud shock wave known as thunder.

The water droplets often coelace, forming bigger and bigger drops until they are heavy enough to fall as rain. If the droplets are carried up to the freezing point repeatedly, adding new water layers on each time until it too is heavy enough to fall, hail results.

Multiple Choice
A student using a sling psychrometer measured a wet-bulb temperature of 10°C and a dry-bulb temperature of 16° What was the dewpoint? (1)10°C  (3)  6°C (2)45°C  (4)  4°C

Climate and Water Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle

Precipitation

Evaporation

Infiltration

Run off

Sample Questions
Question # 1

What is the Earth's shape most likely related to?

 * a)pear
 * b)oval
 * c)ping-pong ball
 * d)none of the above

The answer would be c)ping pong ball

Question # 2

A layer that is not folded, what layer is the oldest?

 * a)the top layer
 * b)the middle layer
 * c)the bottom layer
 * d)all of the layers are the same age

The answer would be c)the bottom layer

Constructed Response
3. How can we find the number of half-life that has passed?

Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of all matter and energy systems that exist outside, or "above", the region of the Earth's atmosphere. It also includes the histories and possible future behaviors of this matter and these energy systems. The Earth is derived from the matter and energy that surrounds it, and continues to be influenced by events in space.

Introduction to the Solar System and Planets
The solar system consists of the sun and anything that orbits it.

It has planets, which are spherical objects that orbit the sun and rotate on an axis. The planets are divided into terrestrial planets, which include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars and are made of solids, and Jovian planets, which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune and are made of gases. Many planets have moons revolving around them.

Asteroids are mostly non-spherical objects that orbit the sun. They are found mostly in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Comets are objects made of ice, dust, and gas. They orbit the sun in a very elliptical shape. When they are close to the sun, they melt partially, which causes them to have a 'tail'.

Meteorites are small rock like substances orbiting the sun. When they enter Earth's atmosphere, they burn and are called meteors or shooting starts. If they hit the Earth, they can leave impact craters.

The Sun's Daily Path
The sun moves from the east to the west. During the winter, it rises and sets due south of east and its apparent path is lower in the sky. During the Summer, it rises and sets due north of east and its apparent path is higher in the sky.

Earth's Revolution
Earth's orbit causes the seasons and takes approximately 365.25 days to complete.

The orbit is maintained by the balance of gravity, or the attractive force between to substances, and inertia. The shape of the orbit is slightly elliptical, with one of the foci being the sun. This causes the Earth to be closest to the sun in January and farthest from the sun in July with the apparent diameter of the sun being larger in July. It does not cause the seasons.

Constructed Response
The answer would be, a ping pong ball

Understanding Relationships Between Variables
In science, we use either sentences or graphs to show how one thing affects another. For example, we can say that the more homework you do, the higher your grade will be.

Another way to say this is... As the homework you do increases, your grade will also increase

Sentences that describe relationships often follow this format... 1. They begin with the words, "As the" 2. They include the first variable (in this case, "number of pieces of homework you do") 3. The first variable is followed by the word, "increase(s)" or "decrease(s)" 4. Then you put the second variable (in this case, "your grade". 5.  The second variable is followed by the word, "increase(s)" or "decrease(s)"

Using the directions above, create sentences that describe the relationships between the following...

 * 1. The age and height of a child.
 * 2. The time between meals and your hunger.

These relationships can also be represented as graphs.

title: Regents Earth Science (High School)


text:
Chausa

Chausa is a village and corresponding community development block in Buxar district, Bihar, India. It is located 11 km west of the district headquarters, Buxar, on the bank of the river Ganga. As of 2011, the population of the village of Chausa was 9,011, in 1,362 households, while the total block population was 103,670, in 15,817 households.

The area is famous as the site of the Battle of Chausa, in which the forces of Sher Shah Suri defeated Mughal emperor Humayun's army in 1539. It was also the site of discovery of the Chausa hoard, a set of 18 ancient Jain bronzes. According to the old records of Chausa we get to know that Chausa was established by Sakarwar Rajput of Kamsar region who adopted Islam in 1500ADs.

Battle of Chausa
The Battle of Chausa (25 June 1539) took place between Mughal Emperor Humayun and Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan). In this battle Humayun got defeated.

Demographics
Chausa is an entirely rural block, with no major urban centres. The sex ratio of the block in 2011 was 916, lower than the Buxar district ratio of 922. The sex ratio was higher among the 0-6 age group, with 935 females for every 1000 males. Members of scheduled castes constituted 17.31% of the block's population, and members of scheduled tribes made up 1.39%. The literacy rate of the block was 71.27%, slightly above the district rate of 70.14%, with a 22.99% gender literacy gap between men (82.24%) and women (59.25%). Chausa block also had the highest literacy rate among scheduled castes populations (62.56%) among blocks in Buxar district.

Employment
A majority of workers in Chausa block were employed in agriculture in 2011, with 24.19% being cultivators who owned or leased their own land and another 52.68% being agricultural labourers who worked another person's land for wages. A further 4.72% were household industry workers, and the remaining 18.42% were other workers.

Transport
Chausa possesses permanent pucca roads connected to both national and state highways. The village also has access to railway transport. Direct trains are available from major cities of country. Chausa Railway Station, Barakalan Railway Station are the very nearby railway stations to Chausa. The distance from Buxar Railway station is 11 km and Patna Airport/Railway 138 km and from Varanasi airport 127 km.

Villages
Chausa block contains 82 villages, including Chausa itself. Of these, 57 are inhabited and 25 are uninhabited:

Nearby places

 * Buxar
 * Varanasi
 * Patna
 * Ghazipur

title: Chausa


text:
1922 United States House of Representatives election in New Mexico

The 1922 United States House of Representatives election in New Mexico was held on November 7, 1922, to elect the state's at-large representative. This election coincided with other state and local offices such as the concurrent Governor election.

Democrat nominee John Morrow defeated Republican Adelina Otero-Warren by margin of 8.84 percentage points, flipping this seat from republican to democrat.


text:
The Blinding Order

The Blinding Order  (Qorrfermani) is a short novel written by Ismail Kadare in 1984 and published in 1991, shortly after the collapse of the hoxhaist regime in Albania. Set in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire, The Blinding Order is a parable about the use of terror by authoritarian regimes, and it is linked through its main subplot to the author's banned 1981 novel The Palace of Dreams.

Background
Kadare wrote The Blinding Order in the aftermath of a terror campaign in Communist Albania.

Plot
The plot centres on a religious order issued by a Sultan, calling for all people with the "dubious power" of the evil eye to be blinded, and the subsequent terror campaign that follows. All this is narrated in a "fable tone of one thousand and one nightmare nights''"

Reception
Describing the novel as "superbly plotted" and "charged with bitter black humor," Kirkus Reviews praised it as "a masterly parable worthy of comparison with José Saramago's Nobel-anointed fiction. Boyd Tonkin from The Independent described it as "a chilling fable of inscrutable tyranny and collective surrender". Wolfgang Schneider from Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, while reviewing Der Raub des Königlichen Schlafs – a volume of 12 stories, novellas and short novels by Kadare, published in German –singled out The Blinding Order as the best one, describing it as a "grandiose story". According to him, it gives "literary form" to the "horror of the sabotage-accusation"-which numerous people in socialist countries fell victim to.

title: The Blinding Order


text:
Home!

Home! is a live album by saxophonist Gary Bartz's NTU Troop recorded in 1969 and released on the Milestone label.

Reception
Allmusic awarded the album 3 stars.

Track listing
All compositions by Gary Bartz except as indicated
 * 1) "B.A.M." - 11:17
 * 2) "Love" - 11:28
 * 3) "Rise" - 8:45
 * 4) "Amal" - 7:18
 * 5) "It Don't Mean a Thing"  (Duke Ellington, Irving Mills) - 5:12

Personnel

 * Gary Bartz - alto saxophone, bells, steel drums
 * Woody Shaw - trumpet
 * Albert Dailey - piano
 * Bob Cunningham - bass
 * Rashied Ali - drums

title: Home!


text:
matricola

Etymology 1
Probably borrowed from, from.

Noun

 * 1) register
 * 2) number
 * 3) freshman, fresher

title: matricola


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Z-card 2

The result was delete and redirect. Petros471 16:03, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

Z-card
Evidence for the notability of this company/product has been provided since the last afd. It is not the same thing as a Z card. Delete. --Peta 05:11, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Z card, as the current article is non-notable, but "z-card" could very easily be a search term for someone looking for a "z card." - Thorne N. Melcher 21:50, 11 August 2006 (UTC)


text:
suoraan

Adverb

 * 1) straight not curving or meandering
 * 2) straight in a forward, straight direction
 * 3) straight, right, directly
 * 4) directly, frankly, honestly, earnestly, baldly, bluntly without embellishments or lies
 * 1) straight, right, directly
 * 2) directly, frankly, honestly, earnestly, baldly, bluntly without embellishments or lies
 * 1) directly, frankly, honestly, earnestly, baldly, bluntly without embellishments or lies
 * 1) directly, frankly, honestly, earnestly, baldly, bluntly without embellishments or lies

title: suoraan


text:
八音

Noun

 * 1)  an ancient Chinese system of classifying musical instruments into eight materials
 * 2)  any one of a variety of genres of traditional instrumental ensemble music, mostly originating in southern China and Taiwan
 * 1)  any one of a variety of genres of traditional instrumental ensemble music, mostly originating in southern China and Taiwan

Etymology
From.

Noun

 * 1)  an ancient Chinese system of classifying musical instruments into eight materials

title: 八音